APSC 151 Earth Systems and Engineering Exam Review Package PDF

APSC 151: Earth Systems and Engineering Exam Review Package Lectures 2 Lecture 2: The Earth System 2 Lecture 3: Tectonics 3 Lecture 4: Minerals...

APSC 151: Earth Systems and Engineering Exam Review Package Lectures 2 Lecture 2: The Earth System 2 Lecture 3: Tectonics 3 Lecture 4: Minerals 4 Lecture 5: Igneous Rock 6 Lecture 6: Volcanoes 8 Lecture 7: Erosion, Weathering and Soil 8 Lecture 8a: Surface Water and Flood Engineering 10 Lecture 8b: Coastal Science and Engineering 11 Lecture 9: Sedimentary Rock 11 Lecture 10: Metamorphic Rock 14 Lecture 11: Glaciation and Ice Ages 15 Lecture 12: Earth Structures 17 Lecture 13: Engineering Properties 18 Lecture 14: Slope Stability 19 Lecture 15: Mass Wasting Slope Failure 20 Lecture 16: Earthquake Hazard 20 Lecture 18: Mineral OreBodies 21 Lecture 19: Mining 23 Lecture 20: GeoPhysics 24 Lecture 21: Groundwater 24 Lecture 22: Groundwater Contamination 25 Lecture 23: Geotechnical Engineering 27 Lecture 24: Tunnelling and Rock Engineering 29 Lecture 25: Remembrance and Vimy Ridge 29 Lecture 26: Fossil Fuels 30 Lecture 27: Nuclear Energy 31 Lecture 28: Alternative Energy 32 Lecture 29: History of Life 34 Lecture 30: Evolution of the Cell 38 Lecture 31: Climate Change 40 Lecture 32: Geology of the Solar System and Beyond 42 Chapters 45 Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geology and Plate Tectonics 45 Chapter 2: Minerals - The Building Blocks of Rocks 45 Chapter 3: Igneous Rocks 45 Chapter 5: Volcanoes - risk and reward 45 Equations 45 Past Weekly Quizzes 46 Week 1 47 Week 2 47 Week 3 47 Week 4 47 Week 5 47 Week 6 47 Week 7 48 Week 8 54 Week 9 55 Week 10 64 Week 11 67 Week 12 68 Other Exam Resources 71 Sample Final Exam Questions 72 2011 Diederichs Exam 82 2017 Midterm 83 Second Half Review 86 // Hey frosh if youre reading this you found my geo notes, slightly less lame // Shoutout to Sci ‘21 for making this possible and mark diederichs for being the dad we need explosive (pretty much everything else) o Cinder Cone: Small, lame (just ash spewed out) Materials: o Mafic fluid go further flow smoothly o Felsic Short Thick (greater silica content) Explosive eruptions o Gas can provide force or create an eruption column o Basaltic Aa Pahoehoe (Important) o Materials ejected: Pyroclastics Bombs: semi-molten Blocks: lumps of solid Ash Nueé ardente (causes most deaths) o Lahars: mudflows Benefits: Ore, geothermal energy, good farming, human sacrifice ^^ Lecture 7: Erosion, Weathering and Soil Weathering: Breakdown of rock on the Earth’s surface · Mechanical Weathering: Breaking of rocks into smaller pieces by physical forces o Frost Wedging: Water in rocks freezes then expands, breaks rocks. Creates talus slopes (large piles of rocks) o Unloading: Exfoliation domes can have sheeting occur, caused by temperature cycling o Biologic Activity: Disintegration caused by plants (roots), animals, people, lichen and mosses · Chemical Weathering: Chemical transformation of rocks into new compounds o Breaks down internal structures o Dissolution: Soluble ions released from rock o Oxidation: Elements losing electrons o Hydrolysis: Hydrogen ion replaces other cations, collapsing crystal structure · Rates of Weathering o Calcite and Halite (NaCl) dissolve readily o Silicates are fairly resistant o Formed at higher temperature: Less resistant to weathering o Weathers faster with greater surface area · Differential weathering: Masses not weathering uniformly Mass Wasting: Transfer of rock and soil down a slope Erosion: Physical removal of material by water, ice or wind Controls of soil formation · Parent Material (rock type) · Time · Climate · Drainage · Plants and Animals · Topography Soil profile · O horizon: Loose, partly decayed organic matter · A horizon: Mineral matter mixed with some humus · E horizon: Light coloured mineral particles. Elucidation and leaching zone · B horizon: Accumulation of clay from above · C horizon: Partially altered parent material · Unweathered parent material Soil Types · Pedalfer o Accumulation of oxides and clays/ Aluminum-Iron acc o Organic-rich o Formed under forests in humid, temperate climates · Pedocal o Accumulation of calcium carbonate o Temperate grasslands o Low clay · Laterite o Hot and wet climate o Intense chemical weathering and leaching o Concentrated iron and aluminum (red coloured) Soil Erosion · Rain · Wind · Gravity · Sheet Erosion: surface water · Sediment load: in rivers · Glaciation Engineering Soils · Organic Soil (Humus) · Clay o 2 mm o Rough or rounded o Used as an aggregate o Also appears as filler Lecture 8a: Surface Water and Flood Engineering Hydrologic Cycle: Precipitation, Evaporation, Infiltration, Runoff, Transpiration Runoff · Sheet flow: Flowing all at once · Infiltration: Seeping into the ground, being absorbed, controlled by: o Intensity of rainfall o Prior soil wetness o Nature of vegetation o Soil texture o Slope Stream Flow · Laminar Flow (Slow, Smooth) · Turbulent Flow (Fast, Rough) Transport of Sediment · Dissolved Load: Ions dissolved in water · Suspended load: largest part of load, visible cloud of sediment carried floating in water · Bedload: Larger particles pushed along streambed, by rolling, sliding, or saltation (leaping) Streams erode to become meandering streams (floodplains) Deposits of sediments create deltas and alluvial fans Floods occur when more water comes in than flows out Gradient and Channel Characteristics · Gradient (slope): steeper=more energy (S) · Channel shape & size (R) · Roughness affects drag/friction (n) · Discharge velocity (V) Methods of flood control · Artificial levees · Flood-control dams · Channelization · Floodplain management Lecture 8b: Coastal Science and Engineering Waves · Derive energy from the wind · Transfer energy to shorelines · Wave Height: Distance from trough to crest · Wavelength: Distance between crests · Wave Base: Circular motion diminishes at depth · Surf: Turbulent water created by breaking waves Tides: Caused by inertial force and the moon’s gravity Flood current: Incoming tide Ebb current: Outgoing tide Tidal flats: Areas affected by the currents Beach Drift: Waves moving beach in a zigzag pattern Estuaries: Inlets of the sea formed at the mouth of streams Lecture 9: Sedimentary Rock Form from precipitation, sedimentation and accumulation of weathered rock material 5% of Earth’s outer 16 km Contain evidence of past environments, life, sediment transport May contain fossil fuels and useful metals, in non-solid form if porous Diagenesis · Chemical, Physical and Biological changes that occur after deposit but before metamorphism · Within a few km of surface, usually at less than 200 degrees Celsius · Recrystallization: Development of more stable minerals from less stable ones · Lithification: Sediments transformed into solid sedimentary rock by compaction and cementation Natural cements: calcite, silica, iron oxide Sedimentary Environments: · Continental (deposited by:) o Rivers and streams o Glacial o Wind · Transitional (shoreline) o Tidal Flats o Beaches o Lagoons o Deltas · Marine: Shallow, to 200m · Deep: Deeper than 200m Sedimentary facies: Different types of sediment next to one another, each unit has characteristics for a particular environment Types of Sedimentary Rocks · Detrital (clastic): Sediment transported as solid