Exam 4 Information - Cancer

**Neoplasm**\ An abnormal growth of cells that no longer responds to normal genetic control, often depriving other cells of nutrients. **Differentiation**\ The process where cells become specialized to perform specific functions, reflecting the tissue structure. **Mitosis**\ A phase of the cell cy...

**Neoplasm**\ An abnormal growth of cells that no longer responds to normal genetic control, often depriving other cells of nutrients. **Differentiation**\ The process where cells become specialized to perform specific functions, reflecting the tissue structure. **Mitosis**\ A phase of the cell cycle where cells divide; it is under genetic control by DNA and RNA. **Benign Tumor**\ A non-cancerous tumor that grows slowly, remains localized, and does not invade nearby tissues or spread to other body parts. **Malignant Tumor**\ A cancerous growth that grows rapidly, invades surrounding tissues, and can metastasize to distant sites through blood or lymph. **Metastasis**\ The process by which cancer cells spread from the primary site to distant organs or tissues. **Carcinogenesis**\ The transformation of normal cells into cancer cells, caused by factors such as environmental influences, genetics, and infections. **Radiation Therapy**\ Treatment that uses high-energy radiation to damage the DNA of cancer cells, often used for fast-growing tumors. **Chemotherapy**\ The use of antineoplastic drugs to kill or stop the growth of cancer cells, often given in combinations to target cells at different phases of their cycle. **Cachexia**\ Severe muscle and fat loss often seen in cancer patients, leading to weight loss and overall weakness. **Paraneoplastic Syndrome**\ Conditions where cancer cells release substances that disrupt normal body functions, often causing neurological or hormonal issues. **Apoptosis**\ A genetically programmed process of cell death that removes old or damaged cells from the body. **Tumor Markers**\ Substances produced by cancer cells or by the body in response to cancer, used in diagnostics to help detect and monitor certain types of cancers. **Anemia (in cancer)**\ A condition where cancer or its treatment reduces red blood cell production, leading to fatigue and weakness. **Invasion (cancer)**\ The spread of tumor cells into neighboring tissues, often seen in malignant cancers. **Tumor Nomenclature**\ The naming of tumors is based on the tissue of origin and whether they are benign or malignant (e.g., carcinoma, sarcoma). **Warning Signs of Cancer**\ Common signs include unexplained weight loss, persistent pain, lumps, unusual bleeding, or persistent cough. **Local Effects of Tumors**\ Tumors can cause localized pain, obstruction of vessels or organs, and tissue necrosis or ulceration. **Systemic Effects of Malignant Tumors**\ These effects include weight loss, anemia, fatigue, infections, and paraneoplastic syndromes due to substances released by the tumor. **Invasion (cancer spread)**\ When tumor cells infiltrate surrounding normal tissue, growing beyond their origin site. **Genomic Tumor Assessment**\ A diagnostic test that analyzes the genetic mutations within a tumor to help personalize treatment. **Bone Marrow Depression (in chemotherapy)**\ A side effect of chemotherapy where bone marrow stops producing enough blood cells, leading to increased risk of infection, fatigue, and bleeding. **Nadir**\ The lowest point of white blood cell count during chemotherapy, increasing the risk of infections. **Effusions (in cancer)**\ The accumulation of fluid in body cavities (like the pleural or peritoneal cavity) caused by cancer. **Epithelial Cell Damage (in chemotherapy and radiation)**\ Chemotherapy or radiation therapy can harm rapidly dividing epithelial cells, causing hair loss, skin breakdown, and mucosal damage. **Palliative Treatment**\ Therapy focused on relieving symptoms and improving quality of life, often used in advanced cancer stages rather than curative treatment. **Radiation Therapy (External)**\ A method where radiation is delivered from an external source, such as a cobalt machine, to target tumors. **Internal Radiation Therapy**\ Radiation delivered by inserting radioactive material directly into or near the tumor site. **Carcinogen**\ A substance or factor that promotes the development of cancer, such as tobacco, radiation, or certain chemicals. **Prognosis (in cancer)**\ The outlook or expected outcome of cancer, often dependent on the cancer\'s stage, type, and the patient\'s overall health. **Remission**\ A period during which cancer signs and symptoms are reduced or have disappeared, though the patient may still require monitoring for recurrence. **Mutation**\ A permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that can be inherited by daughter cells, potentially leading to cancer if it disrupts normal cell function. **Apoptosis**\ The programmed death of cells, which is essential for removing damaged or unnecessary cells. In cancer, this process can be disrupted. **Antimitotic Drugs**\ A class of chemotherapy drugs that work by preventing cell division, specifically targeting cells that are actively dividing. **Antimetabolites**\ Chemotherapy agents that interfere with DNA and RNA synthesis by mimicking the normal substances needed for these processes. **Alkylating Agents**\ A class of chemotherapy drugs that work by directly damaging DNA, preventing the cancer cells from reproducing. **Paraneoplastic Syndrome**\ A group of rare disorders triggered by the immune response to a tumor, which can affect other organs and tissues far from the tumor site. **Bone Marrow Depression**\ A condition