Exam Review PDF

1- What is research? Why do research? Who does research? (what is collaborative research?) Readings: Peterborough Newcomer Health Clinic helps immigrants and refugees transition to Canada’s health care system. By Paul Rellinger, Kawartha Now, February 14, 2023. https://kawarthanow.com/2023/02/14/pet...

1- What is research? Why do research? Who does research? (what is collaborative research?) Readings: Peterborough Newcomer Health Clinic helps immigrants and refugees transition to Canada’s health care system. By Paul Rellinger, Kawartha Now, February 14, 2023. https://kawarthanow.com/2023/02/14/peterborough-newcomer-health-clinic-helps immigrants-and- refugees-transition-to-canadas-health-care-system/ Canada refuses to grant access to health care for irregular migrants. By Tracy Glynn, Canadian Health Coalition, March 20, 2024. https://www.healthcoalition.ca/canada-refuses-to-grant access-to-health- care-for-irregular-migrants/ SRH and systemic racism: examining inequities faced by BIPOC communities in Canadian health care. By Leisha Toory, CanWaCH, March 13, 2024. https://canwach.ca/article/srhr-and-systemic racism/ Systemic racism in Canada’s health care system persists. By Melissa Renwick, Toronto Star, March 15, 2024. https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/systemic-racism-in-canada-s-healthcare system- persists/article_82a9079f-5b83-5f08-ad37-862dc299f6d2.html? gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjw- O6zBhASEiwAOHeGxV2UV5QtuCgp7A7yQCRllQZd8d7R1yW5S _KpyOHXelcU7Qf6eQ4XhoCoq4QAvD_BwE&gclsrc=aw.ds Is Canadian healthcare truly universal? Health Inequities based on immigration status. By Emilio Rodriguez, Citizens for Public Justice, April 2, 2022. https://cpj.ca/is-canadian-healthcare-truly universal-health-inequities-based-on-immigration-status/ Why do research? - To advance knowledge, truth, social development...? - To anticipate or predict the future...? What is research? Activities undertaken to advance knowledge, truth(s), social development......using systematic, agreed upon rules and tools of knowledge development*...based on acceptance that researchers can study social groups and imagine social change without being able to view ‘reality’ directly.. Or without having experienced that ‘reality’...and......assuming various possibilities of reality, understanding the broad range of possibilities for structuring research... What is social science research? -...the process of discovering or uncovering new knowledge; -...is distinct from a declaration of what we think we know about the social world because it involves systemic inquiry into a phenomenon of interest -...aims to contribute to what is known about a phenomenon, and...to action and social change -...is based on underlying values, principles and theories about how the world works or ought to work; and these need to be made explicit as part of the research process - Aims to find and explain patterns and regularities in social life (and to understand exceptions to these regularities...which show possibilities for social change) o Focus on aggregates or collectivities, not individuals (example in Babbie et al., p. 12 re: consistency of birthrates over years, despite the large range of personal “reasons” involved)...  - Aims to find and explain patterns, regularity in social life, (and to understand these patterns...)...using: o Idiographic explanations: where we seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition or event... (i.e. what range of factors influenced your choice to attend Trent University?) o Nomothetic explanations: where we seek to identify a few casual factors that generally impact a class of conditions or events (i.e. what key factor/s influence(d) the choice of universities among high school students?) o Inductive reasoning: an explanation where specific observations lead to a general principle(s) (a theory or theories) about a social phenomenon o Deductive reasoning: an explanation that moves from an arguments that may be logically or theoretically expected to observations that test whether the expected pattern actually occurs Idiographic/nomothetic explanations & inductive/deductive reasoning - Researchers may rely on both idiographic and nomothetic approaches and inductive/deductive reasoning (theory) in planning and executing their research - Our example: how to examine and understand the phenomenon of some Canadians’ impeded access to health care – and health (focus on new Canadians, immigrants and/or racialized persons)... Quantitative and qualitative data in social science research - Almost all our observations of the social world start out as qualitative; - Qualitative research is confined to studying relatively small groups of people with a goal of issuing “representations” of the social world, and of theorizing “why” social phenomenon occur in the ways (patterns) they are observed by the researcher... (i.e., see Shaburdin et al. (2022) and Akalin, (2024)) - Quantification involves converting qualitative observations into quantitative form... for the purpose of testing a theory or theories about the cause of observed social patterns, using large samples or even whole populations... (ie: see Siddiqi et al. (2017)) - The Babbie et al., discussion of “variables” and “attributes” are central in quantitative research (pp. 12-20) What is collaborative research? - As an emerging scholar and researcher...you will be encouraged to ask this question -...and to think about the “interests” particular individuals or groups of researchers have in a topic... -...to work together, in joint intellectual effort... to produce knowledge... o Driven by multiple and diverse values/interests* o Stakeholders: academic, community-based researchers, community members, marginalized persons/groups, service providers, policy-makers, government officials ▪ =...different conceptualizations of “what do we want to know”; and “what is possible to change” in approaches to ‘knowing about’ a particular social phenomenon... Why do research? In summary: We wants to understand our world... We want to predict our futures... We want to construct and change the world in which we live... In doing research or “human inquiry”... we aim to understand both what is going on in our world, and why phenomenon occur in one way and not the other...; and we want to effect social change... 2- Paradigms, theory, & methodology in knowledge development Readings: Overview of Chapter 2 Babbie et al., pp. 32-54 “paradigms, theory and research” - students can ignore the details of the various social science paradigms Babbie et al. discuss (they each fit under one of the three main paradigms emphasized in this lecture: positivism, interactivist/constructivist and the critical paradigm); read the chapter pages on theory, and on the deductive and inductive theory construction; Review pp., 21-22 from Chapter 1 on deductive and inductive theory; Particularly focus on the different ‘ways of knowing’... in Siddiqi et al., (2017), Smylie et al., (2024), Shaburdin et al., (2022)*, and Akalin (2024) - have a quick look at each of these, but only up to ‘Findings’ at this point. Their different approaches to research reflect the knowledge paradigms in which they are situated... Two different ‘ways of knowing’...access to healthcare and health among racialized, immigrant & new Canadians - Siddiqi, A., Shahidi, F.V., Ramraj, C., Williams, D.R. (2017). Associations between race, discrimination and risk for chronic disease in a population-based sample from Canada. Soc Sci Medicine 194: 135-141 - Shaburdin, Z.M., Bourke, L., Mitchell, O., Newman, T. (2022). ‘It’s a cultural thing’: excuses used by health professionals providing inclusive care. Health Sociology Review 31(1): 1-15. What is a research paradigm? -...is a worldview; a belief; a general perspective on how to view the world and how we can know it... -...is the fundamental model or frame of reference we use to organize out observations and reasoning... (Babbie et al., p.32) - A paradigm encompasses theories, methodologies, and methods for conducting research... Paradigms and theory: - Theory: is a formal explanation of phenomenon or related set of phenomena... o Where a paradigm offers a way of looking at the world, theories help us to answer questions about why things are as they are...theories seek to explain what we see... - Methodology: the rules and procedures about how research is to be conducted - Methodology pertains to the empirical activities of research – data