particles o Conglomerate (coarse) § Gravel sized particles § Large rounded particles § Breccia if angular particles § Indicates steep slopes or turbulent current o Sandstone (fine) § Cemented sand-sized particles § 20% of sedimentary rocks § Transported by wind, water § Quartz is dominant material § Types: · Quartz sandstone · Arkose (w/ feldspar) · Wacke (mixture with fragments) o Siltstone o Mudstone (extremely fine) o Shale § Clay-silt sized particles § Gradually settled § Shale is fissile, siltstone is not § Most common type o Main constituents § Clay minerals § Quartz § Feldspars § Micas § Carbonates · Chemical: Sediment that was in solution o Inorganic or organic (biochemical) process o Limestone § Most abundant § Mainly calcite § Organic limestones · Coral reefs · Broken shells · Chalk § Inorganic limestones · Travertine (caves) · Oolitic (spherical grains) o Dolostone § Some Mg replace Ca in limestone o Chert § Tiny crystalline silica § Flint, jasper § Occurs as nodules and tabular layers § Found in banded iron formations o Evaporite § Rock salt § Rock gypsum § Potash § Salt Flats: dissolved material precipitated as white crust · Organic: From carbon-rich tissues o Coal § Peat: Decomposed plant remains § Lignite: Soft, brown coal § Bituminous Coal: harder, blacker § Anthracite: Very hard, very shiny Sedimentary Structures · Strata/Beds: Layers · Bedding Planes: Flat surfaces that separate strata · Cross-bedding: Inclined layers · Mud Cracks: Shrinkage from air exposure · Ripple Marks: Waves of sand formed by moving water Fossils · Remains of past life · Body Fossils · Trace Fossils · Types of Preservation o Recrystallization: Calcite in shells recrystallizes o Petrification/Replacement: Addition or substitution of materials Mould: Internal and external impressions Lecture 10: Metamorphic Rock Metamorphism: Changes in solid rock due to exposure to very different temperature and/or pressure, generally higher of both Parent rock: Can be any type of rock, is what will transform into the new rock Controlling factors · Composition of parent rock o Texture/specific mineral makeup o Fluid migration can change composition Metamorphic agents · Heat: Most important, causes chemical reactions and recrystallization · Chemically active fluids: Mainly water with volatiles, can act as catalysts · Pressure o At depth, rocks are ductile, minerals can elongate, and folds can form o Uniform confining pressure creates density o Directed pressure causes distortion o Foliation § Caused by directed pressure § A preferred orientation of platy minerals in the rock § Influenced by rotation of grains, change in shape of grains and re-crystallization of minerals to align with the new direction § Most visible as micas Crystal deformation: Under directed pressure, atoms can slowly move within a solid to shorten it in one direction Crystal Shear deformation: atomic lattice is displaced, permanent change Contact Metamorphism: Occurs when rocks make direct contact with magma (igneous bodies) Regional Metamorphism · Most metamorphic rocks · Associated with building mountains (subduction zones) · Shale o Becomes slate (flat, slaty cleavage, very fine-grained) o Becomes phyllite (glossy, wavy cleavage, fine crystals) o Becomes schist (medium/coarse-grained, schistous texture, mostly platy minerals) o Becomes gneiss (medium/coarse-grained, banded appearance, light bands and dark ones) · Basalt o Greenschist (low grade, foliation but less than slate, green, contains chlorite) o Amphibolite (higher grade, chlorite becomes amphibole, less distinct foliation) o Granulite (High grade, amphiboles become pyroxene and garnets) Metamorphic Grade: How much it has been metamorphosed Other metamorphic rocks · Quartzite: from sandstone · Marble: from limestone/dolostone Migmatite · Upper limit of regional metamorphism · nearing igneous conditions · lighter colours (silicates) melt · darker ones remain solid Subduction Zone Metamorphism · high pressure, low temperature · blueschist forms (blue amphibole) · higher grade is called eclogite - Oldest rock on Earth (Amphibolite) 4.28 Byo Lecture 11: Glaciation and Ice Ages Glacier: Thick mass of ice originating on land (snow compacts) Ice sheets/caps · called continental ice sheets · currently: Greenland and Antarctica Formation of glacial ice · snowflakes · granular snow (air is forced out) · firn (recrystallized) · glacial ice (fused into a solid mass) Movement of a glacier (flow) · Internal deformation (ice is plastic under pressure) · Basal slip (entire mass moves along the ground) · Meltwater (lifts ice over rocks) · Soft bed deformation (water saturated sediment deforms underneath) · Zone of fracture (upper 50 m, crevasses form in brittle ice) · Often m/day · Surges: rapid glacial movement Budget of a glacier: balance between accumulation and loss Zones: Accumulation (gain) and ablation (loss), divided by equilibrium line Calving: Large pieces of ice breaking off into water Plucking: lifting and moving large rocks (erratics) Abrasion: rocks acting like sandpaper, creates rock flour and striations Landforms created by glacial erosion · Glacial trough: large, U-shaped valley · Hanging valleys: former tributaries · Cirque: head of glacier · Tarn: lake in a cirque · Arete: sharp ridge · Horn: Pyramidal mountain · Spur: triangular cliff · Roches moutonées: asymmetrical knobs with one steep side, show direction of movement · Fjord: Water filled glacial trough Glacial drift: all sediments of glacial origin · Till: material deposited directly by glacial ice · Stratified drift: sediments from meltwater Landforms made of till · Moraines o Lateral: ridges alongside glaciers o Medials: form when two glaciers merge o End: marks limit of advance o Ground: spread under ice · Eskers o Ridge o Mostly sand and gravel o Formed near the end of a glacier · Drumlins o Teardrop shaped o Composed mostly of till, some sand and gravel o Found in drumlin fields 2% of the world’s water is in glaciers 80% of the world’s ice 2/3 of the freshwater If melted, sea level rises 60-70m Last ice age was 20000 years ago, sea level was up to 100m lower Causes of Ice Age · Variations in orbit over 100,000 years · Angle of axis changes · Axis wobbles Lecture 12: Earth Structures Deformations: All changes in form/size of a rock body, occurs near plate margins Force: Puts stationary objects in motion/changes motion of moving bodies Stress: Force/Area (a form of pressure) ΔL Strain: changes in shape/size of a rock caused by stress ( ) L Types of Stress · Differential: applied unequally from different directions · Compressional: shortens rock · Tensional: elongates rock · Shear: changes shape of rock Deformation · Elastic: recoverable deformations · Brittle fracture: breaks into pieces (low temp/pressure, near surface) · Ductile: permanent deformation without breaking (high temp/pressure, deep) Small stress over geological time causes large changes Geologic structures · Folds: The rock folds (like a wave), shorter and thicker crust o Limbs: two sides of a fold o Axis: crest of the fold o Plunge: inclined axis o Axial plane: divides fold in most symmetrical manner o Anticline: up-warped rock layers o Syncline: down-warped layers o Domes and Basins: 3D anti/syncline o Can occur through shear/bending · Faults: the rock slides o Strike-slip: the two sides pass each other (parallel to strike) o Dip slip: normal goes down, reverse (thrust) goes up o Hanging wall moves, footwall doesn’t o Graben: central block drops between plates (normal faults) o Horst: Raised blocks between grabens · Joints o the rock shrinks o leaves gaps o chemical weathering concentrates in joints o often creates unstable rocks o minerals build up in joints o formed by cooling, exfoliation · Mapping structures o Dip: steepest angle/inclination to plane o Dip direction: Bearing/Azimuth of the plane o Strike: Azimuth perpendicular to dip Lecture 13: Engineering Properties Physical Properties · Mechanical o Stiffness: Stress/strain relationship before yield (related to Young’s Elastic Modulus) o Density § Kg/m3 § Specific Gravity (S.G.): Water is 1 (density/1000). The ratio of the density of a sample to the ρsample density of water. SG= ρwater o Strength: Stress level when failure/yield occurs o Ductility: Stress/strain relationship after yield o Toughness · Hydraulic o Porosity: Volume of void space/total volume o Permeability: Ability of fluid to flow through a porous solid (can have a value that’s equivalent to hydraulic conductivity) · Magnetism · Conductivity · Etc. Examples · Gold o Conductive o Malleable o Non-corrosive (inert) o Melts at 1000 C o Heavy · Quartz o Insulator o Piezoelectric o Reliable Harmonic Oscillation o Stiff and strong o Melts at 700 C o Low density for a mineral Stress: Strain: Elastic Stiffness: Young’s Modulus: Cohesion and friction: (maximum resistant) Shear stress= Normal stress*friction coefficient + cohesion () τ =μ σ +c Lecture 14: Slope Stability For 2D sections, assume blocks are 1 m thick Factor of Safety = Resisting Forces/Driving Forces Mitigating Landslides · Removal of water o Lower water pressure o Increased normal strength o Greater Shear Strength · Movement of material · Restraints · Protection Risk: Consider Likelihood and Impact. It is define as the product of the two. Lecture 15: Mass Wasting Slope Failure Mass wasting: Gravity making rocks and soil slide down Gravity is the controlling force Other factors · Saturation with water o Pressure reduces frictional resistance (not coefficient) o Interaction reduces particle cohesion o Adds weight · Oversteepened slopes o Stable slope varies between 25-40 degrees · Loss of anchoring vegetations · Earthquakes · Liquefaction Different processes · Type of motion o Fall: Forms talus slopes § Rockfalls are common § Extremely rapid § Undercutting, chem. Weathering, earthquakes, frost wedging can trigger § Preventable with draped mesh, catch fences § Protection sheds can mitigate consequences o Slide: Slides as a coherent mass § Rockslides are fast, destructive § Triggered by earthquakes, rain, snowmelt § Slump: rotational slide, settles out o Flow: Viscously deforms § Lahars: Debris flow from volcano § Earthflow: slow, viscous movement · Type of material (debris, mud, earth, rock) · Rate of movement (fast, slow) Underwater landslides cause tsunamis Lecture 16: Earthquake Hazard Earthquake: vibration of earth, from focus (point of energy release), generates seismic waves, occurs along faults Aftershocks: series of smaller earthquakes after a big one Foreshocks: small earthquakes preceding a major one S-waves – travel earth's surface Body WAVES – travel through earth's interior (P, S) Tsunami: fault movement displaces sea floor, creates a wave of displaced water Seismology: study of earthquake waves Seismographs: records seismic waves Epicenter – location on surface of the earth above the focus Mass wasting: Gravity making rocks and soil slide down Gravity is the controlling force Other factors · Saturation with water o Pressure reduces frictional resistance (not coefficient) o Interaction reduces particle cohesion o Adds weight · Oversteepened slopes o Stable slope varies between 25-40 degrees · Loss of anchoring vegetations · Earthquakes · Liquefaction Lecture 18: Mineral OreBodies Non-metallic resources: Natural Aggregate o Extracted from glacial outwash o Used for Concrete/Asphalt Stone o Used for facings, walkways, countertops Industrial Materials o Clay o Carbonate Materials o Evaporite Salts (Sask. And N.B.) o Phosphate o Sulphur (from fossil fuels)  o Talc, graphite, etc. Diamonds Types of Metal Mine: Open Pit Underground Ore: Metallic minerals that can be mined at a profit Methods to find ore deposits: Geophysics Drilling o Typically done after geophysics o Provides ‘cores’ as samples to be analyzed for ore o Lots of core (75-150 km just in the first stage, feasibility) Geochemistry (indicator materials and using elemental isotopes) 3D Geological modelling over time Luck (Oh look! A large pile of gold!) Mineral Deposits: An abnormal concentration of minerals in the Earth’s crust Resource: elements, compounds, minerals or rocks concentrated enough to be useful Economic factors (price of metal) Concentration factors Reserve: Confirmed resource that can be extracted for profit Metallic Mineral Deposits Magmatic Deposits o Gravitational Settling: Heavy minerals crystallize sooner, settle at the bottom o Ni-Cu Sulphide deposits Ni is the main commodity Cu, PGE and Co are by-products Other commodities: Ag, Au, S, Se, Te Porphyry o Copper Porphyry o Cyclical Magmatic Intrusion Chromite o Cooling of Igneous intrusive bodies (Dykes, Sills) o Great Dyke, Zimbabwe Hydrothermal Deposits o Groundwater dissolves metals in the presence of salts o Vein/Load Deposits: hydrothermal fluids follow fractures, become ore bodies when cool o Disseminated deposits: Distributed throughout the rock body o Black Smokers: Seawater from seafloor precipitating sulphide deposits o Narrow Vein deposit: Precipitation of ore in veins by fluids (see vein deposits) Impact Deposits (astrobleme) o Sudbury o Meteorite impact, melted and cracked the crust o Meteorite also melted/broke Placer Deposits (think of gold in rivers during gold rush) o Ore eroded which concentrates elsewhere o Transport Mass Wasting Rivers Undersea Flows Lecture 19: Mining Canada mines a lot · Gold, Iron, Copper and Nickel are 4 biggest for economy Gold Extraction · Mining · Crushing · Transport · Grinding and Sizing · Leaching and adsorption · Elution and Electrowiring · Bullion Production · Water treatment · Tailings disposal Smelting: Extracting metals from mineral ore Open pit mines can require lots of waste removed Weak rock can be excavated, strong rock must be blasted (blasting should minimize movement. It’s only meant for breaking up the strong rock) Underground Mining Methods · Longwall Mining: Mining along a wall · Room and Pillar: Mine everything except support pillars (and maybe them later too) · Open stope narrow vein: Just mine the vein · Cut and fill: Fill what’s removed with material (eg: sand) · Crater blasting · Block caving: Cause the rock to collapse itself in a controlled manner Maybe mine asteroids (Why not Mars man?) Lecture 20: GeoPhysics Auger Drilling - Soil or unconsolidated Materials (find depth of bedrock, find clay & sediments; brings soil up) Rotary or Percussion Drilling - Drill through soil or rock, grinding material to sand (made of tungsten carbide) Coring Rock - Core drilling, using a cooling bit impregnated by diamonds Geophysical Exploration and Investigation - Geophysical response of earth materials is a function of solid, liquid and air phases within the medium Geophysical Properties (looking for contrasts) - Density - Gravity and seismic methods - Conductivity, resistivity, radar - Electrical and electromagnetic - Magnetics - Magnetic methods - Some contrasts are in the rock or soil, others related to water content Density: Gravity methods - Measure variations in earth's gravitational pull related to near-surface changes in rock density - Can detect large features such as intermountain basin fills or buried glacial valleys - Readings are corrected for latitude and elevation Geoid: The mathematical Earth - The geoid is the shape that the surface of the oceans would take under the influence of earth’s gravity and rotation alone, in the absence of other influences such as winds and tides Lecture 21: Groundwater Importance of Underground water - Groundwater is water found in the pores of soil and sediment, plus narrow fractures in bedrock - Groundwater largest reservoir of freshwater that is readily available to humans - Groundwater in sediments or fractured rock - Water exists in any available spaces - Concept of water table - “Surface” where groundwater is at zero pressure - Distribution of Underground water - Zone of aeration - Area above the water table, water cannot be pumped by the wells - Zone of saturation - Open spaces in sediment and rock are completely filled with water - Water within this zone is called groundwater Groundwater Movement - Groundwater velocity varies greatly from 250 m/day in extremely permeable materials to < few cm/year in “impermeable” material - Gravity is the driving force for downward movement of groundwater Perched Water table - May form where a local aquitard is present within an aquifer Springs - Occur where the water table intersects earth’s surface - Natural outflow of groundwater - Perched water table  - Hot springs and geysers - Geysers - Intermittent hot springs - Water erupts with force - Occur where chambers exist in hot igneous rock - Groundwater heats, expands, changes to steam and erupts - Hot springs - The water is heated at a depth where earth’s temperature is higher or by cooling of igneous rock - Geologic work of groundwater - Erosional agent that dissolves rock, especially limestone creating sinkholes and caverns - Caves started out as small connections of fractures - Karst: Solution cavities Factors influencing the storage and movement of groundwater - Porosity - % of total volume of rock or sediment that consists of pore spaces - How much groundwater can be stored - Permeability - The ability of a material to transmit a fluid - Aquitard - An impermeable layer that hinders or prevents water movement - Aquifer - Permeable rock strata or sediment that transmits groundwater freely - Multiple aquifers are separated by aquitards - Aqui(tards/fers) are independent of one another Lecture 22: Groundwater Contamination Sources - Highway Salt - Fertilizers - Organics and Bacteria - Pesticides  - Leachate (garbage juice) - Heavy metals - Acid drainage Biological Contamination - A septic system slowly releases sewage into the zone of aeration; oxidation, bacterial degradation and filtering by sediments usually remove all natural impurities before they reach the water table - If the rocks are very permeable, or if the water table is too close to the septic system, contamination of the groundwater can result Farming Contamination: Cattle - E.coli - Drugs - Nitrates - Pesticides - Karst: contaminant flow pathway - Walkerton tragedy Groundwater Contamination a) Soluble contaminant b) Insoluble contaminant i) Lighter than water = LNAPL ii) Heavier than water = DNAPL Soluble Contaminants - Metals - Phenol - Acetone - Acids/caustics LNAPL’s (light and insoluble) - Benzene - Chloroethane - Vinyl chloride - Toluene - Acetone - Typical contain volatile organic carbon compounds that rise up through the soil and into buildings - “Sick building syndrome” DNAPL’s (heavy and insoluble) - Chloroform - Tetrachloroethene - Trichloroethane - Pentachlorophenol Modes of contaminant migration - Advection - Groundwater transport, contaminants “go with the flow” (Darcy's Law) - Diffusion - Movement of molecules under concentration gradient - Hydrodynamic dispersion  - “Spreading” due to complex fluid motion - Gravity - Down: DNAPL’s - Up: LNAPL’s Remediation of Subsurface Contamination - Natural Attenuation - Source disperses to a point where concentrations are below regulated limits - “The solution to pollution is dilution!” - Excavation of contaminated ground - Groundwater zone - Pump and treat - Chemical flushing - Steam flushing - Insitu destruction - Vadose zone remediation - Vapour extraction (vadose zone) Lecture 23: Geotechnical Engineering Clay - Impermeable - Foundations can be unpredictable which is not good Silt - Sensitive to frost heaving - Sensitive to variations - Permeable - Foundations are weak (i.e. leaning tower) Sand - Good foundation and drainage BUT - Sensitive to water content and density (especially in earthquakes) Gravel - Rough angular gravel - Holding stuff up: stiffness - Rounded gravel - Good drainage - Energy absorbing Soil Engineering - Soil Slopes - Landfill engineering - Earth dams and embankments - Flood prevention - Irrigation  - Hydroelectricity - Made of earth material because of seismic loading (concrete cracks) - Foundation and footings - Key to building stability and the most risky element - Retaining walls - Walls must work with the properties of the soil Deep Excavations - Tunnels in Soil - Permafrost Embankments or earth dams - Made of clay: impermeable - Blanketed by layers of sand and gravel and boulders - If foundation is permeable, clay is layered on top - Need drains and protection Dam Failure modes - Slope stability failures - Piping failure - Overtopping failure - Foundation failure Foundations - Distribute vertical and lateral loads throughout the soil compaction - Move particles together - Decrease porosity - Increase solid contact - Increase strength and stiffness - Sands and gravels Consolidation - Delayed compaction due to slow escape of power water - Vertical drains to speed water release and consolidation Bearing capacity failure - Theory of plasticity for bearing capacity - General shear - Local shear - Punching/kicking Types of foundations - Raft of floating - Friction piles - Bearing piles - Piers - Retaining walls and deep excavation - Earth pressure and retaining walls - Support material on one side of the wall Caisson wall - Large drilled hole, reinforced and concrete Diaphragm wall - Cut slot filled with reinforced concrete Sheet pile wall - Interlocking steel elements hammered into soil Tiebacks - Used with all wall types - Anchored in soil Braces - Reinforced earth - Using the soil properties to hold up the soil - Tunnels in soil - Cut and cover technique Lecture 24: Tunnelling and Rock Engineering Shallow Tunnelling - Sewers, services and subways Deep Tunnelling - Water supply, transportation, hydropower, mining, fuel and waste storage - Hydroelectricity - Power caverns - Underground water transfer Tunnel Construction can be done by: - Road header - Drill and blast - Tunnel Whoring Machine!!!!!!! ;) Lecture 25: Remembrance and Vimy Ridge Canada mines a lot · Gold, Iron, Copper and Nickel are 4 biggest for economy Sponges won the war (enemy was trying to dig up from underneath allies at a decisive moment in a battle, but hard fossilized sponges foiled their plans) What happened to remembrance :( Lecture 26: Fossil Fuels Coal Stages are Peat, Lignite, Bituminous and Anthracite  Formed from decaying plant matter in an oxygen poor environment Mining damages the environment as well as usage Convenient and beneficial to many regions Petroleum Gradual “cooking” of simple aquatic organisms in a host rock Lithification, Kerogen forms first, then carbon-carbon bonds break, create wet gas, then dry gas Will usually only be found in a “trap” since it tends to travel upwards Oil sands are an exception o Mixture of sediment, water and bitumen o Costlier, produces crude oil Oil shales contain enormous amounts of kerogen, require fracking which destroys aquitards Hydrocarbons are “cracked” into smaller hydrocarbons Pumping starts simple, then water and finally steam is injected to get maximum yield from each pump Structural Traps An underground environment that allows accumulation of oil and gas Requires a reservoir rock and a cap rock to prevent it escaping Stratigraphic Traps: Formed through changes in rock type o Pinch out: tapers off into an impermeable rock o Unconformity: reservoir truncated by erosion o Reef: Lens shaped body of porous limestone Structural Traps: Traps formed from the structural deformation of rock layers o Anticline: up-arched sedimentary layers o Fault: reservoir slides up/down to opposite an impermeable rock o Salt Domes: Domes of salt with oil and gas beside them (Diapirs) Offshore drilling keeps getting deeper, and the risks are quite high Trains carrying oil crashing can be devastating, pipeline leaks less so but are more common Environmental Effects Air pollution: Primary (directly emitted from identifiable sources) and secondary (primary undergoing chemical reactions) Oil Spills CO2 and global warming Lecture 27: Nuclear Energy Canadian reactors are CANDU (Canada Deuterium Uranium) reactors, using fission Uranium is split into smaller nuclei to produce heat USA, France and Japan have the most reactors 16% of the world’s energy (Canada supplies 15%) Only 0.7% of natural uranium is Uranium235 (the useful/fissile kind) Plutonium239 is highly fissile, much shorter half-life Canadian mines are in Saskatchewan, supply roughly 30% of the world’s uranium Pitchblende (uranium oxide) is the most common uranium ore in Canada Deposits · Surficial: Precipitated near the Earth’s surface · Volcanic: Deposits associated with fault, fracture and shear zones in acidic volcanic rocks · Intrusive: in slightly acidic igneous rocks/pegmatites Fuel: Mined from ore, refined, reacts, spent fuel is reprocessed/stored Waste Storage · Currently stored in buildings · Underground storage is being explored, but not fully implemented o Requires predictable geology o multiple natural barriers o diffusion dominated transports o Seismically quiet o Low natural resource potential o Shallow groundwater resources are isolated o Geomechanically stable · Canada’s test facility was closed, but other countries still have them Accidents · Three Mile Island: Worst in NA o March 1979 o One of two reactors broke down o Shutting off water made it worst o Half the core melted o No fatalities · Chernobyl: Occurred during a safety drill o April 1986 o Bad response to overheating o Steam explosion created massive radiation release o 31 immediate fatalities, 4000 cancer deaths · Fukushima: Caused by earthquake and tsunami o Evacuation caused 1600 deaths o Direct radiation maybe 1-2 deaths? · Nuclear is one of the safest sources of energy Lecture 28: Alternative Energy Fuel Cell: supposed to replace engines Ø Combines O2 & H2 → Hydrogen fuel cell: renewable energy sources used to split H and O, byproduct of burning is H2O Ø Takes lots of E to split H & O anyways Electric cars: provide way of getting fossil fuels out of vehicles Ø Not actual alt E source bc the E may be from fossil fuels  Ø Trains: (EU) all electric, overhead wires, allows to use any form of fuel in future to power syst (North America) diesel Challenges: O jet planes: can't be replace easily § how to replace w electric alternative? Wc need fuel to shoot out back o Cars: ppl are used to driving own Fueling the grid Ø *thermo electric Ø Hydroelectric, wind, tidal Ø Photovoltaic Renewable E sources Ø Produced & reproduced by sun or earth in useful timeframe Ø Generally inexhaustible & often associated w minimal envir degradation Ø Currently @ 8% (hydro, biomass, geothermal, solar, wind) Ø Truly renewable: inexhaustible, minimal enviro degradation, not ↑C is atmos Non-Renewable Renewable but limited Renewable & Possibly unlimited Direct geothermal Hydroelectricity Solar, wind Hydrogen Biofuel/Biomass Tidal, wave Geothermal Ø Direct geothermal using steam from the earth o Drawn faster than recharge rate of groundwater (Cali, New Zealand, Iceland, EU) o Replaced by syst pumping water into ground, letting ground heat it & letting it come back up o Potential to be efficient, must be magma chamber o Need shallow geothermal gradient o West of USA = ↑ heat closer to surface o Geotherm production: USA, Philippines, Italy, New Zealand o Lots of infrastructure necessary o Closed loop geothermal heating: replace electricity used to heat home § Diff of only a few degrees is needed, straight to house, no E Hydro-electric Ø Has impact bc need V & P (hydraulic heat) → product of drop & flow Ø Sedimentation: used to carry down to ocean, not its stop o if not controlled, reservoir to hydro places past falls o reservoir sedimentation & pollution, N in falling water o land loss to reservoir = ↓ wildlife + changes to river ecology & downstream hydrology Ø micro hydro plant < 100kW produced o takes small river, small building, maybe powers a village Ø Pump storage: giant battery that pumps water up when E cost is ↓ o Lets it flow down when cost is higher Solar E Ø 10 weeks of all sun E = replace everything Ø 13% of sun original E reaches ground surface  Ø Passive solar: simple, climate control for your house (save shit ton of E if build houses w) o Controlled mirrors used to direct light to receptacles Ø Photovoltaics: electricity produce when sunlight strikes cell → e- flow out of cell → electrical wires (*very TOXIC chem process) Ø FUTURE: nanotech (solar paint) Wind power Ø Lots in ON, involves lots of windmills where wind is ↑, elevated, constant (*mountain, sea cliff) Ø Need wind map Concerns: o Lost of infrastructure, land for roads & pads o Kills birds o Degradation of scenery o Noise, light flicker o Cost of power generation due to large capital outlay o Enormous turbines Ø Global growth is large, doesn’t run at full capacity on demand o Not always available when needed → gotta be creative in storing the E Tidal Power Ø Harder to use than expect Wave E Ø Snakes in water Biomass Ø Burning waste for power generation Ø Solves garbage problems but doesn’t make much E & bad for air Biofuel Ø Take something we would normally grow for food, priced by supply & demand }make it fuel source o Food → ethanol o Some have ↑ C emissions like fossil fuels o ↑ resource to grow (need entire world farming soy to power it) Costs Ø Relative cost: coal & waste heat recovery is cheapest, PV solar is highest Ø Operating vs Capital cost: hydro is cheapest once you have it built Lecture 29: History of Life Relative Dating Principle of original horizontality Ø layers of sediment initially horizontal Ø flat rock layers have not been disturbed Principle of