Different Views of Non-Nursing Theories PDF

DIFFERENT VIEWS OF NON-NURSING THEORIES HANNAH V. LACAMBRA, RN  1 OVERVIEW General Systems Theory Change Theory Developmental Theory -Psychosexual Development Theory -Psychosocial Development Theory -Cognitive Development Theory -...

DIFFERENT VIEWS OF NON-NURSING THEORIES HANNAH V. LACAMBRA, RN  1 OVERVIEW General Systems Theory Change Theory Developmental Theory -Psychosexual Development Theory -Psychosocial Development Theory -Cognitive Development Theory -Developmental Task Theory -Moral Development Theory -Five Life Stages -Language Development Theory Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Theoretical Foundation in Nursing GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY 2  3 LUDWIG VON BERTALANFFY Born on September 19, 1901 in Atzgersdorf, near Vienna, and died on June 12, 1972 He received private education at home until he was 10, then attended a Gymnasium (grammar school). He studied biology and philosophy at the University of Innsbruck and the University of Vienna, earning his doctorate in 1926 Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  4 LUDWIG VON BERTALANFFY Bertalanffy is known as the father of general systems theory (GST), a practice that describes systems with interacting components. He also contributed to the concepts of open systems and steady state (flux equilibrium). His mathematical model of an organism's growth over time, published in 1934, is still in use today. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  GENERAL SYSTEMS 5 THEORY (GST) “Open Systems Theory” Regarded as the Universal Grand Theory because of its unique relevancy and applicability. a theory that can be applied to nursing to help understand the interrelationships between different parts of a system, and how to break a whole thing into parts to learn how they work together. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing The system theory is the transdisciplinary study of the 6 abstract organization of phenomena, independent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scale of existence. It is also a management methodology as it is a way of analyzing and thinking about organizations and also an alternative approach Simpler defination says, A theory that sees an organization as a set of interrelated and interdependent part Theoretical Foundation in Nursing The systems theory focuses on understanding the organization as an 6 open system that transforms inputs into outputs. This theory is based on the work of a biologist, Ludwig von Bertalanffy, who believed that a general systems model could be used to unite science. Early contributors to this theory included Kenneth Boulding, Richard Johnson, Fremont Kast, and James Rosenzweig. The systems theory began to have a strong impact on management thought in the 196os as a way of thinking about managing techniques that would allow managers to relate different specialties and parts of the company to one another, as well as to external environmental factors. The systems theory focuses on the organization as a whole, its interaction with the environment, and its need to achieve equilibrium. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  7 Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  CHARACTERISTICS/FEACTURES OF THE 8 SYSTEMS THEORY 1.Communication Communication mechanisms must be put in place for organizational systems to exchange relevant information with its environment. Communication provides for the flow of information among the subsystems. 2. Systems, subsystems and supersystem Systems are a set interrelated parts that turn inputs to outputs through processing. Subsystems is the step that does the processing of the objectives within an organization. Super systems are other systems in environment of which the survival of the focal system is dependent. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  CHARACTERISTICS/FEACTURES OF THE 8 SYSTEMS THEORY 3. Boundaries The part of the system that separates it from its environment. The four types of boundaries involved in the process are physical, linguistical, systematic and psychological boundaries. 4. Goal-directedness systems are goal oriented and engage in feedback in order to meet the goals of the organisation. Also, every part of the system is interdependent with each other working together towards the goal. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Theoretical Foundation in Nursing CHANGE THEORY 9  KURT LEWIN 10 Kurt Lewin was a German-born American social psychologist who lived from 1890 to 1947. He was a leader in the field of group dynamics and behavior theory. Studied medicine at the University of Freiburg, then switched to natural sciences at the University of Berlin, where he earned his PhD in 1916. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  KURT LEWIN 11 Lewin's theory is based on field theory, which is the idea that the group environment, or "field", affects the behavior of individuals in that group. For Lewin, the process of change entails creating the perception that a change is needed, then moving toward the new, desired level of behavior and, finally, solidifying that new behavior as the norm. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  CHANGE THEORY 12 This theory depends on the presence of driving and resistant forces. The driving forces are the change agents wo push employees in the direction of change. The resistant forces are employees or nurses who do not want the proposed change. