Final Revision MCQs 2022 PDF

***Divisions of criminal law*** - The combination of these two notions "Crime" and "Punishment" is what we call "Criminal Law - In Large sense includes the procedures to find the offenders. 1. **Substantive Criminal Rules:** - **The Special Part:** It concerned with the definition of...

***Divisions of criminal law*** - The combination of these two notions "Crime" and "Punishment" is what we call "Criminal Law - In Large sense includes the procedures to find the offenders. 1. **Substantive Criminal Rules:** - **The Special Part:** It concerned with the definition of each offense and the precision of its legal elements; also, it clarifies what is the particular sanction that applies to each offense. - **The General Part:** It combines all rules addressing notions relevant to all crimes and punishments. It is divided into the general theory of Crime and the general theory of Punishment. 2. **Procedural Criminal Rules:** determination of legal channels through which the punishment can be enforced. ***Mala in se & Mala prohibta*** - **[Mala in se:]** A crime is an immortal act or evil act by nature. The legislator is only criminalizing what is wrong in itself, [for example] killing, rape, and treason. These acts are universally considered criminal in all societies and in all times are the essence of what should be a crime. - **[Mala prohibita:]** Crimes that are a pure construction of the legislator and they are criminalized only because the component authority in a given society prohibited them as wrongful acts to keep public order or to protect the political and economic regime.[For example]: traffic violations and regulatory offenses. ***Definitions of crime*** 1. **[Crime is an immoral act (Moral Definition):]** - Some criminologists stated that some activities are fundamentally bad or evil. They said that some human behavior like homicide, rape, theft and robbery are universally evil. (Mala in se; acts immoral in itself) and (Mala prohibta; the competent authority in a given society prohibited them as a wrongful acts). - **[Critiques:]** - A lot of activities that we considered horrible had been considered not only normal but also admired by some societies, somewhere, at sometimes. **For instance**, killing that is considered a criminal act, mala in se in almost all societies throughout the history, while in the same societies it is considered to be a heroic act if it is done by a soldier in the battle field. - It is hard then to consider killing is inherently evil or immoral. 2. **[Crime as an antisocial behavior (Normative Definition):]** - Crime is a deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms and cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave normally in that particular society. - **[Critiques:]** - Undermine the possibility of treating crime as an objective idea. - Some acts are incriminated while their social harm or the infringement upon the social interest is not clear. (Possession of illegal Weapons). - Not all social harms are incriminated and not all crimes constitute in themselves a demonstrated social harm. 3. **[Crime as an act that is prohibited (Legal Definition):]** An act in violation of a criminal rule for which the law attaches punishment, it is a prohibited act by a norm of criminal law - **[Critiques:]** - Strict legal definitions would not include pre-delinquent situation, however contained criminal risks. (What comes first Criminology work or legislative work?). - This definition would prevent research on non-criminalized deviance which might have a criminological significance. - The use of the legal definition makes crime a relative concept varying with time, place and every society's criminal policy. 4. **[Crime is a definitional term: ]** - No universal or agreed upon definition of the crime. - So, crime is whatever a given criminal justice system says it is at a given time. - Criminologists have to understand not only the criminal behavior but to understand also the process by which some and not all people who engage in the criminal acts are labeled criminal. ***Typology of crimes*** - Refers to the process of categorization of various types of criminal behavior into distinct groups which have common characteristics or share to a certain extent the same components. **Such as** violent crimes refer to murder, assault and battery. **Crimes *against the Persons (Violent crimes)*** - Murder, Manslaughter or involuntary homicide, Battery, Assault, all sexual crimes. **Crimes *against Property*** - Theft or Larceny, Robbery, Fraud, Burglary, Arson and state security crimes or political crimes. ***Dark number of crimes*** - This term refers to the unreported number of criminalities that escapes any official reports and it is totally unseen for the criminologist. The estimate of such figure is about 50% of the real criminality as opposed to the examined criminality. ***The Classical School*** - **Cesare Beccaria**, is considered to be a leader of classical school. - The judicial system was characterized by **arbitrariness.