collection, management and analysis...the rules or procedures for conducting an empirical study as well as the specific tools for data collection (‘methods’) to be used... - A study’s methodology and methods are determined by the paradigm in which the research question is situated... What is a research paradigm? Three broad categories - Instrumental or positivist paradigm - Interactivist/constructivist paradigm - Critical paradigm The instrumental or positivist paradigm - Belief that the objective ‘facts’ about some aspect of society are discoverable and knowable... - Belief that, in controlled environments, the “rules” or regularities of that aspect of society will be discernible*...;  - Belief that what exists (and what is real) is that which can be observed...and can be observed in the same way by everyone - Knowledge development from an instrumentalist paradigm involves: o Control of the object of research* o Use and documentation of precise procedures o...ensuring capacity for replication of procedures (for ‘verification’) o Objectivity in procedures and interpretation of findings; researcher assumes an objective ‘value neutral’ position vis-à-vis research ‘subjects’ Instrumentalism (positivism), theory, methodology & method Involves - A deductive approach for theory testing - Methodology/method=standardized data collection protocol, i.e. standardized experimental design Deductive theory in positivist-oriented social science research Reliance on deductive reasoning in theory development involves asserting a pattern that may be logically or theoretically expected; to testing (through observation/data collection) whether that pattern actually is observed in data... I.e., Siddiqi et al., (2017) investigated in a national sample of Canadians the extent of (a) racial differences in experiences of discrimination and (b) the association between discrimination and chronic conditions and their major risk factors, theorizing that: a) racial status (independent variable) --> heightened experience of discrimination (dependent variable) b) discrimination (independent variable) --> experience of various chronic health conditions/ health risks (dependent variable) The interactivist/constructivist paradigm - Researcher belief that knowledge is obtained by subjective engagement with others in human environments. What exists (and what is real) is that which people believe to be real; Interactivist paradigm and assumptions about subjectivity/objectivity in knowledge development: - Assumption that...knowledge is constructed through interaction and context and within specific histories/spaces/places; that all out experiences are subjective; - What is “real” is perceptual – taking various perspectives on a phenomenon i.e. will reveal its complexity... - Recognition of the centrality of the researchers’ values in driving research; that, therefore, what becomes known is partial, relative, relational; and value-laden (researcher does not assume an ‘objective’ position in the research process)... Interactive paradigm: inductive theorizing Inductive resoning in theory development: involves moving from a set of particular observations to the discovery of a pattern that represents some degree of order among those observations. I.e., Shaburdin et al., (2022) undertook semi-structured interviews to capture health professionals’ perspectives on working in rural mainstream health services, ways to improve inclusion in health care broadly, challenges of providing inclusive care, and issues surrounding engaging groups of service users which the specific service struggles to engage. The critical paradigm: - A belief or standpoint in which it is acknowledged that what is real is more than just what is experienced or perceived (not necessarily discernible through interactivist empirical research); that what we experience in the social world does not necessarily reveal the mechanisms that influence that experience or perception..* - Acknowledges the researchers who abandon their objectivity in favour of adopting participants’ subjective viewpoints – may lose the possibility of seeing and understanding the phenomenon within frames of reference unavailable to those ‘others’... - Focus on the frames of reference that produce particular beliefs/perceptions/experiences.. - “critical”=makes problematic the assumed or taken-for-granted, especially that which is assumes to be “natural” - destabilize assumptions...explicate interests in competing definitions or explanations of phenomenon* - Examines social conditions of individuals’ experiences and perceptions...assuming that social “facts” and experiences are produced by those with power to control knowledge production - Critical scholars ask how predominant definitions or explanations influence our own assumptions...and create our perceptions, expectations, etc. Who produces those predominant definitions? - Critical scholars focus on power of some over others, social control, interest groups...to promote and envision possibilities for social change, transformation and redistribution of power... - I.e. Marx’s theory of social class conflict (conflict paradigm). Marx focused on class struggle within historically specific economy; - Methodology of ‘institutional ethnography’ is situated under the critical paradigm... Example: understanding inequalities in health and health care - Review: in which paradigms are Siddiqi et al., (2017) and Shaburdin, et al., (2022) situated...? - Where is theory (explanation) found in each study? - What can be known and what cannot be known about barriers to access to health care or health for racialized or immigrant persons in each study setting, on the basis of the research approach in each article? What do the studies let us (readers) ‘see’ and ‘know’ about this phenomenon? What is missing? Key terms/concepts - Paradigm – general o Instrumental/positivist paradigm o Interactivist paradigm o Critical paradigm - Theory - Methodology (& methods - ‘tools’ for data collection 3 - Research Ethics Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans – TCPS2 2022 Part 1: TCPS2 – Definitions & 3 Core Ethical Principles Ethics, Morals, Law... - Morals: refers to standards and rules of good conduct in society - Ethics: deals with what is morally good or bad, and right or wrong - Law: regulates social life through promulgated rules crafted by a legitimate authority Research Ethics Tri-council Policy on Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCPS2)  - Is based on a moral imperative of respect for human dignity...; and recognition of the inherent worth of all human being. This recognition is expressed through three core principles... - TCPS2 mandates that funding will be awarded only to those individuals and institutions that comply with this policy The Research Ethics Review - Is an approval process in which a researcher will have the research plan vetted by a committee whose members examine the ethical integrity of the plan... -...research ethics boards (REB) can: o 1) Review Research Proposals o 2) Protect Participants Rights and Welfare o 3) Monitor Ongoing Research o 4) Provide Ethical Guidance TCPS2: Scope of Research Ethics Review: REB approval is required for the following research before research commences: 1) Research Involving Human Participants 2) Research Using Human Biological Materials The following are exempt from ethics review: - Research that relies exclusively on publicly available information when...the information is legally accessible to the public and appropriately protected by law; - Research that relies on information that is publicly accessible and there is no reasonable expectation of privacy - Research involving the observation of people in public places where: o It does not involve any intervention staged by the researcher, or direct interaction with individuals or groups; o Individuals or groups targeted for observation have no reasonable expectation of privacy; and o Any dissemination of research results does not allow identification of specific individuals The REB review shall be continuing throughout the life of the research project... TCPS2 – Proportionate approach to REB review: - An appropriate balance is sought between recognition of the potential benefits of research, and the protection of participants from research-related harms... Tri-council Policy on Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCPS2) 3 Core Ethical Principles... - Respect for persons; - Concern for welfare; - Justice TCPS2 – Respect for