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  13 THREE MAJOR CONCEPTS DRIVING FORCES Theoretical Foundation in Nursing are those that push in a direction that causes change to occur. RESTRAINING FORCES are those forces that counter the driving forces. EQUILIBRIUM is a state of being where driving forces equal retraining forces, and no change occurs.  14 UNFREEZING STAGE is the process which involves finding a method of making it THREE STAGES IN Theoretical Foundation in Nursing possible for people to let go of an old pattern that was CHANGE THEORY somehow counterproductive. REFREEZING STAGE CHANGE STAGE is establishing the change which is also called as the new habit, so that it “moving to a new level” now becomes the “standard or “movement”. operating procedure”. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing THE CHANGE THEORY MODEL 15 Theoretical Foundation in Nursing THE CHANGE THEORY MODEL 16 Theoretical Foundation in Nursing DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY 17  DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 18 Human growth and development are orderly predictive processes that begin with conception and continue through death. A variety of well-tested theoretical models describe and predict behavior and development at various phases of the life continuum. The progress & behaviors of an individual within each stage are unique. The growth & development of an individual are influenced by heredity, temperament, emotional, & physical environment, life experiences & health status. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  19 PSCYHOSEXUAL Theoretical Foundation in Nursing DEVELOPMENT THEORY SIGMUND FREUD  20 SIGMUND FREUD He was born on May 6 1856, died on September 23, 1939. He was an Austrian neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis. Founded the first real theory of personality development Sexual instincts are significant in the development of the personality. Sexual energy, which Freud termed as libido, was the driving force of human behavior. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  21 SIGMUND FREUD Adult behavior is the result of instinctual drives that have a primarily sexual nature (libido) from within the person and the conflicts that develop between these instincts represented in the individual as (the id), reality (the ego), and society (the superego). Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  22 SIGMUND FREUD The term “psychosexual” is used to describe any sensual pleasure. A child’s sexual gratification becomes focused on a particular body part. During childhood, certain regions of the body assume a prominent psychologic significance as the source of new pleasures and new conflicts gradually shifts from one part of the body to another at particular stages of development. A person may remain stalled or "fixated" at a particular stage or regress to an earlier stage. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Theoretical Foundation in Nursing PERSONAL PROCESSES 23 ID EGO SUPEREGO  24 ID driven by the PLEASURE PRINCIPLE which strives Theoretical Foundation in Nursing for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. only component of personality that is present from birth.  25 EGO operates based on the REALITY PRINCIPLE Theoretical Foundation in Nursing develops from the ID and ensures that the impulses of the ID can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. balancing or mediating force between the id and the superego.  26 SUPEREGO operates on the MORALITY PRINCIPLE and motivates us to Theoretical Foundation in Nursing behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner. begins to emerge at around age 5. holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents and society (our sense of right and wrong).  27 EXAMPLE 1 THE ID: I want this luxury bag now because it's stylish and will Theoretical Foundation in Nursing make me feel good. 2 THE SUPEREGO: I shouldn't spend so much on a bag when I could save or use that money for more essential things. 3 THE EGO: I'll save a portion of my salary for a few months, and if I still want it, I'll buy the bag as a reward...  28 EXAMPLE 1 THE ID: I'm upset and want to snap back immediately Theoretical Foundation in Nursing because they hurt my feelings. 2 THE SUPEREGO: I should remain calm and composed, taking criticism professionally and not personally. 3 THE EGO: I'll consider the feedback, see if there's any truth to it, and respond diplomatically, asking for clarification if needed.  29 LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS CONSCIOUS - consists of all those things we are aware of, including 1 Theoretical Foundation in Nursing things that we know about ourselves and our surroundings. 2 PRECONSCIOUS - consists of those things we could pay conscious attention to if we so desired, and where many memories are stored for easy retrieval. UNCONSCIOUS - consists of those things that are outside of 3 conscious awareness, including many memories, thoughts, and urges of which we are not aware. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS 30  30\1 LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS 1 ID: The id is shown entirely in the unconscious (below the line), which Theoretical Foundation in Nursing represents the primal, instinctual drives such as sexual and aggressive urges. 