** Judges enjoyed absolute powers in resolving cases. The law was applied unequally. Torture was permitted to assure confessions. Punishments were cruel, inhumane and disproportionate to the crime committed. - Classical school of criminal law is based on the idea that human beings enjoy **Free Will**. - Bentham added to this idea his concept of **Utilitarianism**. - Applying these concepts to Criminal Law means that punishment shall operate as a **deterrent to** individuals. - Punishment shall be determined **in advance** by the legislature and shall applied equally to any person who commits the crime. This is called the **"Principle of** **Legality"** that Beccaria is known for it. - Under this principle, Judges shall have **no discretionary powers** in determining punishments, as they are mere instruments of the law. This is called the **determinate sentences system**. ***The Neo-Classical School*** - The neoclassical school is an evolution of the classical school as it shared with it the same basis but with some modifications: - **[The First modification]** of the neoclassical school concerned the notion of Free Will. The absolute free will shall *not* be presumed for everyone. Therefore, they defended the idea that responsibility shall be **gradual** as much as the person is enjoying free will. - **[The Second modification]** on the ideas of the classical school concerned the rigid system of determinate sentences. The neoclassical school considered that there shall be a kind of **limited discretionary power** to the judges to choose the punishment according to the circumstances of the crime. - **[Thirdly,]** the neoclassical school argued that the principle of **proportionality** between the punishment and the gravity of the crime has to be respected. This principle of proportionality changes the role of punishment from deterrence, as it was with the classical school, towards retribution. ***The Positivist School*** - By the end of the 19^th^ Century, scholars started to set a new approach in understanding crime and punishment based on **the scientific study of the criminal phenomenon.** - In opposition to the classical and the neoclassical school, the positivist school did not recognize the notion of free will; it advanced the notion of **determinism**. - The first positivist explanation of the criminal behavior came with **Cesare Lombroso** who was an Italian physician who studied the cadavers of executed criminals. - Lombroso observed that criminals have physical differences compared to ordinary men. His idea was based on **biological** **determinism**. - Another positivist explanation of criminal behavior was advanced in the same period by two other Italian scholars, **Rafaelle Garofalo** ad **Enrico Ferri**. - These two scholars stressed on the importance of the **social factors** leading to the criminal behavior, represented what is called **social determinism**. - The main idea of the concept of determinism of the positivist school is that crime is not a result of a rational and free choice of the individual. To the contrary, their criminal behavior is due to forces outside their control. - Therefore, the social reaction to crime shall not be applied to deter criminals, but shall **treat** the reasons that led to crime. - Punishment in its ordinary sense of inflicting pain shall be replaced by the concept of **security measures**. - It is impossible to know in advance how much times does a criminal need to be cured, the duration will not be set in advance. That is the notion of **indeterminate sentence**. The idea is to leave the appreciation of the duration to the evolution of the criminal as he will be under supervision of authority responsible for the execution of the sentence. - ***[The positivist school has been criticized for several reasons:]*** - **First:** This vision contradicts the notion of law itself - **Second:** the positivist school advanced that crime and punishment shall be studied by a scientific method. However, they did not present enough scientific research to support their findings. - **Third:** the concept of indeterminate sentences raises the risk of abuse of authority and the arbitrary powers of judges again. ***Characteristics of Criminology & Penology*** 1. **[Different object of study but Interdependent:]** - [On the one hand, Criminology and Penology have a totally different object of study:] - Criminology studies forms of crimes, different types of criminals and their personalities in order to explain the different reasons that lead to the commission of the crime. It focuses on the **pre-crime phase.** - Penology to the contrary is concerned with the **post-crime phase**. It tries to regulate the best way to combat the criminal phenomenon through criminal sanctions - [On the other hand, Criminology and Penology are Interdependent:] - From one side, penology depends on the results of criminological research. One of the main objectives of penology is to stop future crimes and to prevent criminals from committing more crimes. From the other side, criminology also benefits from penological research. An important part of criminological studies depends on what is called follow-up studies which continue to study the behavior and the development of the criminal after he spends his sentence in prison or after his liberation. 