cross-cutting relations Ø younger ft (dykes, faults) cut across older ft (layers) Unconformities Ø break or gap in rock record caused by erosion or nondeposition Principle of fossil succession: organisms succeed one another in a determinable order Index fossils: widespread geographically and limited to a short span of geological time Radiometric dating: useful radioactive isotopes for providing radiometric ages Ø Rb-87, Th-232, Ur-235, Ur-238, K-40, C-14 Ø Potassium-40 to Argon-40 o ½ life of 1.3 billion years BUT can be used in some rocks era > periods > epochs Ø names are based on life forms, only change is time pertaining to it Eras of the Phanerozoic eon 1. Cenozoic: recent life 2. Mesozoic: middle life 3. Paleozoic: ancient life I. Big bang 13.7 B y/a II. Sun & Solar Syst Forms 5 B y/a Ø Solar syst coalesces out of remains of dust clouds produced by earlier generations of supernovae III. Earth forms 4.6 B y/a Ø Matter congeals enough to form earth Ø Then is bombarded by various rocks from space Ø Moon forms from collisions Hadean Eon 4.6 to 4 B y/a Ø No life on earth but oceans start to form Ø 1st life (RNA) Ø Unstable crust forms, Fe and Ni pulled to core. Lighter elements to surface Ø Water forms in 1st 100-200 M years b/c out gasing & comet impacts Archaean Eon 4 to 2.5 B y/a Ø Constant volcanic activity, no continents Ø Atmos full of methane & no O2 Ø Acidic oceans & full of dissolved Fe & bacteria Ø Earliest known life 4.2 to 3.8 B Y/a o Cyano-bacteria create O2 § Oxygen first remains in ocean precipitating Fe & isn’t released into atmos till end of eon o First cell: eclosed self-replication RNA in phospholipid bilayer membrane Archaea - Ancient, diverse, abundant, ubiquitous, small size, motile - Extremophiles (“extreme-lovers”) - live in high-salt, high-temp, low-temp, or high-pressure habitats - Used as a model organism in search for extraterrestrial life-likely that first life forms lived at high temp and high anoxic environments (no oxygen) Archaea Colonies- Stromatolites - Bacteria take CO2 from water and precipitate calcite to form structure Archean Eon - Cyanobacteria create oxygen - Oxygen first remains in ocean precipitating iron - Oxygen is generated but not releases into the atmosphere until end of archean Proterozoic Eon 2500 to 550 M y/a Ø AGE OF OXYGEN Ø Cyano-bacteria continue to produce O2 & Fe precipitation is complete → O2 is in atmos Ø Build up of large continents & beginning of plate tectonics o Sudbury impact crater 2 B y/a Ø Gradual change in the atmos bc O2 & ↑ complexity of life o Earliest anaerobic life forms → aerobic life → multicellular life → complex life forms Ø 1.6 B y/a oldest rocks in Kingston Area formed Ø 1.0 – 1.2 mountain building → Grenville Orogeny, one of the largest mountain chains to exist Great Oxygenation Event Ø Early O2 absorbed in oceans & lands (iron beds) Ø 2400 M ya O2 began to accumulate in atmos Ø Earth cooled bc of revere ghg effect o Major ice age (Huronian) & 1st great extinction (of anaerobic life) Meso-Proterozoic ERA: Multicellular life forms Precambrian Eon 600 M y/a End of Proterozoic Era: 1st complex/fractal life forms Ediacaran Period Ø End of Precambrian – when life got big! Ø Explosion of a form of complex & varied life that did not survive the Cambrian (bc didn’t have TEETH) Cambrian Period Ø Complex life forms that have teeth (trilobite & opabinia) (The Cambrian explosion) o Start of Paleozoic Era o Start of Phanerozoic Era 542 M y/a Ordovician Period 488 to 444 M y/a Ø Filter feeders: corals, brachiopods Cephalopods = top carnivores o Appalachian Mt & Kingston limestone formed Ø Ends w. major extinction (60%) bc ice age Silurian Period 444 to 416 M y/a Ø Melting of major ice sheets  Ø Ocean rise & stabilization of global temp Ø Major evolution of fishes o First evidence of animal life on land = arachnids Devonian Period 416 to 359 M y/a Ø 1st seed bearing plants spread across dry land → mega forests Ø 1st ray finned & lobe-finned bony fish evolved o Lobes → legs → 1st land animals Carboniferous Period 359 to 299 M y/a Ø Extensive forest loaded themselves w C extracted from the atmosphere o Age of Coal bc Forests form coal beds Ø Primitive sharks are top carnivores Ø 1st reptiles Permian Period 299 to 251 M y/a Ø Dryer climate than carboniferous Ø Larger reptiles thrive Ø Pangea Ø Ends w Permian extinction (90%) - rip :’( Mesozoic Era 251 to 65 m y/a Ø Age of Dinosaurs Triassic Period 251 to 199 M y/a Ø Beginning of mesozoic era Ø Pangea breaks up Ø Permian mass extinction sets the stage for dinosaurs Jurassic Period 199 to 146 M y/a Ø Pangea continues to break up o Polar ice caps completely melt & Atlantic begins to open Ø Warm, wet climate → lush veggie & abundant life Cretaceous Period 146 to 65 M y/a Ø T-rex Ø Small mammals develop Ø Atlantic fully opened Ø Ends w/ Cretaceous-tertiary event: all dino & other life go extinct bc meteor o K-T Event 65.5 M y/a § Massive impact → debris & dust into atmos § Major cooling worldwide Cenozoic Era 65.5 M y/a to present Ø Age of mammals Tertiary Period 65.5 to 2.6 M y/a Ø Beginning of Cenozoic; Mammals thrive Quaternary Period 2.6 M y/a to present Ø Regular cycle of ice ages (mammoths, saber tooth tiger etc) Ø Continents in current position (give or take) Pleistocene Epoch (up to 11 000 y/a) Ø Rise of humans Holocene Epoch (11 000 to present) Ø History since last ice glacial period ended Ø All of recorded human history Anthropocene Ø Declared in 2016 as new Epoch Ø Start of the Industrial revolution or Nuclear age o To be confirmed Lecture 30: Evolution of the Cell Archean through the Proterozoic Eons (4000 to 550 MYa) - Constant volcanic activity - No continents - Atmosphere full of methane and devoid of oxygen - Oceans acidic and full of dissolved iron - Archaea, Bacteria(Prokaryotes) form from a common ancestor - Eukaryotes (single and multiple call) develop later - Early organism “extremophiles” are feeding on methane, H2S and CO2 - Primitive forms of Cyanobacteria photosynthesize to create oxygen killing off many earlier life forms First cells May qualify as life Early archaea cell, precursor of bacteria o Enclosed self-replicating RNA membrane Phospholoid molecs: one end loves water, other hate it o Joins rings → RNA forms w/in The earliest known life 4.2 - 3.8 billion years ago - Fossils structures encased in quartz layers in the Nuvvuagittuq Supracrustal Belt (NSB)(quebec) Abiogenesis: origin of life Need medium to generate molecs, catalytic material Fatty acid formation of catalyzed on mineral surfaces released into enviro → cell boundaries & other life components o Clay works for this o Montmorillonite sheets: hold lots of water, surfaces can act as catalytic factories for complicated molecs in certain conditions (*including RNA chains) Extremophiles feeding on methane, H2S, CO2 Cyanobacteria came (early chloroplast) → created O2 which killed everything Blue-green algae: same material that inhabited early earth (gross AF) What is life Cellular organizations/structural, reproduction, metabolize Homeostasis (doesn’t constantly break down), heredity, responds stimuli Growth & development, adapt through evolution * Reproduce w genetic information Mineral Crystals are NOT living: match some criteria, but obviously not living Organized, reproduce, homeostasis, respond to stimuli, growth & development, adpat RNA: first life component? Essential