Exam 4 Study Guide PDF

Exam 4 Study Guide Chapter 10, Personality Key concepts: ● ● Definition of personality - An individual’s characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior. Personality trait vs. personality state Personality trait: A consistent, long-lasting behavioral tendency. e.g., outgoing, shy, rude Pe...

Exam 4 Study Guide Chapter 10, Personality Key concepts: ● ● Definition of personality - An individual’s characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior. Personality trait vs. personality state Personality trait: A consistent, long-lasting behavioral tendency. e.g., outgoing, shy, rude Personality state: A temporary activation of particular behavior. e.g., being nervous before an exam ● The Big 5 personality traits ○ neuroticism High: worried, insecure, instability, unpleasant, anxious Low: calm, secure, stable, self-satisfied, even-tempered ○ extraversion High: sociable, fun-loving, outgoing, active, outspoken, adventurous, affectionate Low: retiring, reserved, even-paced, independent ○ agreeableness High: compassionate, compliance, likeability, warmth, trusting, helpful Low: antagonistic, suspicious, uncooperative, skeptical, competitive ○ conscientiousness High: Well-organized, careful, self - disciplined, reliable, planner, determined, competence Low: Disorganized, careless, lacking self-discipline, easily distracted, undependable ○ openness to new experience High: Imaginative, prefer variety, creative, independent, curious, prefer new ideas Low: Down-to-earth, prefer routine, conforming, conventional ○ Influence of age on big 5 (how do they change as we age?) - As we get older, the more slowly we change. Not known why. - ● Middle-aged more likely than teens to be conscientious Older people also tend to be less neurotic and more agreeable Young adults score higher than older adults on openness to experience and extraversion Personality assessment – refers to the measurement of any characteristic pattern of behavior, thought, or emotion. ○ Barnum effect Tendency to accept vague descriptions of our personality. ○ Projective techniques ■ TAT - Thematic Apperception Test Ambiguous images of people or situations. Instructions: “Tell a story about each picture. Make sure the story has a plot: a beginning, middle, and ending.” ■ Rorschach inkblots A projective test in which subjects' perceptions of inkblots are recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex algorithms, or both. ■ House, tree, person A projective test designed to measure aspects of a person's personality ■ Limitations of projective tests Limited validity evidence. Expensive and time-consuming. Psychologists cannot be sure about interpretation. Other tests work equally well or better. ○ ● Objective tests - Personality tests that consist of questions answered by the participant. Usually true/false or on a numeric scale. Self reported responses to test questions ■ MMPI (what is it?) - Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - 567 True-False items - 10 personality scales combine to form overall personality profile How could test help clinician plan for treatment? ○ Uses of personality tests Clinical contexts: Diagnosis and decision making Organizational contexts: Military recruiting and placement, law enforcement hiring, business and industry Chapter 11, Social PSY Key people: ● Kohlberg (what did he discover about morality?) Measured moral reasoning through moral dilemmas ● Solomon Asch (know his study) Line test to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. ● Stanley Milgram (know his experiment) Electric shock experiment that explored the effects of authority on obedience. Key concepts: ● What do social psychologists study? scientific study of the individual and our social environment. ● Morality (process, how do we study?) ● First impressions – primacy effect First information = more powerful influence on our perception ● Stereotype & Prejudice (how do you overcome prejudice?) Stereotypes are a simplified set of traits that are associated with group membership. Prejudice is is an irrationally unfavorable (or favorable) attitude toward a group of people. Ask questions like How do I feel about a person? What are my attitudes towards this person? ● Attributions - the set of thought processes we use to explain behavior (rationales) ● 2 types Dispositional attributions are “stable,” internal characteristics Situational attributions are “changeable”, external characteristics ● Fundamental attribution error, actor-obsever vs. self-serving bias Fundamental attribution error - A tendency to attribute others’ behavior to internal factors Self serving bias - Attributions we adopt to maximize credit for success and minimize blame for failure Actor-observer - We make situational attributions for our own behaviors and dispositional ones for others’. We attribute others’ unusual behavior to internalcauses. ● Attitudes – cognitive dissonance Cognitive Dissonance: state of tension occurring from contradictory attitudes, behaviors, or both (attitudes & behaviors contradict ● Persuasion ● central vs. peripheral route Central: serious situations, big decisions. Invest time & effort evaluating evidence Peripheral: route unimportant situations, topics. Focus on minor, superficial details ● ● strategies for persuasion (be able to differentiate b/n them) ■ foot in the door - a modest request is followed by a larger one ■ door in the face - an outrageous initial request is followed by a reasonable one ■ bait and switch - a favorable deal is followed by additional demands after a commitment has been made ■ that’s not all - offer is improved before any reply is given Interpersonal Attraction ● Factors associated with establishing a last relationship Proximity – we become friends with those who live nearby Mere exposure – we like people more as we see them more often Similarity – we’re drawn to people with similar backgrounds, attitudes, & interests Exchange/Equity theories – social relationships are transactions, exchanging goods and services; seek equitable exchanges ● Gottman’s Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse Criticism: keeping partner down —- gentle start up Contempt: sarcasm, undermining, eye rolling, etc —- reminds self of a partner's positive qualities Defensiveness: supporting your self/ gaslighting —- take responsibility Stonewalling: shutting down —- physiological self soothing ● Interpersonal Influence ● Conformity ■ Asch’s experiment ■ Bystander effect ● diffusion of responsibility ■ Obedience to authority ● Milgram’s experiment ● Zimbardo’s experiment Chapter 12, Abnormal Psychology & Specific Disorders Key concepts: ● ● Is it easy to define abnormality? Why or why