persons: *Recognizes the intrinsic value of human beings and the respect and consideration they are due - Respect autonomy - Protection of those with developing, impaired or diminished autonomy... *requires the researcher seek a participant’s free, informed, and ongoing consent to participate... - Acknowledgement that those who lack capacity to make their own decisions, participation in research can be valuable, just and even necessary TCPS2 – Concern for welfare: *means the researchers and REBs should aim to protect the welfare of participants, and, in some circumstances, to promote that welfare in view of any foreseeable risks associated with the research... requiring researchers to protect participants from exposure to unnecessary risks; and attempt to achieve the most favourable balance of risks and potential benefits for participants in the proposed research TCPS2 – Justice: - Refers to the obligation to treat people fairly and equitably - Does not always imply treating people in the same way - The recruitment of participants to research is an important component of the fair and equitable conduct of research – participation should be based on inclusion criteria that are justified by the research question (RQ)... TCPS2 – Justice: addressing risks, and potential benefits; balance in REB review: - Potential benefits: o For participants themselves... o For the welfare of society as a while through advancement of knowledge for future generations; o For other individuals (members of the participant’s community or group...)... often there may be little or NO direct benefit to participants to their participation in research...and participants should be duly informed of this... - Because research involves a ‘leap into the unknown’, it may involve harms to participants and others; the nature of the harm may be social, behavioral, psychological, physical, economic Part 2: TCPS2 – Informed Consent, Deception, Privacy/Confidentiality: TCPS2 – the consent process: - The principle of respect for persons requires free, informed and ongoing consent from participants - Informed consent and capacity... Being informed requires that a potential research participant know: - That they are being asked to participate in a research project and what that participation will involve... - Who is conducting the research - The purpose, expected duration, what they will be asked to do if they participate - Who will have access to the information collected, a description of procedures used to protect confidentiality, and anticipated uses of the data - The ways in which the research will be published, how they will be informed about the results of the research - That they are free not to participate and have the right to stop participating at any time (voluntary participation) - About the actual or potential benefits or risks of participation - About any actual or potential conflicts of interest TCPS2 – departures from general principles of consent: - Some social science research seeks to learn about human responses in situations that have been created experimentally...  - Some types of research an be carried out only if the participants do not know he true purpose of the research in advance - Reliance on partial disclosure or deception... TCPS2 – justifying partial disclosure or deception in research: - Balancing harms and benefits: is the research justified by the assumed balance of benefits over potential for harm; the foreseeable harms must not outweigh the foreseeable benefits - Minimizing harms: due to avoid, prevent, minimize harm (non-malfeasance); embarrassment, discomfort, psychological harm, physical harm; may continue beyond the period of interaction in a research study - Maximizing benefits (beneficence): duty to benefit others and society; and in research, to maximize that benefit Informed Consent and Deception in Social Research... - Because deceiving people is unethical, deceiving people in research needs to be justified by compelling scientific arguments... - Examples where deception may be justified: o Milgram (1963) experiments on obedience? (Babbie et al., p. 70-71) o Field research based on observations (Humphrey’s “Tearoom Trade”, 1970) (Babbie et al., p 70) - Strategies to minimize the risks on harm to people who you’ve deceived? o Debriefing TCPS2 – Privacy & confidentiality - Privacy refers to an individual’s right to be free from intrusion or interference by others. It is a fundamental right in a free and democratic society - An important aspect of privacy is the right to control information about oneself... and the concept of consent is related to the right to privacy - The ethical duty of confidentiality refers to the obligation of an individual or organization to safeguard entrusted information - How to accomplish protection from harm of revealing personal information that may be used against the participant: o Distinguish anonymity from confidentiality o Three stages of research where privacy and confidentiality issues arise (and must be protected): ▪ 1) Data collection ▪ 2) Data Storage and Management ▪ 3) Data Analysis and Dissemination Exceptions? - The ethical duty of confidentiality must, at times, be balanced against competing ethical, legal or professional requirements that call for disclosure of information obtained or creted in a research context Key Issues - Distinguish morals v. ethics v. laws - Powers of the Research Ethics Board (REB) - Guiding ethical principles: o Respect for persons o Concerns for welfare o Justice - Informed consent process, capacity, exemption (deception)  - Privacy and confidentiality (distinguish anonymity v confidentiality); exception to privacy/confidentiality 4 – Who Speaks in Research? Sampling Designs in Sociological Research Sampling - Refers to the process of selecting participants whose responses to our questions are ‘observations’...; any procedure for selecting units for observation... - Distinguish: o Recruitment: identifying potential research participants and providing them with the information to establish their interest to join a proposed research study o Sampling: selecting a subset of data from a larger population or dataset inorder to analyze or make inferences about the whole population o Sample: a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a larger population using a pre-defined selection bias method - Two general sampling strategies include non-probability and probability sampling... Sampling in social research: Key terms - Element: that unit about which information is collected and that provides the basis of analysis (i.e. families, social clubs, individuals)* - Population: the theoretically specified aggregation of study elements – the collection of elements we want to generalize about: a study population is that aggregation of elements from which the sample is actually selected; - Sampling frame: list (or quasi list) of elements composing a population from which a probability sample is selected: for the sample to be representative the sampling frame must include all (almost all) members of the population - Parameter: the description of a given variable in a population; a characteristic of the population (i.e. age distribution; mean income of all families; distribution of households with internet-wired computers)** - Statistic: the description of a given variable in a sample - non-probability sampling: any technique in which samples selected without resort o probability selection (based on probability theory) - Probability sampling: a general term for samples selected in accord with probability theory, typically involving some random-selection mechanism Types of non-probability sampling - Convenience or ‘accidental’ sampling: selection on basis of availability or convenience; - Purposive (judgmental) sampling: purposeful selection of participants with characteristics of relevance to the issue being studied; based on researcher’s judgment about what characteristics would be most useful... - Snowball sampling: each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing - Quota sampling: units are selected into a sample on the basis of pre-specified characteristics, so the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied... -used in some quantitative studies, & most qualitative research Probability Sampling - Used for many large-scale surveys when the purpose is to generalize results from a sample to the whole population from which it was drawn...  - Goal is to provide useful descriptions of the total population, by using a representative sample of individuals (that is, the sample and population must contain the same characteristics and variations) - Goal is presentiveness of the sample along key substantive aspects of the study – achieved through random selection and sample size... Probability theory: the estimation of error in representativeness of a sample: - Probability theory allows a researcher to describe a population, based on a sample drawn from it; and to estimate the degree pf error in the estimates... because the sample doesn’t precisely reflect the population from which it was drawn* - Central limit theorm... Probability sampling and EPSM... - Basic principle of probability sampling...a sample will be representative ofof a population if all members of population have a known, non-zero chance of being selected into a sample...; through a random selection procedure... - What are benefits of random selection/EPSM? Probability Theory: key terms - Sampling error: degree of error to be expected in probability sampling o Is a reflection of the extent to which the population characteristics are reproduced in the sample o Sampling error is larger with a small sample size and with diverse (non-homogeneous) population... - Confidence interval: refers to the range of values within which a population parameter is estimated to lie (reflecting the mathematical likelihood of an estimate about the population derived from description of a sample being the true population estimate) - Confidence levels: the estimated probability that a population parameter lies within a given confidence interval... (expressed as “19 times out of 20”; or 95% confidence (p=.05)) Types of Probability Sampling Distribution - Simple random sampling: o All elements of a population have equal likelihood of selection into a sample, based on random selection o Often the sampling frame (population including all or almost all elements) is in a machine readable form, and the simple random sample can be selected automatically by a computer - Systemic sampling: o ta some specified interval (every kth element) an element in a population is selected for inclusion in the sample: i.e. every 25th student in a college directory*. o k (sampling interval) = population/sample size desired - Stratified sampling: o A method for obtaining a greater degree of representativeness by decreasing the probable sampling error o Rather than sampling from the total population at large, samples are drawn from homogeneous subsets of that population o The choice of stratification variables generally depends on those population characteristics you want to represent accurately - Cluster sampling: o Used when it’s either impossible or impractical to complete an exhaustive list of the elements composing the target population  o Therefore, natural groups (clusters) are sampled initially (i.e. all churches in Ontario), with elements within each cluster sub-sampled afterward o The final study samples will be a sub-sample (church members) of a sample (of all churches) - Cluster sampling and sampling error: o At each level of sampling, sampling error is produced, so cluster designs have a higher error o The general guideline for cluster designs is to maximize the number of clusters selected, while decreasing the number of elements within each cluster (or...select as many clusters as you can afford to include in the study) 5 – Research Design and the Logic of Causation: Qualitative & Quantitative Approaches Readings: Babbie, Edgerton & Roberts Chapter 4 pp. 79-86 the purposes of research, units of analysis; 87-94 the logic of causation; 94-99 – the time dimension; Chapter 5, pp. 106-114 ‘where concepts come from’ Units of Analysis in qualitative and quantitative research - In order to describe or explain social phenomenon using qualitative or quantitative methodologies, a choice about the unit of analysis for study is made - The “unit of analysis” refers to ‘the what’ or ‘whom’ being studied... Unit of analysis/elements... May include: - Individuals - Groups (i.e. couples, families/households, gangs, a nation’s population) - Organizations (i.e. hospitals, schools, food-banks) - Social interactions (i.e. telephone exchanges on the internet chat lines, frequency of sexual activity among university students, spousal assault, patient-physician interaction) - Social artefacts* (i.e. children’s picture books, art, newspaper content, literature, housing, cookware, suicide investigation reports) Purposes in quantitative and qualitative social science research - Almost all our observations of the social world start out as qualitative...reflecting our observations about the world around us, or our interactions with others who describe or provide explanations of their world (inductive approach); - Quantification involves converting qualitative observations into quantitative form...for the purposes of exploring or describing social phenomenon; or to test deductively (or explain) theories about the cause of social patterns, regularities (ie. Durkheim’s Suicide...; the ‘causes’ of barriers to health care, or of particular health care experiences, etc) Four purposes of research 1. Exploration (not usually published) 2. Description usually apply to quantitative and qualitative research 3. Explanation 4. Social change...(where CHANGE is the explicit purpose, as per critical research methodologies of PAR/FAR, critical ethnography) Research conducted for the purpose of description: - Goal is to describe phenomenon in terms of accuracy and precision (ie. Using surveys like the Canadian Community Health Survey – Siddiqi et al); or in terms of breadth of insight/complexity of phenomenon (as in ethnographic study of health-care seeking by Haitian immigrants as in Akalin) - Descriptive studies answer questions of what, when, where, how much, how frequently Research conducted for the purpose of explanation: - Descriptive studies answer questions of what, when, where, how much, how frequently - Explanatory studies also address how and why questions...to explain co-occurring phenomenon... - Explanatory studies seek to explain/provide theories after detailed observation of a phenomenon (induction) or to test pre-conceived theories (deduction) that provide explanations of the social world/peoples’ experience in the social world Qualitative data in social science research - Researchers document [describe] their own observations (Akalin, 2024), or their interactions with others who represent their experiences of the world in qualitative form...i.e. Shaburdin et al., 2022 – qual interview study - These authors also undertake their research for the purpose of explaining (inductively) how/why their observations occur the way they do: o i.e., why do Haitian immigrants’ have the particular lived experiences described? I.e., how are they impacted by their interactions with health caregivers?... (Akalin, 2024) o How do staff (hc providers, staff, etc.) account for/explain their patients’/services-users’ hc outcomes (especially if negative or incomplete)?... (Shaburdin et al., 2022) Quantitative data in social science research - researchers document observations about the world in quantitative form... - For the purposes of describing social phenomenon (i.e., in Siddiqi et al, 2017, the racial/visible minority diversity, experiences of discrimination, experience of chronic conditions/risks) - Table 1; AND explaining (to test deductively a theory about the causes of social patterns observed) the correlations in the data: i.e., to determine whether being racialized or of visible minority status persons is associated with heightened experience of discrimination; and whether heightened discrimination experience is associated with higher likelihood of reporting chronic conditions or risk conditions Examples Babbie et al., pp. 81 – describing v explaining voting patterns; describing v explaining crime rates in cities Studying social worlds: social concepts Social science researchers observe three types of phenomenon 1) Direct observables a. Life/death; housing type 2) Indirect observables a. Income b. Ie. Texts describing past events that we assume to reflect a previous reality: i.e. minutes of a group meeting; war diaries; c. Social place, i.e. setting of health care-giving 3) Constructs/concepts: theoretical creations based on observations that cannot be directly or indirectly observed... Conceptualization - In research, conceptualization refers to the process of coming to an agreement about the meaning of something we have experiences