cellular organelles carrying out proteins synthesis Have basic design that is fundamentally conserved in all 3 kingdoms of life (Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya) o Some ribosomal ft are specific to each kingdom o Primary structure of archaeal ribosomal RNA & associated proteins are closer to those of Eukaryotes o May have developed through rxns on clay (montmorillonite) particle surfaces 1st appeared 4My/a & still req’d to perform most of cellular function Early cellular life didn’t have nay organelle other than membrane & RNA o RNA is not as stable as DNA o Early cells had unpackaged RNA as genetic material DNA: similar, but has 2 helix to enclose the nucleobases (so like double RNA) Archaea (Prokaryotes) Prokaryotes were first, no nuclei Ancient diverse, abundant, ubiquitous, small, motile o Metabolize methane Extremophiles: live in ↑salt + ↑ and ↓ T, or ↑P habitats Used as a model organism in search for extraterrestrial life-likely that 1st life forms lived at ↑T & ↑ anoxic (no O2) enviro Archaea colonies: Stromatolites Prokaryotes cells w/ nuclei Bacteria  Advanced metabolism over Archaea o Photosynthesis, aerobic 7 anaerobic respiration, fermentation, Autotrophy (creates own food) Bacteria & archaea make up most of earth (both are similar bc common ancestor) Endosymbiosis: when one organism can live w/in one body of another Possibly how mitochondria & chloroplasts had developed Eukarya & the Endosymbiotic Theory: encapsulation of specialized bacteria into advanced cells Nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts Eukaryotic Microbes: ex giardia, can move back & forth b/n cyst & adult form, cyst can travel easily Single & multi cell (plants, fungi, animals) Cysts: resistant forms & responsible for transmission of giardiasis Virus: NOT lifeform, required host to reproduce Doesn’t need metabolism, needs our genetic machinery Doesn’t have cellular organization, reproduce on its own, metabolize o Homeostasis, heredity, response to stimuli, growth & development, adapt through evolution Evolution of Multicellular Life 1. Symbiotic theory: cells w diff behaviours come to depend on each others presence → composite organism w combined traits 2. Cellularization theory: single unicellular organism w multi nuclei o Could have developed internal membrane partitions around each of its nuclei 3. Colonial theory: symbiosis of many organisms of the same species o unlike symbiotic theory, suggesting symbiosis is diff species o leads to multicellular organism cells become specialized (differentiation) cells become dependent each other Sexual Reproduction key to variation all sexually reproducing organism evolved from a common ancestor that was a single celled eukaryotic species Incest Lecture 31: Climate Change Anthropocene & Climate Change Anthropocene: influence of human behavior → new epoch/era Human impact on earth is so significant that it is important to timescale o Some say 1st see human evidence in sediments in 1st nuclear test (1945) o OR industrial revolution (1780) Global Warming Vs. Change DIFFERENT Global warming: trend in upper temperature (early 20th century) bc ↑ fossil fuel emotions Avg surface T ↑ by 0.8oC from mid 20th century US responsible for 30% of ghg since /97 Greenhouse effect: sunlight going through atmosphere → makes IR radiation → some escapes to space BUT some is trapped Ghg effect ↑ amt of gases stuck inside Forcing of the climate is all the extra CO2 in the atmos o Methane o Nitrous oxide (fertilizers etc) o Chlorofluorocarbons (synthetic cmpd contributing to hole in ozone layer) Indicators of warming world: i. Glaciers, snow cover, sea ice ↓ ii. Spring coming early iii. Tree lines moving up to reach cooler areas iv. Evidence: CO2 paleoclimate Using evidence to model historic climates Cycles happen but massive ↑ since 1950 v. Arctic sea ice 2012 = lowest pt record vi. Current: water moves, sinks as it gets to Greenland, gases in it ↓T & ↑P vii. 2017 = worse hurricane season on record Historical Context Last 12 000 years, earth’s climate has been pretty chill Climate change affected ppl (daughters killed) Mitigating: ↓E intensity of economy (E conservation, improved industrial processes) ↓C intensity of E syst o Fossil fuels will be req’d for some time, but can mitigate (*natural gas) CO2 capture & storage o How do you separate natural gas & CO2, concern about enviro when burning shit o As gas ↑P = ↓V until superficial fluid (800m below surface) Storage: Can pump it down to empty oil & gas reservoirs Tertiary oil recovery: strip last bit of oil off of rocks o put it down deep unused saline water reservoice o unmineable coal seams some places in world have already made CO2 storage, but many questions to ask o electricity generation = ½ CO2 in CA (*Al) Risks: key is data collection & monitoring Adaptation Agriculture, protecting coastlines, thinking about water resources  Norway: finished 10 years ago, geo-extreme, o take 50 most probable climate projection models & think about what is happening in the future (eg precipitation) o see if it is going to do infrastructure + impact on landslides, avalanches etc o human health & life: instead of waiting for it to happen, engineered it beforehand to w/stand shit Holland: windmills to pump water uphill Vancouver: projected to be most affected by sea level change o Models say we’re gonna watch, but need to start to understand how to prepare Reactive: responding to conditions that have already changed Anticipatory: planning for climate change before impacts have occurred Resilient: resilience & design (how it’s affected by factors Climate resilience Climate Engineering: ppl can influence on a grand scale the climate – early stages Lecture 32: Geology of the Solar System and Beyond 5-4.6 Billion y/a -- sun & solar syst forms Ø Big cloud of matter coalesces → most goes to centre bc gravity & shit → fusion rxn in sun 4.6-4 billion y/a – Earth Hadean Eon Ø earth congeals, something hits & makes moon Ø unstable crust, iron pulled to core Ø PLUTO is NOT a planet its plutoid (bc path aint cleared) The sun NASA: solar dynamics observatory (monitors sun, filters) Core: most of activity occurs Fusion: E source (H + p+ → He) Ø Gas P balanced by gravity of Sun o If stopped = sun collapses Ø Combines p+ to make new atom o unlike fission (neutron breaks atom into 2 other ones) Ø Tsar Bomb = largest fusion bom (3500X Hiroshima) Solar Flares: explosions on the sun that happen when E stored in twisted magnetic fields (usually above sunspots) is suddenly released Ø Millions of degrees & produce a burst of radiation across the EM spectrum Field is not stable (comes from cycling fluids) Ø Billions of them that break down Sunspot: no light coming (magnetic field pulling light back in) Solar radiation & mass ejection: violent enough to throw material from sun Earth’s Magnetic Field: protects us from cosmic radiation from sun in form of solarwinds → northern lights Ø When solar wind hits us, the field stops Ø May be changing on earth bc  o Magnetic field is a function of a liquid core & was are 300 000 years overdue for reversal o Line of magnetic fields trapped in new ocean floors o No history of mass extinction is connected w the flip, but may screw birds Moon Ø Gravity locked Ø Rotates once per orbit around earth, never see dark side of the moon Ø Interior began molted, now solid - Was never made of cheese Mercury Ø Rotates every 58.65 days and orbits the sun 2x in that rotation o Had a hint of magnetic field o Start to see evidence of tectonics (faults & craters moving). Therefore, we can conclude that it has a liquid core. Venus Ø Thicc ghg effect → hot (function of atmosphere) Ø Gravity similar to earth, Ø Tectonics, but no magnetic field o Crust moving on viscous mantle w/out liquid core § Strike slip fault, contractional folding, extension fractures Mars Ø Rocky planet = no field, no tectonics, but mountains & shit o Volcanoes: Olympus mons (3x Mt Everest) bc ↓wind/erosion § Hotspot stays in place o Mass wasting of some liquid in past (bc sand) § Petrified sand dunes o Ice but no water Ø Local remnants of magnetic fields but won't protect you Ø Phobos & deimos satellites Ø Various probes, mariners, rovers Ø Permafrost (CO2) Asteroids Ø Mainly silica, some Fe & Ni Ø Asteroid belt: most are misshapen o Ceres & other planetoids: some have water ice later o Fe & Ni asteroid: may have Platinum, gold, etc Jupiter Ø 1st gas giant (don’t get that red spot & why it don’t move) Ø Very strong magnetic fields Ø Complex motion in outer atmos o Blowing in diff dirxn next to each other Ø Mantle mainly composed of metallic H (special lattice) Ø 69 moons o Galilean moons – io – volcanic o Europa: (made of ice) water at T that could maintain life o Ganymede: mantle icy crust o Callista is a rocky fuck Saturn Ø Rings 250 000 km in diameter but pluto's orbit crosses out of solar syst Planets 1. Orbits sun directly 2. Large enough to have formed spherical shape 3. Has cleared path Comets & life Ø Debate about comets & water o May have too much heavy water to be the source o But is confirmed some have ocean-like water Comets & life –some have wrong kind of water Origin of water Ø Water must have been brought to earth by small bodies at later stage in planet’s evolution a. Asteroid -like small bodies from Jupiter region b. Oort cloud comets formed instead Neptune’s orbit OR c. Kuiper Belt comets form outside of Neptune’s orbit Ø ROSINA instrument of the Rosetta spacecraft found that the isotope composition of a compet’s water vapour is very diff than earth water o BUT Haley’s comet has the right chem → so probs comets Kepler-186 Ø Very similar to earth Ø First asteroid confirmed to be from a diff syst (Oumuamua) Ø 40th anniversary of voyager 1 & 2 probes Prof of life w Beethoven’s 5th & Can’t get no satisfaction Chapters Chapter 1: An Introduction to Geology and Plate Tectonics Chapter 2: Minerals - The Building Blocks of Rocks Chapter 3: Igneous Rocks Chapter 5: Volcanoes - risk and reward Equations Gradient and Channel Characteristics (Manning’s Equation) · Gradient (slope): steeper=more energy (S) · Channel shape & size (R) · Roughness affects drag/friction (n) · Discharge velocity (V) 2 /3 1/ 2 V =( R S )/n Stress: σ =Force / Area stress is measured in N/m^2 or 1 Pascal (equivalent to pressure) Strain: Δ L/ L0 (unitless, it is only a ratio) Elastic Stiffness: F=kd Young’s Modulus: E=stress/ strain (also known as the equation for an engineer's life) Cohesion and Friction: Shear Stress=Normal Stress∗Friction Coefficient + Cohesion τ =μ σ +c Darcy’s Law v =Ki ,Velocity =Coefficient of permeability∗HydraulicGradient Diffusion: F=−D(dC /dx ), where F=mass transfer/ Area∗time ,C=Concentration , D=Diffusion Coefficient Past Weekly Quizzes Add the questions you can see on your onQ. If you go to quizzes and submissions you can see the some of the questions. Pretty sure q11 is (A), dnapls do not dissolve in water. Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 7 Week 11 No quiz Week 12 Other Exam Resources Sample Final Exam Questions INTRO 1.What is the currently accepted age of the Earth? 4.6 Billion 2.The Precambrian accounts for 88% of Earth's History. 3.Pangaea was a big ol’ supercontinent. 4.The lithosphere forms the relatively cool, brittle plates of plate tectonics. 5.A typical rate of lithospheric (tectonic) plate movement is 2-5cm/yr. 6.New seafloor is created at diverging plate boundaries. 7.The San Andreas fault in California and the Alpine fault in New Zealand are good examples of transforming fault boundaries/Strike-slip. 8.The crust is the thinnest layer of the Earth. 9.The composition of the core of Earth is thought to be nickel and iron. 10.The lithosphere, about 100 km thick, is the coldest, most rigid, and most brittle layer in the Earth. 11.As a self-contained planet, Earth is divided into several interacting systems called spheres?. 12.Most of the lithium used in smartphones, tablets and Tesla Cars comes from salt beds. MINERALS 1.What, basic, atomic particles occupy space in an atom outside of the nucleus? Electrons 2.In a neutral atom such as helium or native copper, the number of protons in the nucleus equivalent to atomic number. 3.An atom's atomic weight is 13 and its atomic number is 6. How many neutrons are in its nucleus? 7 4.In ionic bonding one atom gives up electrons to another that receives them. 5.The two main types of bonding that form the structures in minerals are ionic and covalent. 6.Crystal Habit is the external expression of orderly internal arrangement of atoms in a mineral crystal. 7.The true colour of a mineral as seen in its powdered form is called it's streak. 8.The strong tendency of certain minerals to break along smooth, parallel planes is known as cleavage. 9.The tendency for a mineral like quartz to break in a smoothly curved manner is termed conchoidal fracture. 10. Specific Weight is the ratio of a sample’s weight to a volume of water of equal weight 11.Which common rock forming minerals exhibit a perfect single basal cleavage? Mica. 12.Which mineral is composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2)? Quartz 13.Why doesn't quartz have any cleavages, only conchoidal fractures? It has no weakness in its molecular bonds along a specific boundary. Aka 3D covalent structure 14.The main use of bauxite is aluminum. IGNEOUS ROCKS 1.Plutonic rocks are emplaced at depth yet they can be seen at the Earth's surface due mainly to Erosion. 2.The last minerals to crystallize in Bowen's reaction series result in rocks with a Felsic composition. 3.Which of the following minerals crystallize early in Bowen's reaction series? Olivine (Ultramafic) 4.Which of the following igneous rocks is thought to be common in the Earth's mantle but rare in the crust? Peridotite 5.Lava flows are typically finer grained than intrusive igneous rocks. Why? Cool faster (and no volatiles?) 6.How long does it take for a large magma body at great depth to cool and completely crystallize? (up to 10k years) 7.Rocks that consist completely of disordered ions with no long range structures are called Glassy (amorphous). 8.A(n) Phaneritic/pegmatitic texture would be most unlikely to occur in an extrusive igneous rock. 9.________ typically exhibit pyroclastic textures. Breccia/tuff 10.Which of the following has the same mineral composition as andesite? diorite 11.Which of the following high silica igneous rocks can be of low enough density to float on water? Pumice 12.What is the most common extrusive rock type for any volcanic environment on the Earth or the Moon? Basalt 13.A Laccolith is a near surface, intrusive, igneous rock body that results from local inflation of a horizontal sill. Push me to the edge all my friends are dead