in which the production of blood cells is decreased, leading to anemia, infections, and bleeding issues, often caused by chemotherapy or radiation. **Leukopenia**\ A reduction in white blood cell count, increasing the risk of infections, commonly a side effect of cancer treatments like chemotherapy. **Thrombocytopenia**\ A condition characterized by a low platelet count, which can lead to increased bleeding and bruising, often a side effect of cancer treatment. **Gene Therapy (in cancer)**\ An experimental approach that involves altering or replacing defective genes within a cancer cell to stop or slow cancer progression. **Staging Cancer**\ The process of determining the extent of cancer spread in the body, which is crucial for planning treatment and predicting prognosis. **Radiation-Resistant Cancers**\ Some types of cancers are less responsive to radiation therapy, requiring alternative or additional treatments. **Fatigue (in cancer)**\ A common side effect of cancer and its treatments, often caused by anemia, malnutrition, or the physical effects of the disease itself. **Ovarian Cancer**\ A type of cancer with poor prognosis due to its hidden nature and late-stage diagnosis, resulting in high mortality rates. **Brain Tumors**\ Even benign brain tumors can be life-threatening due to their location and the compression of brain tissue, often requiring complex treatment. **Self-Examination**\ A method where individuals check their own bodies for lumps or other early signs of cancer, such as in breast or testicular cancer. **Routine Screening**\ Regular medical tests (like mammograms, colonoscopies, or Pap smears) to detect cancer early in asymptomatic individuals. **Tumor Markers**\ Substances produced by cancer cells or by normal cells in response to cancer in the body, used to help diagnose and monitor treatment. **Cachexia**\ A condition of extreme weight loss and muscle wasting, commonly seen in advanced cancer patients. **Tumor Necrosis**\ The death of tumor cells due to inadequate blood supply, often leading to ulceration and infection in the surrounding tissues. **Antibiotics (in chemotherapy)**\ Some antibiotics are used in cancer treatment for their ability to interfere with DNA replication and repair in rapidly dividing cells. **Effusions (in cancer)**\ The abnormal accumulation of fluid in body cavities (e.g., pleural effusion, ascites), often associated with cancer metastasis. **Five- to Ten-Year Cancer-Free Period**\ A benchmark used to indicate long-term remission or potential cure in many cancers, such as childhood leukemias. **Mental Depression (due to treatment)**\ A psychological side effect of cancer treatment, which can be caused by fatigue, stress, and the overall burden of the disease. **Complementary Therapies**\ Non-traditional approaches used alongside standard cancer treatments, such as meditation, massage, or acupuncture, though evidence of effectiveness varies. **Prostate Cancer**\ One of the most common cancers in men, often diagnosed through routine screening and presenting with few early symptoms. **Lung Cancer**\ A leading cause of cancer death in both men and women, strongly associated with smoking but also caused by environmental and genetic factors. **Colorectal Cancer**\ A common cancer in both men and women, typically diagnosed through screening methods like colonoscopy and associated with diet and genetic factors. **Malabsorption (in cancer)**\ A condition where the digestive tract becomes inflamed or damaged, leading to poor absorption of nutrients, common in cancer patients. **Childhood Leukemia**\ A cancer of the blood and bone marrow most common in children, often associated with a high chance of long-term remission or cure after treatment. **Genetic Control**\ Genetic information is stored in 23 pairs of chromosomes: 22 pairs are autosomes, and 1 pair determines sex (XX or XY). **Karyotype**\ A visual representation of chromosomes arranged by size, used to diagnose chromosomal disorders. **Congenital Disorders**\ Disorders present at birth, which may be inherited or developmental, caused by single-gene expression, chromosomal defects, or polygenic expression. **Single-Gene Disorders**\ Disorders caused by mutations in a single gene; they are inherited and transmitted to subsequent generations. **Chromosomal Anomalies**\ Disorders caused by errors during meiosis, leading to chromosomal defects, such as trisomy or translocation. **Teratogenic Agents**\ Substances that cause developmental damage during the embryonic or fetal stages, leading to congenital disorders. **Multifactorial Disorders**\ Conditions caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, such as cleft palate and congenital heart disease. **Single-Gene Disorders: Autosomal Recessive**\ Both parents must carry the allele for the disorder, with male and female children equally affected (e.g., cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia). **Single-Gene Disorders: Autosomal Dominant**\ Only one allele from one parent is needed to cause the disorder, and unaffected individuals do not pass it on (e.g., Huntington\'s disease, Marfan syndrome). **Single-Gene Disorders: X-Linked Dominant**\ Both males and females can be affected, but there is reduced penetrance in females (e.g., Fragile X syndrome). **Single-Gene Disorders: X-Linked Recessive**\ Disorders carried on the X chromosome, mainly affecting males, while females are carriers (e.g., hemophilia A, Duchenne muscular dystrophy). **Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)**\ A chromosomal disorder caused by an extra chromosome 21, leading to physical and mental developmental