2 EGO: The ego is partially above the line (conscious) and partially below (unconscious). This reflects its role in mediating between the desires of the id and the demands of reality. 3 SUPEREGO: The superego is also shown crossing both conscious and unconscious levels. It represents the internalized societal and parental standards of morality and ethics. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT 32  33 ORAL STAGE (0-1) Erogenous Zone: Mouth Gratifying Activities: Forceful feeding, eating, sucking, biting, swallowing Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  35 ANAL STAGE (1-3) Erogenous Zone: Anus Gratifying Activities: Toilet training (too harsh or too lax) Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  37 PHALLIC STAGE (3-6) Erogenous Zone: Genital Gratifying Activities: Fondling leading to unusual relationship with mother/father Theoretical Foundation in Nursing In the young boy, the Oedipus Complex or 38 more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so. For girls, the Electra Complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  LATENCY STAGE 40 (7-PUBERTY) Erogenous Zone: None Gratifying Activities: School related works, hobbies and friendships Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Sexual feelings are repressed 41 to allow to focus their energy on other aspects of life and sexual energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  GENITAL STAGE 42 (PUBERTY-ADULTHOOD) Erogenous Zone: Genital Gratifying Activities: One to one relationships Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  The stage is marked by a renewed 43 sexual interest and desire and the pursuit of relationships. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  44 PSCYHOSOCIAL Theoretical Foundation in Nursing DEVELOPMENT THEORY ERIK ERIKSON  45 ERIK ERIKSON Was a German-born psychoanalyst, who extended Freud's work on personality development across the life span while focusing on social and psychological development in the life stages. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  46 ERIK ERIKSON In 1950, Erikson published Childhood and Society, in which he described eight psychosocial stages of development. Life's Virtues: hope, purpose, fidelity, love, caring, and wisdom Theoretical Foundation in Nursing PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 47 According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development 48 Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development 49  50 TRUST vs. MISTRUST is the first psychosocial stage of Theoretical Foundation in Nursing development, occurring in the first year of life. According to Erikson, the child will develop trust if he or she is properly cared for. If the child is not well-cared for, mistrust is likely to develop. Major Question: “Can I trust the people around me?”  51 AUTONOMY vs. SHAME and DOUBT is the second stage of development, occurring during the first three years of life. Autonomy means independence of thought and confidence to Theoretical Foundation in Nursing think and act for oneself. Children begin to assert their independence during this stage. Erikson states that if parents allow their children to explore, they will become more confident and secure in their own abilities. If children are overly protected, they may become overly dependent on their parents and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities. Erikson believes that this stage has important implications in the development of independence and identity during adolescence. Major Question: “Can I do things myself or am I reliant on the help of other?”  52 INITIATIVE vs. GUILT is Erikson's third stage of development, Theoretical Foundation in Nursing occurring around 3 to 6 years of age. During this period, developing a sense of responsibility among children lead to the development of initiative. A child who is made to feel irresponsible might develop feelings of guilt. Major Question: “Am I good or bad?”  53 INDUSTRY vs. INFERIORITY is the fourth stage of development, occurring around elementary school years. During this stage, children face Theoretical Foundation in Nursing the task of developing knowledge and skills usually taught in schools. When children are encouraged in their efforts, they will develop a sense of industry. However, children who receive little or no encouragement from parents and teachers will doubt their own abilities and are likely to develop inferiority. Major Question: “How can I be good?”  54 IDENTITY vs. ROLE CONFUSION takes place during adolescence. At this stage, adolescents face the task of finding out who they are, what Theoretical Foundation in Nursing they are, and what they want in life. They are confronted with many roles and responsibilities. If parents provide proper support, adolescents will develop positive identity. If they are not adequately supported, they will feel insecure and identity confusion will likely develop. Major Question: “Who am I?”  55 INTIMACY vs. ISOLATION occurs during early adulthood when people explore Theoretical Foundation in Nursing personal relationships. During this sixth stage of development, Erikson believes it is vital that people develop intimate relationships with others. Those who are successful in this stage will likely form relationships that are stable and successful. Inability to develop intimate relationships during this stage will lead to mistrust and isolation. Major Question: “Will I be loved or will I be alone?”  