not? Biopsychosocial model (three categories of contributing factors) Biological, Social, and psychological ● DSM-V (what is it? what does it stand for?) The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. It provides a way for psychologists to diagnose their patients. Lists 20 categories of disorders. Covers more than 300 disorders. Takes an atheoretical approach. ● Criticisms of DSM-V? Normal vs. abnormal? Marginal/very mild symptoms = diagnosable? Some people do not fit well into DSM-V categories ● Psychotherapy (what is it?) Treatment involving ongoing relationship between a trained therapist and client(s). Psychoanalysis - Brings unconscious thoughts and emotions to conscious ■ ■ free association – talking whatever comes up to your mind Transference – client doesn’t know the therapist when talking about their problems ● Behavior therapy (how is this different from psychoanalysis?) Sets clear goals for changing behavior like a behavioral therapist. Emphasis on person’s interpretation of thoughts and events like a cognitive therapist. ● Cognitive therapy Helps individual develop more positive beliefs ● ● CBT (what does this stand for?) - Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) Family Therapy (what makes it unique?) Treats person in family context & when problems arise in family settings Focus on improving: Family relationships + Communication ● Effectiveness of psychotherapy? Is one therapeutic approach better than another? It is effective because it is used for a wide variety of mental health problems and many different techniques. Currently the most effective psychotherapy is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT). Specific Disorders & Treatments Key concepts: ● Anxiety (what is it? When is it pathological?) Typically, excessive anxiety can be characterized by four components: Physical - dizziness, elevated heart rate and blood pressure, muscle tension, sweating palms, and dry mouth. Cognitive - worrying, fearing loss of control, exaggerating (in one’s mind) the danger of a situation, exhibiting paranoia, or being extremely wary and watchful of people and events Emotional - sense of dread, terror, panic, irritability, or restlessness Behavioral - escaping or fleeing from the situation; behaving aggressively; “freezing,” which results in being unable to move; or avoiding the situation in the future ● Be able to name the different anxiety disorders Anxiety disorders ❖ generalized anxiety disorder ❖ panic disorder ❖ agoraphobia ❖ specific phobia ❖ social anxiety disorder Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders ❖ obsessive-compulsive disorder ❖ hoarding disorder Trauma-related disorder ❖ PTSD ● Phobias (what are these?) ■ most common phobias Specific phobias are most common. Agoraphobia—fear of being in places from which escape may be difficult or where help may not be available – mainly caused by panic disorder. ● Treatments ■ Medication Benzodiazepines - Suppress symptoms temporarily, Addictive Examples: Ativan, Klonopin, Xanax Antidepressants - Less habit forming Examples: Prozac, Zoloft, Celexa, Effexor ■ ● Exposure therapy ● Systematic desensitization - Gradual exposure under controlled conditions. Virtual reality can be used for this method ● Flooding - Sudden and large-scale exposure to trigger controlled conditions Mood disorders (2 main types): Depression & Mania ● Suicide myths Talking about suicide would bring thoughts of suicide to that person. People who commit suicide typically have expressed their intentions at some time to family members or friends before their attempt. Any talk of suicide should be taken seriously. ● Unipolar ■ symptoms May involve depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in one’s usual activities; changes in sleep patterns, appetite, and motor functioning; and loss of energy ■ 2 diagnoses (major depressive & dysthymic) A diagnosis of major depressive disorder requires that a person experience either depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in one’s usual activities plus at least four other symptoms of depression for a period of at least 2 weeks. Dysthymic Disorder - less severe but more chronic form of major depressive disorder. ■ gender difference? (who is more likely to suffer?) Females ● Bipolar (why is this different from unipolar?) ■ symptoms Involve shifts in mood between two states: depressed and manic ■ Bipolar I vs Bipolar II, cyclothymia Bipolar I is known as manic depression, characterized by a single or recurrent manic episode. Bipolar II is characterized by a single (or recurrent) hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes. Cyclothymia is characterized by numerous and alternating periods of hypomania and depression, lasting at least two years. ■ Best predictors of recovery Genetics – inherit from one parent. Less likely from both parents Neurotransmitters Stress hormones– disrupt neurotransmitters that affects mood Brain structures – more active and less active in the brain Psychological factors – how you view the World like adverse childhood experiences or how safe you view the World Sociocultural factors ● Why do women have higher rates of unipolar depression than men? Biological: Women are genetically at risk for depression, and ovarian hormones may influence serotonin levels Psychological: Women tend to ruminate about problems, and relationships are a key part of a woman’s self worth. Sociocultural: Women’s lower social status is a risk factor for stressors, and the female gender role encourages dependance and passivity. ● Treatments Psychotherapy for major depressive disorders Cognitive therapy - Helps individual develop more positive beliefs Other treatments for depression - Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT), brief electrical shock to patient’s head, not fully understood & controversial ● Substance Use Disorders ● How to diagnose Problematic pattern of substance use that leads to clinically significant impairment. Cognitive, behaviors, social, physiological symptoms. 12 months or longer with a recent intoxication. ● Different types of treatments Medical: for immediate withdrawal and/or suppression of reward pathways Behavioral: more intense and longer duration predict better outcomes Residential: moving away in order to not have the cue of the addiction , day hospitalization, or outpatient ● Stages of Change (or Transtheoretical) model Pre contemplation - no intention of changing Contemplation - aware a problem exists but with no commitment to action Preparation - intent on taking action to address the problem Action - Active modification of behavior Maintenance - sustained change; new behavior replaces old Relapse - fall back into old patterns of behavior