2. **[Criminology and Penology are Multidisciplinary domains:]** 3. **[Criminology and Penology, Normative or Descriptive sciences:]** - Criminology is considered to be a descriptive discipline as it is more concerned with explaining the conduct of the criminal, and the reasons that made him commit the crime. - To the contrary, penology is considered to be a normative science because it is concerned with setting out norms and rules of conduct on what should be done and what should be avoided. ***Classification of Criminological Theories*** - **[First Division: (factors take in consideration to explain criminality)]** - **Single-factors or unicausal**: focus on one element to which criminality is attributed. - **Multi-factorial or integrated theories**: put together a group of factors that may be a combination of several personal and social element that endeavor to explain crime. - **[Second Division: (The Scope of study)]** - **Macro criminality theories:** concerned with the general characteristics of criminality in a given society. - **Micro criminality theories:** focus more on the individual to reach specific explanation related to his criminal behavior ***The Rational Choice Theory*** - The Rational Choice Theory is an **evolution** of the Classical school of Criminology. It is based on the idea that human beings are rational creatures who enjoy free will. - The human conduct is governed by the principle of **Utilitarianism** where all actions of human beings are based on a rational calculation of gains and harm. - An individual is always driven by his **Hedonistic Instinct** that seeks pleasure and tries to avoid pain. - There are many **reasons of satisfaction** that a person may seek through committing a crime: 1. A crime helps some people to achieve a sense of control over their environment. 2. Also committing crimes may make some people feel **competent**. They commit crimes only to compensate their feeling of ordinariness by committing extra-ordinary acts. - Modern rational theories try to figure out the **elements of calculation** that a criminal consider before committing a crime. This depends on the type of criminal offence to be committed, but scholars have put several factors that are usually taken in consideration: 1. The immediate need for the reward. 2. The worth of the expected profit. 3. The other legitimate ways through which he may satisfy his needs. 4. The difficulty of committing the crime. 5. Whether the person believes he has necessary skills to commit the crime. 6. The risk of getting arrested. 7. The **moral guilt** that the individual has to cope with. - Yet, it is **criticized** for several reasons: 1. The theory doesn't take in consideration any other personal or social factors that may lead to the criminal behavior. Some individuals are involved in criminal activities for many reasons that may lead to their behavior other than their rational calculation. 2. This theory assumes that all individuals enjoy not only free will, but also the capacity to think rationally and being able to calculate risks and benefits. ***The biological theory*** - **Medical advances** led to explanations of behavior that is based on the physical structure of the individual. - Biological theories are all categorized under the **positivist school** that favored the idea of **determinism**. - **Lombroso** is considered to be **the father of criminology**. A. **[The Biological theory of Lombroso:]** - Lombroso studied about **four hundred** cadavers. He compared common characteristics and reached his conclusion that criminality was **inherited** and that criminals could be identified by their physical defects. - Lombroso was influenced by the idea of **Darwin** evolutionary theory. - Lombroso's work was based on the notion of **atavism**. He believed that criminals shared physical characteristics with primitive human. The notion of atavism is translated into the main category of criminals that Lombroso named the **born** **criminals**. - Besides the born criminals, Lombroso recognized other two types of criminals: Criminaloid and the Insane Criminals. - **The Criminaloid** - **The Insane Criminal** B. **[The theory of Lombroso has been Criticized for several reasons:]** - **First,** his methods were **not accurate** as he did not use samples of non-criminals. - **Second,** the **number** of samples that he used is not enough to make conclusions concerning humanity, taking in consideration that samples were taken from a very **limited** geographic area. - **Thirdly,** some physical features that Lombroso considered as the result of heredity may have been simply the product of other factors like poor nutrition or health care. - **Fourthly,** the adoption of such theory may lead to punishing people only by their appearance and not by their behavior, and this will be contrary to justice ***The*** ***Psychological theory*** - The