Introduction to Psychological Science Final Study Guide Spring 2023 PDF

Nicholas de Leeuw Introduction to Psychological Science Final Study Guide The final will have 50 points, worth the same as the points on the quizzes. The questions on the final will be like the questions on the quizzes, a mix of short answer, fill in the...

Nicholas de Leeuw Introduction to Psychological Science Final Study Guide The final will have 50 points, worth the same as the points on the quizzes. The questions on the final will be like the questions on the quizzes, a mix of short answer, fill in the blanks, connect the terms, multiple choice, etc. Pay special attention to the questions, terms, etc. related to schizophrenia. Because these have not been tested in a quiz, I will include approximately 4-5 points on this topic. This study guide is long, so be sure to pace your studying. There is a lot of overlap in the material in each of the sections: Questions, skills, terms and studies. Questions What does it mean that the action potential is all or nothing? What do ion channels (“voltage gates”) and sodium pumps do, and how are they different? How do spatial and temporal summation work? What are four things that can happen to neurotransmitters that are released into the synapse? Describe the transmission of a signal from one neuron to the next, using the following terms: Synapse Synaptic vesicles Neurotransmitters Receptor sites Pre- and post-synaptic neurons Excitatory and Inhibitory connections Sodium Channels Summation Threshold What do receptor cells (sensory neurons) transduce? (From what to what?) Hint: although each kind of receptor cell responds to different inputs, they all have the same output. What do motor neurons do? What do they release at the neuromuscular junction? What parts of the nervous system are involved in the reflexive pulling of a hand away from a flame? What is Broca's area, and where is it located? Who was Phineas Gage, and what happened to his brain and his behavior? Where was the damage to Gage’s brain? What happens to memory function when there is substantial damage to the hippocampus? Which aspects of memory are affected, and which are not? What is the corpus collosum, and why have some patients had it surgically severed? What were their impairments, under close inspection? Final Study Guide 1 4/30/23  What are the skin senses? What are the chemical senses? What do they respond to? How are they different from other senses? What is the activation-synthesis model of dreaming? What serves as the activation? Where does the synthesis take place? What does an EEG measure? What did EEG’s reveal about sleep? What is a sleep deficit? What are some hazards of a sleep deficit? How does natural selection lead to changes in gene frequencies over generations? According to Cosmides & Tooby (1997) what is the purpose of the brain, and how did it evolve? Include the following terms: Neural circuits Selective advantage Stone age brain How does the environment influence genes (over the long term) and gene expression (within a lifetime)? Compare and contrast the endocrine system and the nervous system. What are key similarities and differences? What are the roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS? What is the organizing principle of each? How are they related to homeostasis? Which gland is the “master gland?” Why is it called that? What part of the brain is it closely connected to? What are some examples of teratogens? Why does timing matter in teratogenic effects? What are sleeper effects? Compare and contrast experience-expectant and experience-dependent plasticity. How does a newborn’s brain compare to that of an adult? What are the advantages of being born with an underdeveloped brain? What is co-regulation in an attachment relationship? How do co-regulation and attachment fit into the concept of experience expectant plasticity? What is the brain rewards pathway? How is it related to dopamine, the law of effect, and operant conditioning? How do addictive drugs hijack the rewards pathway? What are the brain mechanisms of addiction? Why do people have increasing tolerances for most addictive drugs? Why do they have withdrawal symptoms? What is habituation, and how does it aid in survival? How does classical conditioning allow animals including humans to adapt to their environment? Why are some species primed to associate smell with sickness, while others are not? How are fears created through classical conditioning? How do young monkeys learn to be afraid of snakes, without actually having a negative experience with a snake? Final Study Guide 2 4/30/23  What is the law of effect, and how does it explain the behaviors of Thorndyke’s cats, and Skinners “superstitious” pigeons? How does operant conditioning help us to adapt to our environment? What are the three principles of behaviorism? Compare and contrast learning (e.g. classical and operant conditioning) and evolution. What is the role of the environment? What is the time frame? What are the limits of sensory memory and short-term memory in terms of capacity and time? What is a typical strategy to prevent the decay of information in short-term memory? What are good strategies for more effective encoding into long-term memory? What do they have in common? Why is there a primacy effect in list learning, according to the three-box model? Why is there a recency effect in list learning, according to the three-box model? What is spreading activation, and how is it related to priming? Should you trust your most vivid memories? Why or why not? Why are we bad reasoners, from the perspective of valid formal reasoning? What do biases and heuristics make us good at? How is informal reasoning different from formal reasoning? Why is a logically valid conclusion not necessarily true? Why are phonemes better described as categories of sounds, rather than just as sounds? What is the evidence that humans are "wired" for language? Compare and contrast the Cannon-Bard theory, James-Lang theory and Schacter & Singer’s two factor theory of emotions What does Plutchik (2001) mean that emotions are chain reactions with feedback loops? Why might it be helpful to think of emotions as a set of correlates, rather than a “thing?” What does homeostasis have to do with emotions? What is the difference between acute stress and chronic stress, and why do they affect the body differently? Besides the stressor itself, what determines whether people experience a stress response? What is the vulnerability/stress model, and how does this explain why college students get