issues. **Turner Syndrome (XO)**\ A chromosomal disorder affecting females, characterized by short stature and infertility due to missing one X chromosome. **Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)**\ A chromosomal disorder in males caused by an extra X chromosome, leading to infertility and other physical traits. **TORCH Infections**\ An acronym for maternal infections (Toxoplasmosis, Other, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, Herpes) that can cause fetal anomalies. **Gene Therapy**\ An experimental treatment aimed at correcting defective genes by replacing them with functional copies, though clinical success varies. **Genetic Screening**\ Testing at-risk populations for specific genetic markers or disorders, often used to identify carriers or diagnose inherited conditions early. **Amniocentesis**\ A prenatal test where amniotic fluid is sampled to detect chromosomal or genetic disorders in the fetus. **Fragile X Syndrome**\ The most common cause of mental retardation in North America, characterized by cognitive deficits and learning disorders. **Phenylketonuria (PKU)**\ A metabolic disorder caused by a defect in a single gene, leading to the inability to process phenylalanine, which can cause intellectual disability. **Cystic Fibrosis**\ An autosomal recessive disorder that affects the lungs and digestive system, causing thick, sticky mucus buildup in organs. **Tay-Sachs Disease**\ A fatal autosomal recessive disorder that leads to the destruction of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. **Huntington\'s Disease**\ A progressive autosomal dominant disorder that causes degeneration of nerve cells in the brain, leading to motor and cognitive decline. **Marfan Syndrome**\ An autosomal dominant connective tissue disorder characterized by long limbs, joint flexibility, and cardiovascular issues. **Hemophilia A**\ An X-linked recessive disorder where blood clotting is impaired due to a deficiency in clotting factor VIII. **Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy**\ An X-linked recessive disorder that causes progressive muscle degeneration and weakness, primarily affecting boys. **Cleft Palate**\ A multifactorial congenital disorder where the roof of the mouth does not fully close, often requiring surgical correction. **Congenital Hip Dislocation**\ A developmental disorder where the hip joint is improperly formed, often leading to instability and dislocation. **Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus**\ A multifactorial disorder with both genetic and environmental components, characterized by insulin resistance and high blood sugar levels. **Amniocentesis and Chorionic Villi Sampling**\ Prenatal tests used to diagnose genetic and chromosomal abnormalities in the fetus before birth. **Delayed Lethal Genotype**\ A genetic disorder that may not manifest until later in life, after the affected individual has already passed on the gene to the next generation. **Infertility (Turner and Klinefelter Syndromes)**\ A common characteristic of both Turner syndrome in females and Klinefelter syndrome in males, often due to chromosomal abnormalities. **Artificial Intelligence in Genetics**\ AI research is ongoing to enhance rapid interpretation of genetic disorders, particularly in newborn screening and diagnostics. **Trisomy 21**\ A chromosomal disorder also known as Down syndrome, where an individual has three copies of chromosome 21 instead of two. **Turner Syndrome (XO)**\ A genetic disorder where females are missing one X chromosome, resulting in short stature, infertility, and certain physical characteristics. **Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)**\ A chromosomal disorder in males, characterized by an extra X chromosome, leading to infertility, breast development, and lower testosterone levels. **Allele**\ One of two or more versions of a gene located at a specific position on a chromosome; an individual inherits one allele from each parent. **Phenotype**\ The observable characteristics or traits of an organism, which result from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. **Genotype**\ The genetic makeup of an individual, including both alleles inherited from each parent that determine specific traits. **Autosomal Recessive**\ A type of inheritance pattern where two copies of a defective gene (one from each parent) are required for the disorder to manifest (e.g., cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia). **Autosomal Dominant**\ A type of inheritance pattern where only one copy of a defective gene is needed for the disorder to be expressed (e.g., Huntington\'s disease, Marfan syndrome). **X-Linked Recessive**\ A pattern of inheritance where the gene responsible for the disorder is located on the X chromosome, and it primarily affects males (e.g., hemophilia A, Duchenne muscular dystrophy). **X-Linked Dominant**\ A pattern of inheritance where the gene is located on the X chromosome, and both males and females can be affected (e.g., Fragile X syndrome). **Fragile X Syndrome**\ An X-linked dominant disorder that is the most common inherited cause of intellectual disability, often associated with developmental delays and learning difficulties. **Multifactorial Disorders**\ Disorders that result from the interaction of genetic predispositions and environmental factors (e.g., cleft palate, congenital heart disease, type 2 diabetes). **Cystic Fibrosis**\ An autosomal recessive disorder that affects the respiratory and digestive systems, causing thick mucus production and lung infections. **Sickle Cell Anemia**\ An autosomal recessive disorder