Animal Diversity Exam Three PDF

Diversity of Animals Vertebrates: Osteichthyes - Bony fish! o Make up 50% of all vertebrates - Swim bladder is derived from the ancestral lung. - Operculum and swim bladder are important! Amphibians - Anura (frogs), Urodela (salamanders), Apoda (caecilians) - All...

Diversity of Animals Vertebrates: Osteichthyes - Bony fish! o Make up 50% of all vertebrates - Swim bladder is derived from the ancestral lung. - Operculum and swim bladder are important! Amphibians - Anura (frogs), Urodela (salamanders), Apoda (caecilians) - All amphibians have water permeable skin (so skin is VERY important for water-salt balance) o Some amphibians use their skin explicity for breathing and gas exchange - Most require water for reproduction o External fertilization  o Many have conspicious metamorphosis - Frogs o They’re going through it. Amniotes - Unlike frogs, amniotes can reproduce independently of an aquatic environment. o Four extraembryonic membranes allow for greater independence from water. ▪ Yolk sack – nutrients ▪ Amnion – contains embryo ▪ Allantois – forms blood and waste extraction with the mother ▪ Chorion – contains everything mentioned above Reptiles - Non avian: Turtles, lizards, crocodiles - Avian: Birds! - Skin covered in a keratin based covering (normally scales, but feathers in birds) o Obtain O2 through their lungs - Most are ectothermic --> use environment to regulate temperature o Birds are endothermic --> use their own internal body to maintain their body temperature. - Testudines o Turtles, terrapins, and tortoises o Bony shells covered by keratin plates; keratinized jaws o Aquatic and terrestrial o All oviparous (lay eggs), TSD is common (temperature sex determination – the temp an embryo develops in the egg determines if it becomes a male or a female) o The ancestral condition here is just having a sternum ▪ Ribs are broad, flat, and unified - Lepidosauria o Squamates (lizards and snakes) and tuatara (lizard like group that only have one currently living species) ▪ All have a three chambered heart ▪ Terrestrial, arboreal, aquatic ▪ Ovi-, ovovivi-, and viviparous o Lizards vs snakes ▪ Shedding ▪ Eyelids True snakes don’t have eyelids while most lizards do  ▪ External open hearing ▪ Flexibility of jaw/skull - Archosauria o Crocodilians, birds, and dinosaurs o They have a four chambered heart o Crocodiles diverged long before birds diverged from dinosaurs - Crocodilia o 25 species of allgators, caiman, crocodiles, and gharial o Complete secondary pallate o All oviparous and TSD o Maternal care Conservation Challenges: Non-avain Reptiles - Over 20% of reptiles are threatened-habitat loss primary driver - Data deficient species made up 20% of the assessments - Turtles and crocodiles are the most in trouble o Aquatic species are especially threatened Reptiles - Aves - Evolved from two-legged dinosaurs called theropods - Archaeopteryx is the most primitive known bird 9150 million years old) o Feathered wings and claws o Teeth and long tail with many vertebrae Adaptations for Flight - Feathers – modified scales o Origianlly for thermo regulation o Later used for gliding, then powered flight - Reduced body weight o Fully keratinized beak o Pneumatic bones Conservation Challenges: Birds - Among vertebrates, birds are the lowest proportion of threatened species o They don’t have to worry about terrestrial predators - Unregulated harvest of songbirds - Habitat destruction for waterfowl - Introduced predators: Domestic cats and snakes Mammals - Hair o Covers mammals in some capacity o Endothermic o Deals with thermoregulation - Mammary glands o Dedicated lactation units that are critical for giving offspring an early leg-up in life - Heterodont and diphyodont teeth o Meaning having different teeth with different functions - Sebaceous and sudoriferous glands Mammals - Monotremes  - Oviparous (egg laying) - Lack nipples, but secrete milk onto abdomen o Lost all teeth --> elongated snout - Duck-billed platypus and echidna Mammals - Marsupials - Kangaroos, wallabies, koalas - Brief gestation, complete development in marsupia while nursing. - Dominant in Australia Mammals - Eutherians - Complex/extensive placenta - Gestation usually correlated with size - Altricial (can’t do anything on their own) to precocious (they can do everything moments after birth) young Conservation Challenges: Mammals - Most familiar megafuna conservation issues - Majority of recent conservation successes are with mammals - Abundance of resources available relative to less marketable groups o Australian Mammal Conservation ▪ 10% of native extinct with 200 years ▪ 20% currently threatened to extinction ▪ Examples: Tasmanian tiger The Body’s Systems - Homeostasis and thermoregulation o Negative feedback: a regulatory mechanism that reduces fluctuations in a system's output by feeding back information about the output itself (maintaining and balance) ▪ Set point ▪ Response carried out by