56 GENERATIVITY vs. STAGNATION is the seventh stage of development which occurs during middle adulthood. Generativity involves a person's Theoretical Foundation in Nursing desire to contribute to the world by teaching, leading, and guiding the next generation and doing activities that will benefit the community. Developing a sense of generativity is important during this stage. Those who fail to attain this generativity will feel worthless. Major Question: “How can I contribute to the world?”  57 INTEGRITY vs. DESPAIR is the final psychosocial stage which occurs during old age and is focused on self-reflection in one's life. At Theoretical Foundation in Nursing this stage, individuals reflect on the important events of their lives. If they are satisfied and proud of their accomplishments, they will feel a sense of integrity. Those who are unsuccessful in this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience regrets and despair. Major Question: “ Did I live a meaningful life?”  58 COGNITIVE Theoretical Foundation in Nursing DEVELOPMENT THEORY JEAN PIAGET  59 JEAN PIAGET was born in Neuchâtel (Switzerland) on August 9, 1896. Swiss psychologist who introduced the concepts of cognitive development or the way children learn and think that have roots similar to those of both Freud and Erikson, yet separate from each. Defined four stages of cognitive development. Within each stage are four units or schemas. Each period is an advance over the previous one. To progress from one period to the next, a child reorganizes his/her thinking processes to bring them closer to adult thinking. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  60 JEAN PIAGET There are four levels of development corresponding roughly to (1) infancy, (2) pre- school, (3) childhood, and (4) adolescence. Each stage is characterized by a general cognitive structure that affects all of the child's thinking. Each stage represents the child's understanding of reality during that period, and each but the last is an inadequate approximation of reality. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  61 JEAN PIAGET Development from one stage to the next is thus caused by the accumulation of errors in the child's understanding of the environment; this accumulation eventually causes such a degree of cognitive disequilibrium that thought structures require reorganizing. He also stressed that Constructivism (relating past knowledge to new ones is important to the learners' development. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  PIAGET’S 4 STAGES OF 62 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Theoretical Foundation in Nursing SENSORIMOTOR PREOPERATIONAL CONCRETE FORMAL STAGE STAGE OPERATIONAL STAGE OPERATIONAL STAGE 0-2 years old 2-7 years old 7-11 years old 12 years to Up Characteristics: Characteristics: Characteristics: Characteristics: More logical and Motor activity Development of Use of symbols to methodical without use of language, manipulation of relate to abstract symbols memory, & symbols concepts  63 SENSORIMOTOR (0-12) Children learn about the world through their senses and actions, developing object permanence and basic motor skills. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  64 PREOPERATIONAL (2-7) Children begin to use symbols and language to represent objects and ideas, but their thinking is still egocentric and lacks logical reasoning. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  65 CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-12) The child begins to apply logic to thinking, understands spatiality and reversibility, and is increasingly social and able to apply rules; however, thinking is still concrete. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  66 FORMAL OPERATIONAL (12 beyond) Adolescents and adults develop the ability to think abstractly, reason hypothetically, and consider multiple perspectives. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  67 DEVELOPMENTAL Theoretical Foundation in Nursing TASK THEORY ROBERT HAVIGHURST  68 ROBERT HAVIGHURST Was a chemist and physicist, educator, and expert on human development and aging. Stated that the number of tasks in different age levels depends on the person and the society he lives in. Added that biology and society have a lot influence, but personal values of the people who prepare them have as much influences on identifying the task. defined about 6-10 developmental tasks for each stage of a child's development. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  69 ROBERT HAVIGHURST The process of living, from birth to death, consists of people working their way through from 1 stage of development to another, by solving their problems in each stage. If the individual fails to complete the task, it leads him to unhappiness, disapproval by society and problems in later tasks. On the other hand, if the individual completes the task successfully, it leads him to happiness and success with future tasks. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  HAVIGHURST’S 70 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Infancy & Early Early Adulthood (19-30) Childhood(0-6) Middle Childhood (6-12) Middle Age (30-60) Adolescence (12-18) Later Maturity (60 & Over)  71 Infancy & Early Childhood (0-6) Learning to walk Learning to crawl Learning to take slid food Learning to talk Learning to control the elimination of body wastes Learning sex differences and sexual modesty Getting ready to read Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  72 Middle Childhood (6-12) Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games Learning to get along with age mates Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism Learning on appropriate masculine or feminine social role Developing concepts necessary for everyday living Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values Achieving personal independence Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  73 Adolescence (12-18) Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes Achieving a masculine or feminine social role Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults Preparing for marriage and family life Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  74 Early Adulthood (18-30) Selecting a mate Learning to live with a partner Starting family Rearing children Managing home Getting started in occupation Taking on civic responsibility Finding a congenial social group Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  75 Middle Age (30-60) Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults Achieving adult social and civic responsibility Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one's occupational career Developing adult leisure time activities Relating oneself to one's spouse as a person To accept and adjust to the physiological changes of middle age Adjusting to aging parents Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  76 Later Maturity (60 & Over) Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health Adjusting to retirement and reduced income Adjusting to death of a spouse Establishing an explicit affiliation with one's age group Adopting and adapting social roles in a flexible way Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  77 MORAL DEVELOPMENT Theoretical Foundation in Nursing THEORY LAWRENCE KOHHLBERG Theoretical Foundation in Nursing MORAL THEORY 78 DEVELOPMENT  PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL (0-9) 79 (Authority figures are obeyed) Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Children determine the goodness or badness of an action in terms of its consequences. They avoid punishment and obey without question those who have the power to determine and enforce the rules and labels. Later, children determine that the right behavior consists of that which satisfies their own needs (and sometimes the needs of others).  CONVENTIONAL LEVEL (9-13) 80 The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of Theoretical Foundation in Nursing adolescents and adults. Child follows rules because of a need to be a "good" person in his own eyes and eyes of others. Behavior that meets the approval of others is considered to be good. One earns approval by being "nice." It is important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society.  POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL (13 beyond) 81 Also known as the principled level Realization that individuals are separate entities from Theoretical Foundation in Nursing society now becomes salient. One's own perspective should be viewed before the society's. Correct behavior tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been examined and agreed on by the entire society. The most advanced level of moral development is one in which self-chosen ethical principles guide decisions of conscience.  82 FIVE LIFE Theoretical Foundation in Nursing STAGES HARRY STACK SULLIVAN  83 HARRY STACK SULLIVAN Herbert "Harry" Stack Sullivan was an American psychiatrist who extended the theory of personality development to include the significance of interpersonal relationships. He believed in the existence of relationships, but not of individuals. One's personality involved more than individual characteristics, particularly how one interacted with others. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  INFANCY 84 (Birth to onset of language) Primary need for contact and tenderness PROTOTAXIC MODE dominates (brief, unconnected experiences that have no relation to one another). O Primary zones are oral and anal. If needs are met, infant has sense of well- being; unmet needs leads to dread and anxiety. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  CHILDHOOD 85 (Language to 5 years) Parents are viewed as source of praise and acceptance. Shift to PARATAXIC MODE (experiences are connected in sequence to each other); paranoid ideas and slips of the tongue are indicative of a person operating in parataxic mode. Primary zone is anal. Gratification leads to positive self-esteem. Moderate anxiety leads to uncertainty and insecurity; severe anxiety results in self-defeating patterns of behavior. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  JUVENILE 86 (5 to 8 years) Shift to the SYNTAXIC MODE begins (thinking about self and others based on analysis of experiences in a variety of situations). Opportunities for approval and acceptance of others. Learn to negotiate own needs. Severe anxiety may result in need to control or restrictive, prejudicial attitudes. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  PRE-ADOLESCENCE 87 (8 to 12 years) Move to genuine intimacy with friend of the same sex. Move away from family as source of satisfaction in relationships. Major shift to syntaxic mode (the person begins to perceive himself/herself and the world within the context of the environment and can analyze experiences in a variety of settings). Capacity for attachment, love, and collaboration emerges or fails to develop. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  ADOLESCENCE 88 (Puberty to Adulthood) Lust is added to interpersonal equation. Need for special sharing relationship to the opposite sex. New opportunities for social to the consolidation of self- esteem or self-experimentation lead ridicule. If the self-esteem is intact, areas of concern expand to include values, ideals, career decisions, and social concerns. Maturity may be defined as predominance of the syntaxic mode. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  89 THE FOUR MAJOR Theoretical Foundation in Nursing THEORISTS ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT THEORY  90 BURRHUS FREDERICK SKINNER Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Proposed Operant Conditioning Involves reinforcements (rewards) "Talk to the child in an adult way" Playing Damn Technique - let the child talk  91 NOAM CHOMSKY Developed the Language Acquisition or Mother tongue- Theoretical Foundation in Nursing Based technique. He is also the major proponent of the innatis theory, which postulates that humans have innate ability to acquire language; they are geneticallu preprogrammed for it. All normally developing children acquire language. He also maintains that language and thought are separate.  92 LEV VYGOTSKY Theoretical Foundation in Nursing The Socio-Cultural Theory is primarily proposed by Lev Vygotsky which states that social interaction influences both language and cognitive development  93 JEAN PIAGET Maintained that language acquisition cannot take Theoretical Foundation in Nursing place until cognitive development has paved the way for it. It asserts that children develop knowledge of the world and then "map" this knowledge unto language categories and relations. From this viewpoint, language development depends on cognitive development, but not vice versa.  WHO ARE THE 94 EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN? They are children with the following conditions and difficulties: Aphasia - impairment of any language modality (sound production) Dysphasia - partial impairment of language Dyslexia - special learning disability with written language Dyscalculia - special learning disability with numerical operations ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) - impulsivity in attention and being hyperactive. Ritalin - medicine for ADHD. If makes the hyperactive child more hyperactive to make him/her tired and tend to take a rest. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  PAULO FREIRE 95 He was against the Banking Concept of Education. According to him, a child is like a bank which the teacher deposits knowledge. This is almost the same with John Locke's Theory of Tabula Rasa wherein the child is like a blank tablet which during the learning process becomes filled with knowledge. Apparently, Jean Piaget opposed these for according to him, the child has prior knowledge already and the teacher gives new knowledge then the child relates it to what he already knows (Theory of Constructivism). Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  ADAPTATION THEORY 96 It defines adaptation as the adjustment of living matter to other living things and to environmental conditions Adaptation is a continuously occurring process that affects change and involves interaction and response Human adaptation occurs on 3 levels: -Internal (self) -Social (others) -Physical (biochemical and reactions) Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  97 BASIC HUMAN NEEDS Maslow's hierarchy of needs is an interdisciplinary theory that is useful for designating priorities of nursing care. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  BASIC HUMAN NEEDS 98 The hierarchy of basic human needs includes five levels of priority: The most basic, or first level, includes physiological needs such as air, water, and food. The second level includes safety and security needs, which involve physical and psychological security. The third level contains love and belonging needs, including friendship, social relationships, and sexual love. The fourth level encompasses esteem and self-esteem needs, which involve self- confidence, usefulness, achievement, and self-worth. The final level is the need for self-actualization, the state of fully achieving potential and having the ability to solve problems and cope realistically with situations of life. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  BASIC HUMAN NEEDS 99 When using this hierarchy, basic physiological and safety needs are usually the first priority, especially when a patient is severely dependent physically. However, you will encounter situations in which a patient has no emergent physical or safety needs. Instead, you will give high priority to the psychological, sociocultural, developmental, or spiritual needs of the patient. Patients entering the health care system generally have unmet needs. The hierarchy of needs is a way to plan for individualized patient care. Theoretical Foundation in Nursing  100 REFERENCES Closs, J. (2002). Theoretical Basis for Nursing, Theoretical Foundation in Nursing McEwen M and Wills EM, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2002. Clinical Effectiveness in Nursing, 3(6), 160 161. Smith, M. C. (2019). Nursing theories and nursing practice. FA Davis. THANK YOU! HANNAH V. LACAMBRA, RN