sicker toward the end of a semester? What is the “tend and befriend” response, and how does it differ from “fight or flight?” How does stress affect the immune system? What does that have to do with cortisol and white blood cells? Why is stress a good thing? Why was this an adaptive trait in our evolutionary history? How do schemas and stereotypes guide our thinking about other people? What cognitive biases guide our causal attributions? Final Study Guide 3 4/30/23  How does cognitive dissonance impact our attitudes? How do stereotypes distort our perceptions of people and groups of people? Who is likely to experience stereotype threat? What experimental conditions create high stereotype threat and low stereotype threat? How is stereotype threat related to the Yerkes-Dodson Curve? What do social facilitation and social inhibition have to do with the Yerkes-Dodson Curve? What aspects of situation increase and decrease conformity? Compare and contrast informational conformity and normative conformity. What is the adaptive value of each? Why has the trait approach been more useful for studying personality than the type approach? What are the big five personality traits, and what are the characteristics of each? Be prepared to match traits with descriptions. How does social learning theory/social cognitive theory explain the development of personality? What is reciprocal determinism, and how does it help explain the development of personality traits? What is the the Bio-Psycho-Social model of mental illness, and how would it explain anxiety disorders, depression, and schizophrenia? According to Sapolsky (2003) how does cortisol influence the hippocampus and amygdala? What are the implications of changes to those brain areas? How do they symptoms of various anxiety disorders reflect the goal of managing or gaining control over stressors? How are panic disorders related to classical conditioning? Why do symptoms become triggers? How is agoraphobia related to operant conditioning? How can simple learning explain why people are unwilling to leave their homes? Besides a sad mood, what are the symptoms of depression? How is learned helplessness related to depression? What neurotransmitters are implicated in depression? What is Sapolsky’s (2003) concept of a stress continuum? What are some positive, negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia? How are delusions different from hallucinations? What symptoms to anti-psychotic mediations treat? What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia? What do concordance rates between relatives tell us about the heritability of schizophrenia? Besides genes, what other factors are thought to play a role in the etiology of schizophrenia? Final Study Guide 4 4/30/23 Skills Identify the brain areas most strongly associated with the following activities: encoding long term memories language production breathing homeostasis problem solving and planning coordination of movement activation during REM sleep initiating a fear response Identify the physical stimulus for the following senses: Audition Vestibular sense Proprioception Vision Taste Smell Identify the primary neurotransmitter targeted by the following drugs: Alcohol Amphetamines Benzodiazepines Caffeine Cocaine LSD Nicotine Opiates SSRIs Which of those drugs affect the dopamine rewards pathways, as either a primary or secondary target? For a given example of classical conditioning (for example, Pavlov’s dogs or Little Albert) be prepared to identify the following UCS UCR NS CS CR Understand where each of the following belong in a hierarchical chart of long-term memories: Episodic memories Explicit/Declarative memories Habit memories Implicit Memories Procedural memories Results of priming Semantic memories Final Study Guide 5 4/30/23 Other key terms (in addition to terms in the questions and skills) Interneurons Pons Amygdala Frontal Cortex Thalamus Hippocampus Corpus collosum Brain Stem cerebellum Cerebral cortex medulla Hypothalamus cross-lateralization Spinal Reflexes plasticity Rods Cones Bottom-up processing Adaptive traits Heritability Instincts Natural Selection Alleles Neurogenesis Cell migration Dendritization Pruning Myelinization Acquisition Extinction Generalization Discrimination Second order conditioning Final Study Guide 6 4/30/23  Confounding Chunking Encoding Storage Consolidation Retrieval Goal directed and stimulus directed attention Primacy and recency in list learning Mnemonic devices Elaborative strategies Yerkes-Dodson curve Reconstruction Source amnesia Confabulation Formal reasoning Informal Reasoning Deductive reasoning Inductive Reasoning Syllogisms Schemas (social schemas, schemas in memory, schemas in reasoning) Biases in reasoning (including confirmation bias and aversion to losses) Heuristics (including availability& representativeness) Cognitive economy Phonemes Morphemes Joint attention Fast-mapping Infant-directed speech The General Adaptation Syndrome Physical attractiveness stereotype Illusory Correlations Dispositional attribution Situational attribution The fundamental attribution error (FAE) Final Study Guide 7 4/30/23  actor-observer effect Self-serving bias Cognitive Dissonance Long term potentiation (LTP) Studies For any of the studies mentioned, or for a hypothetical study, be able to classify the type of study (descriptive, non-experimental, correlational, experimental, quasi-experimental, mixed design) and the key variables (Independent, dependent, subject). Also be prepared to discuss the results. Do dreams/REM sleep provide a benefit? (Dement, 1960) Rat brain development (Diamond, et al., 1964 described in Diamond, 2001) Electrical Stimulation in Rats (Olds & Milner, 1954) Shocked and sickened rats (Garcia & Koelling, 1966) Superstition in the Pigeon (Skinner, 1948) Chess experts and novices (Chase & Simon, 1973) Rhymes vs. meaning (Craik & Tulving, 1975) The serial Position Effect (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966) Suggestibility of memories for a car accident (Loftus, Miller & Burns, 1978) The 6 to 12 month shift in phoneme recognition (Werker, 1989, etc) Facial expressions in Papau, New Guinea (Ekman & Friesen, 1971) Yoked rats and control over stress (Laudenslager, et al., 1983) Induced compliance experiment (Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959) The Pygmalion Effect (Rosenthal & Jacobson 1966) Stereotype threat in math (Spencer, Quinn & Steele. 1997) Judging Lines (Asch, 1952) Obedience to Authority Study (Milgram, 1963) Learned helplessness experiment (Seligman & Mair, 1967) Final Study Guide 8 4/30/23