theory established by **Freud** which is called the **psychoanalytical theory**; is based on the concept of the **unconscious**. - The theory of Freud is founded on **three different aspects** of human personality. The id, the ego and the superego. The interaction of these three components in a human personality makes individuals behave in a certain way and simply make individual what they are. - The **ID** indicates the **basic needs** with which the individual is born. It is the primitive part of the individual that operates unconsciously as it indicates his **animalistic needs**. This is known as **the Pleasure principle**. - **The Super ego** entails **learned values** and **moral standards** that a person learns in early childhood through his parents or his community. The superego is in continuous **conflict** with the id. The superego as such is called the **Morality Principle**. - The **Ego**, is the social identity that is resulted through behavior. The ego as such is called **the Reality Principle**. - A person commits a criminal behavior due to his inability to resolve his internal conflicts. The criminal behavior is also due to that an individual committed a crime because he has a **weak superego**. - The Freud model of psychoanalysis has gained a lot of fame and has been inspiring for several scholars that came after him. **But it was Criticized for several reasons:** - **First,** the terms used in the theory are **vague** - **Second,** the methodology used is also criticized for **small number of samples** used; conclusion of the theory. - **Third,** the psychoanalysis is useful only for looking at what has already happened with no chance to know in advance what may happen in the **future**. ***Chicago School of Criminology:*** - This famous school focused on the impact of the urban environment on crime rates, the disorganized area is that where institutions such as family and schools are not functioning anymore as whose residents have low-income levels and with high unemployment rates so consequently criminal behavior will increase. ***Theory of Anomie as a manifestation of Strain theories as an example of social structure theories*** - **S**train theories refer to situations of stress because of the inability to achieve one's goal in modern society. The inability of individuals to achieve their goals because of poverty, lack of education or social level leads to frustration and anger; a condition referred to as strain - In such condition, an individual may feel a sense of injustice and distrust towards the society, something that may lead to the commission of crime. - Strain theories have different versions, but they developed through **three** main phases that we will examine. A. **[Emile Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie:]** - He introduced the concept of anomie "without norms". According to this concept, an anomie society is a one in which values, customs and norms are broken. - The most important element in a society is its **social solidarity**. People in some societies are less homogeneous and the traditional forms of solidarity are not existing. This situation produces greater loneliness and more social isolation leading to anomie. B. **[Robert Merton Theory of Anomie:]** - Robert Merton used a **modified version** of Anomie in the twentieth century. - Two elements of the society interact to produce anomic conditions: the goals of all individuals in the society, and the means by which these goals may be obtained. - **[Different Social Adaption in Merton's Theory:]** - Merton argued that an individual has to choose one of five methods in the challenge of goals and means found in modern societies. - **Conformity:** refers to the acceptance of society's goals and its approved means for achieving these goals. - **Innovation:** is when an individual accepts the goals of the society but rejects the means to obtain them. This may lead to deviant behavior to achieve the goals needed. - **Ritualism:** refers to the situation where an individual rejects the goals of the society even though he accepts the available means to achieve them. - **Retreatism:** refers to the rejection of both the goals and the means. People of this type choose to withdraw totally from the social life as they are incapable of success. Drugs addicts are an example of such type of person. - **Rebellion:** involves those who reject both the goals and the means of the society, but they **do not withdraw** from it, they rather create a different alternative of goals and means. Individuals of this type are revolutionaries who try to establish new social order. - **[Evaluation of Merton Anomie theory:]** 1. Anomie theory assumes that all people share the same goals. This is simply not true; different people may have different goals in different areas of life. 2. The anomie theory does not take into account the individual characteristics, especially the psychological and moral ones. 3. In addition, the theory does not give any explanations of the criminality of the rich or those who have all the means available to them. 