where red blood cells become crescent-shaped, leading to blockages in blood flow and severe pain. **Tay-Sachs Disease**\ An autosomal recessive disorder characterized by a buildup of fatty substances in the brain, leading to severe neurological impairment and early death. **Phenylketonuria (PKU)**\ A metabolic disorder caused by an autosomal recessive gene that results in the inability to break down phenylalanine, leading to intellectual disability if untreated. **Huntington's Disease**\ An autosomal dominant disorder that causes degeneration of nerve cells in the brain, leading to movement disorders, cognitive decline, and psychiatric issues. **Marfan Syndrome**\ An autosomal dominant disorder affecting connective tissue, leading to long limbs, joint hypermobility, and cardiovascular issues. **Color Blindness**\ An X-linked recessive disorder that affects the ability to distinguish between certain colors, most commonly red and green. **Hemophilia A**\ An X-linked recessive disorder in which blood does not clot properly due to a deficiency of clotting factor VIII. **Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy**\ A severe X-linked recessive disorder characterized by rapid muscle degeneration and weakness, primarily affecting boys. **Multifactorial Inheritance**\ A mode of inheritance where multiple genes, along with environmental factors, contribute to the development of a disorder (e.g., type 2 diabetes, cleft palate). **Nondisjunction**\ An error during meiosis that results in the failure of chromosomes to separate properly, leading to chromosomal disorders such as trisomy 21 (Down syndrome). **Amniocentesis**\ A prenatal diagnostic procedure where a sample of amniotic fluid is collected to test for genetic or chromosomal abnormalities in the fetus. **Chorionic Villi Sampling (CVS)**\ A prenatal test that involves taking a small sample of placental tissue to check for chromosomal disorders in the fetus. **Chromosomal Disorders**\ Disorders caused by abnormalities in chromosome number or structure, such as trisomy (e.g., Down syndrome) or monosomy (e.g., Turner syndrome). **Polygenic Expression**\ Traits or disorders influenced by multiple genes, rather than a single gene, often seen in multifactorial disorders like type 2 diabetes. **Teratogen**\ An environmental agent (e.g., drugs, chemicals, radiation) that can cause developmental abnormalities during fetal development. **TORCH**\ Acronym for a group of maternal infections that can cause congenital anomalies: Toxoplasmosis, Other (such as syphilis), Rubella, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Herpes simplex. **Karyotype Analysis**\ The process of examining the number and structure of chromosomes in a cell, used to detect chromosomal abnormalities like Down syndrome or Turner syndrome. **Genetic Mutation**\ A permanent alteration in the DNA sequence of a gene that can lead to inherited disorders or increase susceptibility to certain diseases. **Punnett Square**\ A diagram used to predict the probability of offspring inheriting particular alleles and traits, commonly used for understanding genetic inheritance patterns. **Delayed Lethal Genotype**\ A genetic condition that does not manifest until later in life, often after the affected individual has already passed on the gene to their offspring (e.g., Huntington\'s disease). **Gene Therapy**\ A method that aims to treat or prevent genetic disorders by altering an individual's genes, often through replacing a faulty gene with a functional one. **Genetic Engineering**\ The direct manipulation of an organism's genes to alter its characteristics, commonly used in agriculture and research, with potential medical applications. **Gene Screening**\ Testing individuals or populations for specific genetic mutations or disorders to identify carriers or those at risk of developing a genetic disease. **Pleiotropy**\ A genetic phenomenon where one single gene influences multiple traits or characteristics in an organism (e.g., Marfan syndrome). **Mosaicism**\ A condition in which an individual has two or more populations of cells with different genotypes, often seen in chromosomal disorders like Turner syndrome. **Epigenetics**\ The study of how environmental factors and behaviors can influence gene expression without changing the underlying DNA sequence. **Carrier**\ An individual who has one copy of a recessive allele for a genetic disorder but does not exhibit symptoms, capable of passing the allele to offspring. **Cognitive Deficit**\ Impairment in mental functions such as memory, attention, or problem-solving, often seen in conditions like Fragile X syndrome and Down syndrome. **Infertility**\ The inability to conceive children, which can result from genetic conditions such as Turner syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome. **Aging Process**\ **Definition:** The rate and effects of aging vary among individuals and do not always match chronological age. It depends on genetic makeup, lifestyle, and health status. **Menopause**\ **Definition:** A phase where ovaries stop responding to FSH and LH, leading to the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles. Common symptoms include hot flashes and mood swings. **Dyspareunia**\ **Definition:** Painful sexual intercourse due to thinning of vaginal mucosa and decreased glandular secretions, often occurring after menopause. **Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy (BPH)**\ **Definition:** Common in aging males, it is the non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate, which can lead to urinary issues. **Osteoporosis**\ **Definition:** A