or have observed...but is not tangible - The result is a concept... - Concepts are constructs derived by mutual agreement from mental images that each of us hold about a phenomenon or experience (i.e., Babbie et l., p. 107 on prejudice; p. 110-111 on anomie/anomia) - The observations and experiences are subjectively real, but conceptions and the concepts derived from then are only mental creations Operationalization and measurement of concepts in quantitative research - While specifying a conceptual definition provides a general focus for what we observe in a research project, in quantitative methodologies, the operational definition specifies precisely what we will observe, how we will observe it... - “operationalization” refers to the development of specific research procedures (operations) that will result in empirical observations representing the concepts under study – i.e., Siddiqi et al., (2017) p. 137-138 From concepts to variables in quantitative research Variables and Attributes - Conceptualization and operationalization can be seen as the specification of variables and the attributes composing them - An “attribute” refers to a characteristic or quality of something, - A “variable” is a logical grouping/set of attributes Concept/variable: sex I.E. attributes of human biological make up: - ‘male’ - ‘female’ - ‘non-binary’ Independent and Dependent Variables: - Once classified, variables are arranged to show their relationship with other variables, and then tested against the theoretical ideas about those relationships: - Dependent variable: a variable assumed to be influenced by or “dependent” upon the presence of another variable – in explanatory studies, you are trying to explain variation in the dependent variable... - Independent variable: a variable that is presumed to influence a dependent variable Quantification...and its consequences... - Ease of management of quantitative data - Able to study whole populations, or provide estimates of population parameters from representative samples; using mathematical formulas, can calculate accurate estimates/ probabilities of likelihood - Loss of richness of data... and (because the researcher selects the research question) - Inability to focus the research on meaning from study participants’ point of view; - Describes what occurs in social worlds (& co-occurring phenomenon), but limited ability to explain why such events or relationships among phenomenon occur*... Quantification of data, nomothetic logic & causation - Nomothetic explanations are those in which we seek to identify a few causal factors that explain an event or phenomenon; and that account for the variability in that phenomenon (voting, crime rates, reason students select Trent University over other options, discrimination, health outcomes) Criteria for nomothetic causality... What do we mean by cause in quantitative social science research? 1) Variables are correlated* 2) The cause occurs before the effect (time ordering re: occurrence of phenomenon) 3) The observed relationship between the variables is non-spurious Examples of spurious relationships *a spurious relationship is a coincidental statistical correlation between two variables, shown to be caused (or reasonably explained) by some third variable - Fire engines/fire damage - Ice cream sales/drowning deaths - Shoe size/math ability False criteria for nomothetic causality - “Causality” in quantitative social research rarely refers to o Complete causation: nomothetic explanation is probabilistic and usually incomplete o Exceptional cases (exceptions do not disprove a causal relationship) o A claim that the causation exists in the majority of cases...it refers to a statistical likelihood; - So to say that there is a strong positive causal relationship between socio-economic status (SES) and health does not imply that all people of high SES will have positive health, but that high SES individuals are statistically more likely than low SES individuals to have positive health... The time dimension - Distinguish cross-sectional and longitudinal designs in qualitative and quantitative studies*... o Cross-sectional study: a study based on observations representing a single point in time o Longitudinal study: a study design involving the collection of data at different points in time - Among quantitative longitudinal study designs: o Trend studies: a type of longitudinal study in which a given characteristic of some population is monitored over time o Cohort studies: a study in which some specific subpopulation, or cohort, is studied over time, although data may be collected from different members in each set of observations o Panel studies: a type of longitudinal study in which data are collected from the same set of people (the sample or panel) at several points in time 6 - Quantitative Research: The Social Survey Readings: Babbie, Edgerton & Roberts Chapter 8 pp., 199-231 “Survey Research” Purpose of Survey Research Survey research is the administration of questionnaires to a sample of respondents, for the purposes of: - Description... o Best method for collecting original data for describing a population that is too large to observe directly o If probability sampling is used -- findings can be generalized from the sample to the population (++influential) - Explanation: developing theories about, then using statistical analyses to examine the relationship among variables, and to test hypotheses about a predicted relationship between independent variables and a dependent variable Sampling in Survey Research - Surveys differ from other research methods (experiments, observational or intensive interviewing studies) on basis of the number of persons from whom data is or can be collected; and on the ability to structure a sample to target a specific population - Survey sampling may be based on non-probability designs... - But a major strength of survey research is the potential of collecting data drawn from a probability sample Survey Research: be critical of the sampling design reported... * Target sample * Achieved sample * Response rate * Retention rate – in longitudinal studies Survey Research: the “response rate” and “response bias” - “Response rate”: refers to the number of people participating in a survey divided by the number selected into the sample (also referred to as the completion rate; or return rate) - The body of inferential statistics used in connection with survey analysis assumes that all members of the initial sample complete and return questionnaires; response bias becomes a concern where there was an effort to reach a sample that is representative of some larger population...but a full response wasn’t achieved... - Adequacy: 50% response rate; 60%? (70+% usually considered very good) - Researchers should report response rates/address bias...as a study limitation... and examine the characteristics of non-respondents if possible... The Time Frame in Survey Research - The cross sectional design: o A single, unrepeated survey that produces prompt results (within a few months/weeks/days) o Produces a ‘snap-shot’ of a sample/population at a single point in time; cannot trace processes of change - The longitudinal design:  o A design in which a survey is repeated several times in order to measure the rate and degree of change occurring in patterns of responses o The trend study: a longitudinal design involving several successive surveys, but each with different samples (i.e. LFS/CCHS) o The panel study: is a longitudinal design where the same group of participants is following over time Developing the Survey Instrument: - The survey questionnaire or “instrument” is designed to elicit information - Items are (usually) “structured” or “close-ended*”, rather than open-ended* - Closed ended questions establish uniform set of responses (restrict others), and become variables: they must meet requirement of being “exhaustive” and “mutually exclusive” Rules to ensure high quality data! - (the meaning of) survey items should be clear and unambiguous o i.e. “unemployment” - Avoid double-barreled (multi-part) questions - Respondents must be competent and have enough experience/knowledge to reasonably respond to survey items* - Respondents must be willing to provide answers (protection of confidentiality)...promise anonymity... - Questions should be relevant (easily mis-interpreted)... - Use of short items...to limit confusion...ease of providing a response - Avoid negative items (easily mis-interpreted)... - Avoid biased items