4. It has been argued also that the theory has not been sufficiently tested scientifically. C. **[Robert Agnew General Strain Theory:]** - Agnew argued that the strain theory should be expanded beyond the failure of the individual to achieve goals set by the society. It shall include all situations of **negative** **relationship** between the individual and his environment. There is more to strain person in life than the failure to achieve his goals, **when an individual loses a source of stability and** when the individual encounters a strong negative experience in his life. ***Social Control Theories as an example of social process theories:*** - They advocating that everyone has the potential to become criminal yet they are stopped by their bonds to the society therefore crime occurs when the bonds linking individuals to society are weakened. ***Social reaction Theories (labeling theories) as an example of social process theories:*** - They consider that people become criminal when significant members of society label them as such. ***Social Learning Theory as an example of social process theories:*** A. **[Tarde and Bandura and the Imitation theory:]** - **Gabriel Tarde** is believed that people are not born criminals, they become criminals. He rejected both the biological and physical theories of criminal behavior; rather he favored a social perspective on reasons of committing crime. - He believed that people had an ability to choose their actions. But this ability is connected with social forces. - He argued that the behavior of a human being is learnt through a process of **imitation**. - [Tarde's statements have been criticized for:] 1. Being oversimplified with no empirical data to support. 2. Its total neglect of physical, psychological and other social factors that may influence human behavior. - **Albert Bandura** is one of those scholars who was influenced by the theory of imitation of Tarde. He did many experiments on the influence of exposure to **Television** in learning criminal behavior. - He concluded that television may affect social behavior in many ways B. **[The Differential Association theory of Sutherland]** - The idea of this theory is that a person who commits criminal behavior acquires his behavior through a learning process from his environment. - Sutherland introduced the theory of differential association and summarize it as follows: - Criminal behavior is learnt from interaction with other persons includes techniques of committing the crime. - The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate groups. - [**Evaluation of the Theory:** ] 1. The theory lacks enough scientific support. 2. The theory fails to explain why some people may interact with criminals and does not commit any crime. This is due to its neglect of any personal characteristics. 3. A person may become criminal without interacting with any criminals. - The **stable traits** of individuals are more effective in their behavior to be consistent across **different situations** or whether behavior is instead may be influenced by the situation itself. - To the contrary, individuals are prone to overestimate **external situational** causes to their own moral failures. - The power of the situation has been tested in different contexts, but the most important study was done with situations involving the **factor of authority**. An important study on obedience to power conducted by **Stanley Milgram**. 1. **[Stanley Milgram and Obedience to Power:]** - Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted a serious of obedience experiments during the 1960's that demonstrated surprising results. - Milgram found that **65%** of ordinary people would administer levels of punishment that would appear to be lethal if they are asked to do so by any authority, and if they are sure that no responsibility would entail from their actions. - The participants in Milgram experiment were **40 men** recruited using newspaper advertisement. Milgram developed a shock generator, with levels starting at 30 volts up to 450 volts. - Each participant took the role of a "teacher" who would then deliver a shock to the "student" every time an incorrect answer was said. - While the participant believed that he was delivering real shocks to the **student**, the student was actually a **confederate** in the experiment who was simply pretending to be shocked. - As the experiment progressed, the participant would hear the learner plead to be released Once the 300-volt level had been reached, the learner banged on the wall and demanded to be released. - Most participants asked the experimenter whether they should continue. The experimenter issued a series of commands to make the participant continue: - Out of the 40 men, 26 continued to administer shocks to the students despite their demands of stopping the experiments. Milgram repeated the experiments with 13 different groups in different points of time from 1964 up till 1973. - He published the results of all his experiences in a book in 1974, and since then, his works have led to a lot of debates and considered