condition characterized by a loss of calcium and bone mass, leading to fragile bones, especially in postmenopausal women. **Osteoarthritis**\ **Definition:** Degeneration of cartilage in joints, often associated with aging, leading to pain, stiffness, and sometimes the need for joint replacement. **Herniated Intervertebral Disk**\ **Definition:** Degeneration of fibrocartilage in the spinal disks, which can result in severe back pain due to pressure on spinal nerves. **Arteriosclerosis**\ **Definition:** Hardening and thickening of the arterial walls, leading to decreased elasticity and increased peripheral resistance. **Atherosclerosis**\ **Definition:** Accumulation of cholesterol in large arteries, increasing the risk of heart attack, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases. **Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension (PIH)**\ **Definition:** Elevated blood pressure (\>140/90 mm Hg) developing after 20 weeks of pregnancy, typically resolving after delivery. **Pre-eclampsia**\ **Definition:** A pregnancy complication characterized by high blood pressure, kidney dysfunction, and swelling, which can progress to eclampsia. **Gestational Diabetes Mellitus**\ **Definition:** Diabetes that develops during pregnancy, leading to risks for both mother and child, including the need for dietary and insulin management. **Ectopic Pregnancy**\ **Definition:** Implantation of the embryo outside the uterus, usually in the fallopian tube, which can cause severe complications and requires surgical intervention. **Thromboembolism**\ **Definition:** The formation of blood clots, commonly occurring after childbirth, that can lead to serious conditions like pulmonary embolism. **Rh Incompatibility**\ **Definition:** A condition where an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive fetus, potentially causing hemolysis of fetal red blood cells in subsequent pregnancies. **Hormonal Changes with Aging**\ **Definition:** Except for estrogen and testosterone, hormone levels remain constant, but tissue receptors decrease, slowing hormonal responses. **Hot Flashes**\ **Definition:** Sudden feelings of warmth, often over the face, neck, and chest, caused by hormonal changes during menopause. **Testosterone Decline**\ **Definition:** A gradual decrease in testosterone levels in males, leading to reduced muscle mass, lower sperm production, and smaller testes. **Skin Changes with Aging**\ **Definition:** The skin becomes thinner, less elastic, and more prone to damage due to decreased sebum production and reduced collagen. **Elastic Fiber Reduction**\ **Definition:** With age, the skin\'s elastic fibers decrease, leading to wrinkles and sagging. **Lentigines**\ **Definition:** Also known as age spots, these are small, pigmented areas of the skin that increase with age and sun exposure. **Cardiac Reserve Diminishment**\ **Definition:** A reduction in the heart's ability to increase its output during stress or exercise, common in older adults. **Atherosclerosis Risk**\ **Definition:** A buildup of cholesterol in arteries, increasing the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and peripheral vascular diseases. **Osteoblastic Activity**\ **Definition:** The process of new bone formation decreases with age, contributing to conditions like osteoporosis. **Calcium Absorption Decline**\ **Definition:** The body\'s ability to absorb calcium decreases with age, increasing the risk of bone-related conditions such as osteoporosis. **Respiratory Changes with Aging**\ **Definition:** Elasticity in lung tissues is reduced, along with weaker intercostal muscles, limiting ventilation and gas exchange. **Neurofibrillary Tangles**\ **Definition:** Abnormal accumulations of protein inside nerve cells, contributing to the decline in cognitive function seen in aging. **Reduced Sensory Perception**\ **Definition:** A decline in senses such as vision, hearing, smell, and taste, which can affect nutrition and safety in older adults. **Constipation in Older Adults**\ **Definition:** A common issue due to decreased intestinal motility, leading to complications like hemorrhoids. **Nocturia**\ **Definition:** Frequent urination at night, often associated with aging due to weakened bladder muscles. **Incontinence**\ **Definition:** Involuntary leakage of urine, frequently seen in older adults due to weakened urinary sphincters. **Immune System Decline with Age**\ **Definition:** A reduction in the production and effectiveness of T and B cells, making older adults more susceptible to infections. **Metabolic Syndrome**\ **Definition:** A cluster of conditions including high BMI, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia, increasing the risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. **Kyphosis**\ **Definition:** Excessive outward curvature of the spine, commonly known as hunchback, which can develop during adolescence or as a result of aging. **Lordosis**\ **Definition:** An excessive inward curvature of the spine, often aggravated by obesity or poor posture during adolescent growth spurts. **Scoliosis**\ **Definition:** Lateral curvature of the spine, which can lead to compression of the heart and lungs if severe. **Osteomyelitis**\ **Definition:** A bacterial infection of the bone that can cause pain, necrosis, and sinus formation, requiring early treatment. **Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis (JRA)**\ **Definition:** An autoimmune disease in children causing inflammation of joints, often managed with NSAIDs and disease-modifying drugs. **Anorexia Nervosa**\ **Definition:** An eating disorder characterized by