effectors ▪ Opposes stimulus to hold the set point ▪ Examples: thermoregulation, pH, blood pressure, blood glucose, etc... Like walking in from a cold room outside into the sun, your body will want to cool down and make you sweat. o Positive Feedback: a process that increases or magnifies an output or process ▪ Amplified response ▪ Short term fix ▪ Examples: fight or flight, breast-feeding, giving birth, blood clotting, etc... ▪ - Osmoregulation (urinary system) o Maintained by negative feedbacks o The balance between water and salt in the body ▪ The interaction between the excretory system to maintain healthy level sof water and salt in your blood o Found in kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra ▪ Urine production and excretion is good for ridding hte body of nitrogenous waste, excess salts, and toxins/drugs and water ▪ Concentration regulated by hormones o If you have too much salt, your blood cells could become hypertonic or hypotonic o Done via diffusion (salt goes where there’s lower concentrations of water --> osmosis) - Digestive system o Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and then elimination o Macronutrients: carbs (simple sugars), proteins (amino acids), and fats (lipids) ▪ Anatomy: Oral cavity – matistcation (chewing) and saliva (starch) Esophagus – transports food via peristalsis (a series of involuntary muscle contractions that move food and other substances through the body) Stomach – begin protein digestion (gastric juice) Small intestine – most chemical digestion (pancreatic juice); absorption Large intestine – absorption of water and salts (waste) Rectum – stores feces Anus – terminal opening ▪ Accessory Organs: Salivary glands – break down starch Liver o Produces bile (fat emulsification) o Detoxifies absorbed substances from diet o Repackages nutreints Gallbladder – stores bile Pancreas – secretes digestive enzymes and pH buffer o Essential nutrients ▪ Must be obtained in diet 8 of the 20 amino acids Fatty acids: several omega-3 and –6 Vitamins: organic compounds; coenzymes Minerals: inorganic compounds; structural, electrolyte balance; enzyme cofactors - Circulation and respiratory system o Gas exchange: O2 in, CO2 out o Transport of substances ▪ Gases, nutrients, hormones, nitrogenous waste, antibodies and immune cells, thermoregulation, etc... o Respiratory Anatomy: ▪ Nasal/oral cavity --> pharynx --> trachea (contains the cartilage rings) --> bronchi --> bronchioles --> alveoli (gas exchange) --> diaphragm (the divide) o Circulatory Anatomy: ▪ Pulmonary circuit: heart --> lungs --> heart (gas exchange of deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to send it back to the heart oxygenated for the rest of the body aka the systemic circuit) ▪ Systemic circuit: heart --> body --> heart ▪ Arteries: away from the heart ▪ Capillaries: exchange ▪ Veins: back to the heart o Cardiac Cycle ▪ Steps Step 1: Starts at rest --> blood rushes in from sinoatrial Step 2: Your atria contract and force blood into relaxed ventricles  Step 3: Pushing the blood out the heart to either the system or pulmonary circuit ▪ Sinoatrial node (blood rushes in through this node) ▪ Valves ▪ Diastole (120/80) ▪ Systole – pulse - Movement from musculoskeletal system o Skeletal system: ▪ Support and movement Attachment points Joints – wherever bones meet o Synovial – very flexible (in fingres, knees, elbows..) o Cartilaginous – cushions between vertebrae o Fibrous – inflexible (in skull) ▪ Protection ▪ Mineral and lipid storage ▪ Blood cell production ▪ Axial (head, lungs, spine) vs appendicular (limbs like arms, legs, and pelvis) o Muscles ▪ Skeletal muscle – most dense and striated (voluntary) ▪ Smooth muscle – digestive system and movement of substances through the body (involuntary) (ex: peristalsis) ▪ Cardiac muscle – propels blood (involuntary) - Internal coordination from endocrine and neural signaling o Endocrine signaling ▪ Stimulates responses over seconds or days (super fast or slow) ▪ Source: endocrine glands and cells Mechanism: hormones Target: any cell with a receptor for that hormone o Neural signaling ▪ Stimulates responses in milliseconds ▪ Source: neurons  Mechanism: electric impulses and neurotransmitters at synapses (junction between nerve cells) Target: post synaptic cell; neuron, muscle or gland o Nervous system ▪ Central nervous system (CNS) Brain and spinal cord Integrates sensory information Initiates outgoing motor (voluntary) and autonomic (automatic/involuntary) responses ▪ Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Sensory information: receptors to CNS Motor and autonomic systems: CNS to effectors ▪ Autonomic nervous system (ANS)  Sympathetic NS: triggers fight or flight o Mobilizes stored energy (glucose) o Delivers more oxygen and glucose to muscles Parasympathetic NS: triggers the rest o Restores energy reserves o Repair/recover after strenuous activity Enteric division: digestive system o Peristalsis and secretions