and terms (bias refers to any property of questions that encourages respondents to answer in a specific way) - Consider the impact of a question’s wording and potential effect of social desirability (especially in face-to-face interviews) Impact of wording of survey questions: - In your opinion, should Sunday shopping be allowed in Ontario; that is, should stores that want to stay open on Sunday be allowed to stay open on Sundays if they wany to? o 73% in favour of Sunday shopping o 25% opposed to Sunday shopping o 2% no opinion - In your opinion, should Sunday pause day be adopted in Ontario; that is, should the government make Sunday the one uniform day a week when most people do not have to work? o 50% opposed to a Sunday pause day o 44% in favour of a Sunday pause day o 6% no opinion General questionnaire format * Uncluttered in design * Clear response instructions, such as [] for indicating response/responses * Careful planning and lay-out of contingency questions * Attention to ordering of questions Ordering of questionnaire items - The appearance of on question can affect the responses to another o Example (Babbie et al., p. 210)* o Best response is sensitivity to the issue and good pre-testing - Desired ordering of items differs between interviews and self-administered questionnaires o Self-administered: begin with interesting items to gain interest of potential respondent; avoid threatening questions at start (i.e. sexual behaviour); save duller items (demographics) for end of survey o Interview surveys: need to gain rapport quickly...might begin with demographics (non- threatening, easy to respond to); then turn to more sensitive items, once rapport has been gained - Need clear questionnaire instructions/introductory comments (to encourage completion) - Importance of pre-testing the questionnaire Survey Research - Methods of administering a questionnaire: o On-line or mail-out questionnaires (self-administered) o Telephone-based o Face-to-face interview (interview-based surveys) On-line self administered surveys - Use of internet or personal computers allow respondents to read and complete the survey - Concern about representativeness (those for whom on-line participation does not make up a random population - Use ‘best practices’ to heighten response rate and representativeness in on-line data collection environment... Best practices - Provide a clear and compelling reason for participation - Use simple, direct language - Restrict survey to under 15/20 minutes - Offer to share a summary of the results with participants - Use appropriate design and colour to help respondents navigate the survey - Use radio buttons and drop-down boxes to reduce response errors - In grid design questions, have response labels continuously visible - Take full advantage of skip pattern pre-programming On-line surveys: * Can achieve very large samples * Primary benefit = cost effective * Concern about representativeness * Privacy/confidentiality? Mail-out surveys: issues * Relatively inexpensive and efficient for reaching large populations... * Anonymity in asking about sensitive issues  * Less response rate/bias * Item non-responses among returned questionnaires (no probing by interviewer around complex questions or incomplete responses) Telephone-based surveys: - Cost- and time-efficient - Bias in sampling frame... (?) - Control over data collection: consistent questions and responses to inquiries by respondents (trained interviewers) - No safety concerns for interviewers - Relatively anonymous... - Response rates/bias... (Personal) Interview-based surveys: issues * Time consuming...but * Face-to-face = researcher has opportunity to gain rapport and interest of potential respondent (increased response rate and items response completion) * Safety concerns re: interviewer * Interviewer presentation of self/must be consisted in reading questions and instructing respondents, and probing... * Sensitive issues...and anonymity Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research: - For describing/analyzing large groups and populations (probability sampling design and generalizability) - Surveys make large samples feasible - Surveys allow flexibility in operationalization of concepts (using many questions) and in analysis of data - Requirement of standardized responses also a weakness “fitting square pegs into round holes” - forced response options... - Superficiality of treatment of complex topics (people’s attitudes, orientations, circumstances and experiences) - Survey research can seldom deal with context of social life; or get at the processes or experiences of social life in a naturalistic setting - In some ways, surveys are inflexible: requirement to stick to the study design/survey questions established at the outset... - Artificiality of responses: i.e. respondents can report intended actions, and assumed to reflect real actions; a respondent can be categorized as prejudice, without actual determination of the actual behaviour... etc Secondary analysis of survey data: - A form of research in which the data collected and processed by one researcher is re-analyzed – often for a different purpose – by another - Availability of data archives or libraries for the storage and distribution of data for secondary analysis 7 – Quantitative Research: Focus on Experimental Designs in Research Readings: - Babbie, Edgerton & Roberts Chapter 7 “Experiments” pp. 174-197 - Babbie, Edgerton & Roberts Chapter 12 “Evaluation Research” pp. 325-329 on ‘quasi- experimental designs’ Experiments in Social Science Research - An experiment examines the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable. The independent variable takes the form of an experimental stimulus, that is either present (experimental group) or absent (control group). The independent variable (stimulus) is normally dichotomous: has two attributes – presence or absence - Features of the controlled experiment in natural and social sciences: o Identification and clear conceptualization and operationalization* of dependent variable and limited number of independent variables o Pre-test and post-test observations of the dependent variable o Experimental and control groups (=variability in the independent variable hypothesized to influence dependent variable) o The experimental design is always EXPLANATORY in its purpose* Classical Experiments in Social Science Research - Pre-testing and post-testing: o Pre-testing on dependent variable occurs first o Exposure to a stimulus (independent variable) o Post-testing = re-measurement on the dependent variable - Differences between the first and last dependent variable measure are attributed to the effect of the stimulus (independent variable) - Problems with this assumption? o Validity: are changes in dependent variable truly the effect of the stimulus (independent variable)? Experiments in Social Science Research - Pre-testing and post-testing – with a control group design: o Pre-testing on dependent variable occurs first o Assign study participants to experimental or control group o Exposure of experimental group (but not the control group) to a stimulus (independent variable) o Post-testing = re-measurement on the dependent variable o Compare differences between experimental and control group post-test results - Differences between the two groups’ post-test scores on the dependent variable is attributed to the effect of the stimulus (independent variable) - What additional information do we have using the control group design? o Validity: how have we improved our confidence that changes in the dependent variable truly reflect the effect of the stimulus (independent variable)  - Using a control group allows the researcher to detect any effects of the experiment itself. If the post-test shows that the overall level of the dependent variable (i.e. prejudice) exhibited by the control group has changes as much as that of the experiment group, then one has to conclude that the reduction is due to something other than the stimulus - If, on the other hand, the dependent variable changes only in the experimental group, then one could conclude that the reduction is due to the stimulus, because that’s the only difference between the two groups - What is the Hawthorne effect? o Hawthorne effect: when people change their behaviour because they are being observed, not because of an intervention - What is ‘placebo’ in medical experiments; what is a placebo effect? o Placebo: a substance, pill, or other treatment that