self-induced starvation, leading to extreme weight loss and nutritional deficits, often life-threatening. **Bulimia Nervosa**\ **Definition:** An eating disorder involving cycles of binge eating followed by purging, such as vomiting or using laxatives, often maintaining a normal weight. **Acne Vulgaris**\ **Definition:** A common skin condition in adolescence caused by inflammation of the hair follicles, ranging from mild to severe forms. **Infectious Mononucleosis**\ **Definition:** A viral infection caused by Epstein-Barr virus, spread by saliva, common in adolescents and young adults, characterized by fatigue and swollen lymph nodes. **Klinefelter Syndrome**\ **Definition:** A chromosomal disorder in males characterized by the presence of an extra X chromosome, leading to underdeveloped secondary sexual characteristics. **Turner Syndrome**\ **Definition:** A chromosomal disorder in females where one of the X chromosomes is missing, leading to short stature and infertility. **Dysmenorrhea**\ **Definition:** Painful menstruation caused by uterine contractions, commonly affecting adolescents and women of reproductive age. **Ectopic Pregnancy**\ **Definition:** Implantation of a fertilized egg outside the uterus, usually in the fallopian tube, requiring emergency treatment to prevent complications. **Placenta Previa**\ **Definition:** A condition where the placenta is located low in the uterus, covering the cervix, which can cause painless bleeding during pregnancy. **Abruptio Placentae**\ **Definition:** Premature separation of the placenta from the uterine wall, often resulting in severe bleeding and risking both maternal and fetal health. **Thrombophlebitis**\ **Definition:** Inflammation of a vein, often with clot formation, which can lead to complications like deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. **Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)**\ **Definition:** A serious disorder causing widespread clotting and bleeding, often occurring in response to infection or childbirth complications. **HELLP Syndrome**\ **Definition:** A life-threatening pregnancy complication involving hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count, often associated with pre-eclampsia. **Gestational Diabetes**\ **Definition:** Diabetes that develops during pregnancy, increasing the risk of large-for-gestational-age babies and requiring blood glucose management. **Septic Shock**\ **Definition:** A life-threatening condition caused by severe infection leading to organ failure and dangerously low blood pressure, a risk during postpartum infections. **Varicose Veins During Pregnancy**\ **Definition:** Enlarged veins often seen in the legs of pregnant women due to increased blood volume and pressure from the uterus. **Rh Incompatibility**\ **Definition:** A condition where an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive fetus, risking hemolytic disease in subsequent pregnancies. **Senescence**\ **Definition:** The gradual deterioration of functional characteristics in cells and tissues as a result of aging. **Cardiac Hypertrophy**\ **Definition:** Thickening of the heart muscle, often occurring with aging, which can lead to reduced heart efficiency and increased risk of heart failure. **Presbyopia**\ **Definition:** Age-related loss of the eye\'s ability to focus on close objects, typically becoming noticeable in middle age. **Presbycusis**\ **Definition:** Gradual loss of hearing associated with aging, particularly affecting high-pitched sounds. **Decreased Lung Elasticity**\ **Definition:** A common age-related change where lung tissues lose their elasticity, reducing overall lung capacity and making breathing less efficient. **Proprioception Decline**\ **Definition:** A decrease in the body's ability to sense position, movement, and equilibrium, often contributing to falls in older adults. **Immunosenescence**\ **Definition:** The gradual weakening of the immune system with age, making older adults more susceptible to infections, cancers, and autoimmune diseases. **Atrophic Gastritis**\ **Definition:** Chronic inflammation of the stomach lining seen in aging, often leading to reduced absorption of vitamins like B12 and iron. **Xerostomia**\ **Definition:** Dry mouth commonly found in older adults, often due to decreased salivary gland function or as a side effect of medications. **Varicose Veins**\ **Definition:** Swollen, twisted veins that become more prominent with age, usually due to weakening of the venous walls and valves. **Nephron Loss with Aging**\ **Definition:** The gradual decline in the number of functional nephrons in the kidneys as people age, leading to reduced kidney function and fluid balance. **Lipofuscin Accumulation**\ **Definition:** A pigment that accumulates in cells as a byproduct of cellular aging, often associated with aging-related degeneration of tissues such as the brain and heart. **Atrophy of Skeletal Muscle**\ **Definition:** Loss of muscle mass and strength as a result of aging, contributing to reduced mobility and increased frailty. **Frailty Syndrome**\ **Definition:** A medical condition in older adults marked by weakness, weight loss, and low activity levels, often leading to increased vulnerability to illness and injury. **Hyperlipidemia**\ **Definition:** Elevated levels of fats (cholesterol and triglycerides) in the blood, contributing to atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases, especially in older adults. **Bone Density Testing**\ **Definition:** A test commonly recommended for women at age 50 or earlier to assess the risk of osteoporosis by measuring bone