to be one of the most important works in Criminology. - He argued that people obey orders because of several reasons: they want to get rewards or because they want to avoid the negative consequences of disobeying, and because they believe an authority is legitimate. - The situation is more complex in other situations where people are ordered to commit acts that violate their own values. - There are several factors may cause people to keep obedience in these circumstances: - **First,** people are sometime afraid of the consequence of disobeying authority even if the orders are not associated with threats and nevertheless, they are obeyed. - **Second,** individuals **justify their behavior by assigning responsibility to the authority**. - **Third,** sometimes people say that they are just doing their work and that the authority and its representative are more aware of its essence and consequence. It is a case of willful blindness. - This experiment has been very powerful in understanding the reason behind mass criminality during wars, or even the huge numbers of people who commit atrocities to other citizens in totalitarian regimes. ***Entrapment process*** - When the people obey easy commands first and then feel compelled to obey more and more difficult commands. ***White Collar Crimes*** - White collar crimes refer to the criminal activity in which the criminal uses his **institutional position** to produce an **illegitimate gain**. - The term "White Collar Crimes" points at the illegal activities that do not need the usual **physical effort** but rather they are committed while practicing, **illegally**. - This is opposed to **blue collar crimes** that depend more on physical effort done by the criminal like murder, theft, or rape. - **For instance,** the Pyramids Scheme or the Ponzi scheme, it refers to an investment fraud that involves the payment of **returns** to existing investors from funds collected from new investors without having any real legitimate investment activity. - The organizers of these schemes of investments focus on attracting new investors by promises of high returns with **little or no risk.** - The scheme usually **collapses** when the organizers fail to recruit new investors or when a large number of investors ask for their money and the organizers are unable to pay. ***Cyber Criminality*** - It is almost impossible to think of any aspect of modern life that is not influenced by **information technology (IT).** - This huge advancement, as useful as it may be, it carries in the same time its opportunities to commit crime. It has created **cybercrimes**. - **For example: Cyber theft** refers to situations where a person gets, illegally, the property of another person without his consent. Property of another person may be in the form of money, or it may be in the form of information "hacking". - **Intellectual property violations** are also an example of this form of criminality. The illegal obtaining of computer software by making copies is also another form of cyber theft. - **[Cyber vandalism:]** where the criminal use cyberspace to destruct the property of others or to harass them, this form is the destruction of information through computer viruses. - **[Cyber stalking:]** it refers to the use of internet, e-mail, or any other electronic communication devices to harass him, it may involve following accounts, pursuing his accounts and showing him that he knows and he follows what he is doing in his personal life. - **[Cyber Bullying:]** is close to cyber stalking, its main difference is that involves the infliction of a willful repeated harm on someone using an electronic medium trying to push him to do something, the electronic aggression imposed in the intent to acquire benefit or profit from the victim. - **[Cyber terrorism:]** it may be defined as resorting to cyberspace tools and activities in the aim of spreading terror among population by destructing their electronic infrastructure and disrupting their ordinary life. - **[Cyber warfare:]** acts of war can be committed between states using cyberspace, experts of international humanitarian law are speaking of cyber warfare. It is common now to wage a war through only cyber-attacks against the governmental systems and this could lead to massive material damage. ***Mass Crimes*** - "Mass crimes" is a term that refers to the crimes that involve numerous numbers of perpetrators and numerous numbers of victims. These crimes include genocide, crimes against humanity and torture. - **Genocide** is defined as committing any of the "five acts" with intent to destroy a national, racial or religious group. The five acts are: a. Killing members of the group. b. Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group. c. Deliberately inflicting conditions of life cause the group's physical destruction. d. Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; e. Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. - **Crimes against humanity** is defined as attacking a civilian population and the object of the attack include a. Murder; b) enslavement; c) imprisonment; d) torture; e) rape. - **Torture** is defined as "the infliction of inhumane treatment that causes severe bodily or mentally harm on victim by a state official or non-official. - These types of crimes are problematic as they involve several types of perpetrators. On the top of the hierarchy, there are the **leaders** who plan these crimes and its execution. - On the intermediary level, there are middle ranked leaders that transmit orders and supervise its execution. - On the ground level, there are **persons who commit the actions** constituting these crimes themselves. - The preparators of these crimes are not monsters or abnormal persons. To the contrary, they are ordinary people who live a very normal life till they were put in certain circumstances that led them to be part of these horrors. 1. The positivist school is based on a. Determinism b. Criminal Dangerousity. c. Rehabilitation d. All of the above 2. According to the principle of legality as introduced by the classical school, Judges shall have a. Limited discretionary power b. No discretionary power c. Wide discretionary power d. None of the above. 3. "Criminal Law" refers to: a. Penology b. Criminology c. Forensic evidence d. None of the above 4. The general part of criminal law refers to: a. The definitions of criminal conducts and the sanctions attached to each crime. b. The notions applicable to all crimes and sanctions. c. The general procedures that we follow to investigate crimes and find criminals. d. All of the above. 5. The classical school is based on the notion of: a. Determinism b. Utilitarianism c. Free will d. B and C 6. The notion of "Born Criminal" was firstly adopted by the: a. Rational choice theory b. Psychoanalytical theory c. Biological theory d. Social structure theory. 7. The imitation theory of Gabriel Tarde interprets the crime as a result of a. The concept of Atavism b. The concept of Anomie c. The domination of example. d. The conflict in the society 8. The ID components of the psychoanalytical theory of Sigmud Freud reflects: a. The reality principle b. The moral principle c. The legality principle d. The pleasure principle 9. The notion of "Security measures" refers to a set of measures which aiming at: a. Rehabilitation a criminal b. Deterring criminal c. Incapacitating a criminal d. Identifying a criminal 10. Proportionality as a condition in the moral theory of punishment tries to establish a balance between: a. The dangerosity of the criminal and the harm resulted of the crime. b. The quantum of the sentence and the conditions in which the criminal committed the crime. c. The gravity of the offence and the harshness of the punishment. d. All of the above 11. The positivist school called for: a. Granting judges a wide discretionary power. b. Granting judges a limited discretionary power. c. Depriving judges of any discretionary power. d. \(A) & (B) 12. According to the notion of determinism, human behavior used to be believed that it was a outcome of: a. Rational Thinking. b. Special metaphysical forces. c. Arbitrariness. d. Variety of forces obliging an individual to act in a specific way. 13. The determinate sentences means that a punishment shall be: a. Different from an individual to another. b. Chosen freely by judges. c. Fixed to all individuals and in all situations without any differences. d. Based on the gravity of crime. 14. Is crime defined as an act deemed as socially harmful or dangerous? a. True b. False 15. Deviance is defined as: a. Behavior that departs from the social norm but is not always criminal. b. Behavior that departs from the social norm but is criminal. c. Behavior that departs from both social and criminal norms. d. Behavior that departs from all moral and social norms. 16. Criminologists collect and analyze crime data in order to: a. Measure the nature and extent of criminal behavior. b. Track changes in the crime rate. c. Measure the individual and social factors that may influene criminality. d. A,b and c 17. Criminologists use........ methods to study the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior. a. Economic. b. Scientific. c. Sociological. d. Psychological. 18. According to Differential Association Theory..... leads to crime. a. Social interactions. b. Psychological exchanges. c. Social conflicts. d. Social changes. 19. The term 'Criminology' is derived from the combination of two Latin words... a. Criminal and Science. b. Crimen and logia. c. Crime and logistics. d. None of the above. 20. Differential Association Theory of crime was developed by a. Lombroso b. Enrico Ferri c. Edwin Sutherland d. Howard Becker. 21. Who put forward Psycho-analytical theory of crime? a. Sigmud Freud b. Alferd Adler. c. Raffael Garafelo. d. Lombroso 22. Who mostly commits White Collar Crimes? a. Criminal tribe. b. Persons of high status. c. Poor Persons. d. Illiterate persons. 23. Theory of Pain and Pleasure was propounded by.... a. Sutherland. b. Plato. c. Immanuel Kant d. Bentham 24. Who coined the term Criminology\> a. Raffaele Garafelo b. Beccaria. c. Lombroso. d. Becker. G**ood Luck**