appears to be a medical intervention, but isn’t one o Placebo effect: when an improvement is observed, despite an individual receiving a placebo as opposed to active medical treatment - In social science experiments, control groups provide an important means to assess not only the experimental effect on a group of study participants; but also the effects of events that occur outside the controlled (laboratory) setting of the experiment, in the period between the pre- and post-test measurements of the dependent variable The Double Blind Experiment - Refers to an experimental design in which neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which is the experimental group and which is the control... -...eliminates the possibility of experimenter bias in ‘observing’ an effect of the stimulus (i.e. in drug trials) Sampling for controlled experiments * ‘subjects’ or ‘participants’ in experimental research? - Probability sampling - ? - Randomization: technique for assigning participants to experimental or control groups randomly (problematic for small sample studies)... - Matching: a procedure whereby pairs of subjects are matches on the basis of similarities on one or more variables; one member of the pair is assigned to the experimental group; one of the control group... - Overall goal of sampling is... similarity between experimental and control croups...on key variables most likely to be related to the dependent variable under study Validity issues in experimental research - Internal validity: refers to the possibility that the conclusions drawn from experiemental results may not accurately reflect what went on in the experiment itself; o The threat of internal is present whenever anything other than the experimental stimulus can affect the dependent variable: * History * Maturation (or sample change) * Testing/re-testing  * Instrumentation or the application of instruments by different people * Selection bias (experimental v control group) * Experimental morality * Demoralization (i.e. in control group) - External invalidity: refers to the possibility that the conclusions drawn from the experimental results may not be generalizable to the ‘real’ world o Relates to the generalizability of findings from the controlled experiment to the ‘real world’: * When there is interaction between the testing situation and the experimental stimulus (i.e. sensitization to the issue of interest as a result of the pre-test) ▪ Use of the Soloman 4-group design as a means to discern an effect of pre-testing on outcomes in both experimental and control groups Soloman 4-group design Group A Pre-test stimulus Post-test Group B Pre-test No stimulus Post-test Group C No pre-test stimulus Post-test Group D No pre-test No stimulus Post-test ------------------------- time ---------------------------------- Variations on the experimental design: quasi-experiments ‘field’ experiments - Web-based experiments Natural experiments... - Quasi-experimental designs: o Are distinguished from truw experimental desgns in their lack of rigour ▪ Lack of random assignment to experimental or control group ▪ Lacking pre-tests or control groups - But...are important in sociological research, particularly in evaluation research... - Time series designs (i.e. study of traffic accident rates before and after lowering the speed limit (using non-equivalent control groups))..p. 325 - Multiple time series designs... involves using more than one set of data that were collected over time... i.e. accident rates in several cities...so comparisons can be made...(p. 328) Ethics and the experimental design - Usual requirement to avoid deception: o Is the deception essential to the experiment?; o Does the value of what may be learned from the experiment justify the ethical violation? o Consideration of potential harm to participants determined by the context of the experiment... ie: Stanford Prison experiments (Zimbardo); Milgram’s study of human obedience Experimental design: strengths and limitations - Chief advantages: o Isolation of experimental variable’s impact over time...  o Replicable... - Chief disadvantages: - Artificiality of laboratory setting* 8 - Ways of Knowing: Qualitative Interviewing (‘grounded theory’ methodology) Readings: - Babbie, Edgerton & Roberts Chapter 10 – on grounded theory (pp. 277-278), Chapter 13, pp. 345- 346); Chapter 11 – on qualitative interviewing pp. 294-300. - Shaburdin, Z.M., Bourke, L., Mitchell, O., Newman, T. (2022). ‘It’s a cultural thing’: excuses used by health professionals on providing inclusive care. Health Sociology Review 31(1): 1-15. (qualitative interview) Recap: quantitative research design - Quantification involes converting qualitative observations into quantitative form...for the purposes of exploring or describing social phenomenon; or to test deductively (or explain) theories about the cause of social patterns, regularities - Quantification allows/enables the “count” of a phenomenon...and by counting, the assessment of correlations among co-occurring phenomenon.. To begin to theorize and explain their co- occurrence... - Statistical association = allows us to infer a relationship between co-occurring variables, to infer cause and effect What is qualitative research? - Qualitative research involves the study of things in their natural (social) settings*, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomenon in terms of the meanings people bring to them When are qualitative methods appropriate? - Qualitative methods are appropriate when the phenomenon of interest involves understanding experiences, meaning, emotions, motivations and other subjective aspects of the everyday lives of individuals and groups; - Qualitative methods are used to enrich or expand what (we think) we know and (how we) understand; o Shaburdin, Z.M., Bourke, L., Mitchell, O., Newman, T. (2022). ‘It’s a cultural thing’: excuses used by health professionals on providing inclusive care. Health Sociology Review 31(1): 1- 15. (qualitative interview) o Akalin, N., (2024). Immigrant-blind care: how immigrants experience the “inclusive” health system as they access care. Social Science & Medicine 348: 1-9. (ethnography) Why use a qualitative approach? - Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials— case study, personal experience, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts—that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals’ lives (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994)  - These methods provide a means of accessing unquantifiable aspects of the lives of people researchers observe and talk to, or people represented by their personal traces (letters, photographs, newspaper accounts, diaries, etc.) - To describe a phenomenon in terms of its meaning for a group or an individual; - To develop theory to interpret and explain or analyze the relationship between relevant phenomenon described in an interview or in text or observed ‘in situ’... - To envision or produce social change... Knowledge development based on qualitative methodologies - Qualitative researchers assume inductive approaches to knowledge development: o Inductive reasoning involves moving from a set of particular observations (or representations conveyed by an informant) to the discovery of a pattern that represents some degree of order among all the given events/observations. In the inductive method, research is conducted and data (interview transcripts, observations) analyzed in order to produce/extract theory The interpretivist paradigm - Interpretivist paradigm: also known as interactivist, constructivist, naturalistic, or ethnographic paradigm – a standpoint or a belief that knowledge is obtained by participating subjectively in a world of meanings created by individuals. What exists in the social world is not objective and ‘out there to be discovered’, but is what people perceive to exist - Assumption that...knowledge is constructed through interaction and context and within specific histories/spaces/places; that all our experiences are subjective; - Centrality of the researchers’ values in driving research and in obtaining particular perspectives on social phenomenon; that, therefore, what is known may be partial, relative, relational; and value-laden - Thus taking various perspectives on a phenomenon i.e. prejudice, suffering, ‘everyday racism’ or micro-aggressions – will reveal its complexity... Symbolic Interactionism and Grounded Theory - SI represents a standpoint about how to know the social world (it is