mass. **Peristalsis Slowing**\ **Definition:** The reduction of muscular contractions in the digestive tract with age, leading to issues like constipation. **Metastatic Calcification**\ **Definition:** The deposition of calcium salts in tissues due to an imbalance in calcium metabolism, often seen in aging or chronic disease. **Cataracts**\ **Definition:** Clouding of the lens of the eye, commonly associated with aging, leading to blurry vision and potential blindness. **Glaucoma**\ **Definition:** Increased pressure in the eye, causing damage to the optic nerve, often leading to vision loss if untreated. **Macular Degeneration**\ **Definition:** A degenerative condition affecting the central part of the retina (macula), leading to loss of central vision. **Chronic Venous Insufficiency**\ **Definition:** Poor blood circulation in the veins, often in the legs, leading to swelling, pain, and sometimes skin ulcers. **Hypothermia in Older Adults**\ **Definition:** Increased sensitivity to cold due to reduced circulation and lower body metabolism, often occurring in the elderly. **Age-Related Sleep Disturbances**\ **Definition:** Disruptions in sleep patterns in older adults, often due to changes in circadian rhythms, health conditions, or medications. **Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)**\ **Definition:** A group of lung diseases, including emphysema and chronic bronchitis, that obstruct airflow and worsen over time. **Sarcopenia**\ **Definition:** Age-related loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength, leading to frailty and increased fall risk. **Senile Purpura**\ **Definition:** Easy bruising and bleeding under the skin in elderly individuals due to fragile blood vessels and thinning skin. **Involution of the Thymus**\ **Definition:** Shrinkage of the thymus gland with age, contributing to decreased production of T cells and a weaker immune response. **Dehydration in Older Adults**\ **Definition:** A common issue in elderly individuals due to reduced thirst perception, kidney function, or difficulty accessing fluids. **Diabetic Retinopathy**\ **Definition:** A complication of diabetes that affects the eyes, leading to damage to the blood vessels in the retina and potential blindness. **Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)**\ **Definition:** A digestive disorder where stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing heartburn and discomfort, more common with aging. **Angina Pectoris**\ **Definition:** Chest pain or discomfort due to reduced blood flow to the heart muscle, often a symptom of coronary artery disease. **Varicocele**\ **Definition:** Enlarged veins within the scrotum, commonly affecting younger men, potentially causing pain and infertility. **Degenerative Disk Disease**\ **Definition:** The breakdown of intervertebral disks in the spine due to aging or injury, leading to pain, stiffness, and potential nerve compression. **Decreased Hematopoiesis**\ **Definition:** Reduced production of blood cells, commonly seen with aging, leading to anemia or other blood disorders. **Hyperthyroidism in Aging**\ **Definition:** Overactive thyroid function in elderly individuals, causing symptoms like weight loss, anxiety, and rapid heartbeat. **Hypothyroidism in Aging**\ **Definition:** Underactive thyroid function, common in older adults, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, and depression. **Increased Stroke Risk**\ **Definition:** Elderly individuals are at a higher risk of stroke due to age-related changes in blood vessels and heart function. **Senile Dementia**\ **Definition:** A broad category of brain disorders affecting memory, thinking, and behavior, commonly associated with aging. **Alzheimer\'s Disease**\ **Definition:** A progressive neurological disorder causing memory loss, cognitive decline, and personality changes, often seen in older adults. **Parkinson's Disease**\ **Definition:** A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by tremors, stiffness, and slow movement, commonly affecting older adults. **Hypertensive Retinopathy**\ **Definition:** Damage to the blood vessels in the retina due to chronic high blood pressure, leading to vision problems. **Ischemic Heart Disease**\ **Definition:** Reduced blood supply to the heart muscle, often leading to angina or heart attacks, more common in the elderly. **Hypoxia in Older Adults**\ **Definition:** Reduced oxygen levels in the blood due to respiratory changes with aging, contributing to fatigue and cognitive decline. **Atrial Fibrillation**\ **Definition:** An irregular, often rapid heart rate that increases the risk of stroke, heart failure, and other heart-related complications. **Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)**\ **Definition:** A condition where the heart is unable to pump blood efficiently, causing fluid buildup in the lungs and other tissues. **Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)**\ **Definition:** Narrowing of the arteries in the limbs, often leading to pain, numbness, and increased risk of infection or tissue damage. **Decreased Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)**\ **Definition:** A natural reduction in the body\'s metabolic rate with age, contributing to weight gain and energy loss. **Osteopenia**\ **Definition:** A condition where bone mineral density is lower than normal, but not low enough to be classified as osteoporosis. **Reduced Salivary Gland Function**\ **Definition:** A decrease in saliva production, leading to dry mouth and increased risk of dental problems, common in aging. **Postural Hypotension**\ **Definition:** A sudden drop