a strand within the interpretivist paradigm) - SIs take the perspective that for an individual, meanings are continually created, recreated and modified in interaction with other individuals (negotiated), -- and assumed that human behaviour cannot be understood outside the meanings given in particular moments and circumstances... - Individuals' meanings are formed by their shared (cultural) understanding of social roles and relationships with others...but those roles are continually being modified in different settings, so human behaviour is never predictable... (prioritizes human subjectivity) Qualitative methodologies - A variety of qualitative methodologies have their own philosophical and theoretical underpinnings, and distinctive and shared research methods. Common approaches include: o Grounded theory ▪ A specific qualitative methodology that is rooted in symbolic interactionism...a standpoint about how to apprehend (‘see’ and ‘know’) human subjectivity  o Phenomenology/ethnomethodology o Ethnography (naturalism)/institutional ethnography o Participatory action research/FAR Grounded Theory - Refers to a research methodology involving the attempt to derive/elaborate theory that explains underlying social processes, based on the analysis of the patterns, themes, and common categories discovered in observational data (Glaser and Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory, 1967) - Grounded theory studies include small aggregations of people (i.e. hc providers/worker groups, patient groups) - A central feature of this methodology is a ‘general method of constant comparative analysis’ of (or about) interactions among social actors, and a researcher’s emerging account or theory explaining them... - Sources of data may include interviews (individuals may tell about their interactions with others; and within settings), observations, document analysis, video tapes, newspapers, letters, books - Analysis of qualitative data is an interpretative practice...must include voices and perspectives of those being studied... but additionally, grounded theorists make explicit their interest in and responsibility of relating what they observe (of theorizing or explaining why things occur as they observed them) to some specific setting (context) - Grounded theory qualitative methodology – to enrich or expand what (we think) we know and (how) we understand it; o Eg: Shaburdin, Z.M., Bourke, L., Mitchell, O., Newman, T. (2022). ‘It’s a cultural thing’: excuses used by health professionals on providing inclusive care. Health Sociology Review 31(1): 1-15. (qualitative interview) 9 – Ways of Knowing: Ethnography (observing) Readings: - Babbie, Edgerton & Roberts Chapter 10 – on ethnography (pp. 267); the various roles of the observer (pp. 270-273); ‘preparing for the field’ (pp. 283-287); Chapter 11 – on focus groups pp. 300-306. Ways of Knowing: Interpretive Ethnography - Originated in anthropology, with an aim to understand people’s practices in life by describing the patterns of meaning (culture) that inform their actions, so as to render them accessible and ‘logical’ - ‘Interpretive’ ethnography focuses on the culture of a group, the webs and patterns of meaning that make up a culture and that guide and make sense of people’s actions - Ethnography is a specific qualitative methodology or research practice – where subjective experience (meanings/emotions/actions0 is of interest – but explained by reference to the socio- cultural context in which that experience takes place - Methods of data collection: observation and field notes, interviews, use of records, archival analysis, interviewing (*quantitative data may be integrated), etc...  - Focus on large groups and populations/whole culture; or smaller cultural settings/sub-groups... - The researcher observes what people do (cultural behaviour, practice), what people say and know (cultural knowledge) and the things people use and make (cultural artifacts) - Ethnographic writers...provide rich, “thick”, detailed, accurate descriptions of social life,...through researcher’s observations of the social context of interest*... - Ideally, analysis moves beyond description to reveal or explain particular aspects of social patterns (or observed conduct), especially as it emerges as distinctive from the dominant (or researcher’s own) cultural understandings/knowledge/behaviour and practice - As a method, ethnography reflects an approach that has evolved from “learning about” people to “learning from” people using major data collection method of observation - Traditionally, the researcher’s role was to report a study population’s perspectives on a specific social world, describing/assuming the accuracy of the ‘informants’ views... = “naturalism” - Traditionally, in ethnography, the presence of the researcher, and her/his/their impact on a group’s experience of being observed...was not problematized... - Ethnography as a method has evolved to include the critical evaluation of cultural practices, social structures that could be otherwise, and with awareness of the potential impacts of observation... (Hawthorne effect) Ethnographic field research: situated in the interpretive and critical paradigms - Interactive/interpretive paradigm: a standpoint or belied that knowledge is obtained by participating subjectively in a world of meanings created by individuals o What exists in the social world is not objective and ‘out there to be discovered’, but is what people perceive to exists - Critical paradigm: Researcher belief that what is real is more that just what is experienced or perceived; that what we experience in the social world does not necessarily reveal the mechanisms that influence that experience or perception... o Hence researchers aim to theorize, examine, expose the power relations that give rise to social arrangements that may be assumed to be real, just, unalterable, acceptable, “natural” - ‘critical ethnography’, ‘IE’ Ethnography – key strengths - Provides comprehensive perspective on social phenomenon - Especially appropriate to the study of phenomenon (behaviours, interactions) best understood in the setting in which they occur – and to observe and experience the setting - Appropriate for studying social processes over time... 10 - Critical/Mixed Methods: Institutional Ethnography Readings: - Babbie, Edgerton & Roberts Chapter 10 on institutional ethnography pp. 279-281 - Kilgore S. & Meade S. (2004). “Look what boot camp’s done for me.” Teaching and Learning at Lakeview Academy. The Journal of Correctional Education 55(2), 170-185. (institutional ethnography) The critical paradigm: - A belief or standpoint in which it is acknowledged that what is real is more than just what is experienced or perceived (not necessarily discernible through interactivist empirical research); that what we experience in the social world does not necessarily reveal the mechanisms that influence that experience or perception..* - Acknowledges that researchers who abandon their objectivity in favour of adopting participants’ subjective viewpoints – may lose the possibility of seeing and understanding the phenomenon within frames of reference unavailable to those ‘others’... - Focus on the frames of reference that produce particular beliefs/perceptions/experiences... Strategies for Qualitative Research: Institutional Ethnography - Developed by feminist-sociological Dorothy Smith (1978), this is an approach for discovering the power relations that shape individuals’ or groups’ experiences - Like other forms of ethnography, institutional ethnography relies on interviewing, observation and documents as data. As distinct from other ethnographic approaches, institutional ethnography treats those data not as the topic or object of interest, but as “entry” into the social relations of the setting - That is, starting with descriptions and interpretations of participants’ experiences, the focus is averted from those experiences themselves, to an attempt to discover/uncover the institutional power relations that structure and govern those experiences - Institutional ethnographers...examine how subjectivity/experience is produced/emerges from particular social-structural arrangements...* - In this process, the researcher can discern aspects of society that would have been missed by an inquiry that began with the official purposes of institutions – or if the sole focus was on participants’ descriptions of their experiences - The approach links micro-experiential with macro-institutional...