in blood pressure when standing up, common in older adults, which can lead to dizziness and falls. **Benign Senescent Forgetfulness**\ **Definition:** Minor memory lapses associated with normal aging, not severe enough to interfere significantly with daily life. **Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)**\ **Definition:** A gradual loss of kidney function over time, common in older adults, leading to waste buildup in the body. **Increased Cancer Risk with Age**\ **Definition:** Older adults are at higher risk of developing cancer due to accumulated exposure to carcinogens and age-related immune decline. **Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) in Elderly**\ **Definition:** A common infection in older adults, often causing confusion, fatigue, and increased risk of falls. **Compression Fractures**\ **Definition:** Small fractures in the spine caused by weakened bones, often due to osteoporosis, leading to height loss and pain. **Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)**\ **Definition:** The formation of blood clots in deep veins, particularly in the legs, which can lead to serious complications like pulmonary embolism. **Senile Lentigo**\ **Definition:** Commonly known as liver spots, these are flat, pigmented areas on the skin, often caused by prolonged sun exposure and aging. **Orthostatic Hypotension**\ **Definition:** A form of low blood pressure that happens when standing up from sitting or lying down, increasing fall risk in older adults. **Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension (PIH)**\ **Definition:** A condition where blood pressure exceeds 140/90 mm Hg after 20 weeks of gestation, returning to normal after delivery. **Gestational Hypertension**\ **Definition:** Another term for pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH), characterized by high blood pressure without proteinuria. **Preeclampsia**\ **Definition:** A pregnancy complication marked by high blood pressure, proteinuria, and swelling, typically after 20 weeks of gestation. **Proteinuria**\ **Definition:** The presence of abnormal amounts of protein in the urine, a key indicator of preeclampsia in pregnancy. **HELLP Syndrome**\ **Definition:** A severe form of preeclampsia involving Hemolysis, Elevated Liver enzymes, and Low Platelet count, which is life-threatening. **Eclampsia**\ **Definition:** The onset of seizures or coma in a pregnant woman with preeclampsia, a severe complication requiring emergency intervention. **Severe Preeclampsia**\ **Definition:** A more advanced stage of preeclampsia, characterized by blood pressure higher than 160/110 mm Hg, severe headaches, and vision problems. **Hypertensive Crisis in Pregnancy**\ **Definition:** A condition where blood pressure rises dangerously high during pregnancy, increasing the risk of stroke, organ damage, or maternal death. **Epigastric Pain in Preeclampsia**\ **Definition:** Pain in the upper abdomen, often a warning sign of liver involvement in severe preeclampsia or HELLP syndrome. **Placental Abruption in Preeclampsia**\ **Definition:** A serious condition where the placenta detaches from the uterus prematurely, which can occur as a result of severe preeclampsia or eclampsia. **Oliguria in Preeclampsia**\ **Definition:** Reduced urine output, which can indicate worsening kidney function in women with severe preeclampsia. **Edema in Preeclampsia**\ **Definition:** Swelling in the hands, feet, and face caused by fluid retention, commonly seen in preeclampsia. **Visual Disturbances in Preeclampsia**\ **Definition:** Symptoms such as blurred vision, flashing lights, or temporary loss of vision, often a sign of severe preeclampsia. **Fetal Growth Restriction**\ **Definition:** A condition where the fetus grows slower than expected, often due to poor blood flow caused by maternal preeclampsia. **Hyperreflexia in Preeclampsia**\ **Definition:** Exaggerated reflexes that can occur in severe preeclampsia, indicating heightened nervous system activity. **Thrombocytopenia in HELLP Syndrome**\ **Definition:** A low platelet count seen in HELLP syndrome, which increases the risk of bleeding and complicates delivery. **Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR)**\ **Definition:** Poor growth of the fetus during pregnancy due to maternal hypertension or preeclampsia, leading to a smaller-than-normal baby at birth. **Magnesium Sulfate Therapy**\ **Definition:** A medication used to prevent seizures in women with preeclampsia or eclampsia by stabilizing the nervous system. **Cesarean Section for Eclampsia**\ **Definition:** A surgical procedure often required in cases of severe preeclampsia or eclampsia to deliver the baby and reduce maternal risk. **Seizures in Eclampsia**\ **Definition:** Convulsions resulting from extremely high blood pressure and brain swelling, requiring immediate medical treatment to prevent further complications. 1. **Cell Differentiation**\ Process by which cells become specialized for specific functions, reflecting their role in the tissue. 2. **Mutation**\ A change in the DNA sequence that can lead to altered cell functions and possibly tumor development. 3. **Apoptosis**\ Programmed cell death, which is disrupted in many cancer cells, allowing them to survive longer. 4. **Atypical Cells**\ Cells that appear abnormal in size, shape, or organization under a microscope, often seen in tumors. 5. **Tumor Necrosis**\ The death of cells within a tumor, leading to tissue breakdown and possibly infection. 6. **Infiltration**\ The spread of cancer cells into surrounding tissues. 7. **Oncogenes**\ Genes that, when mutated, have the potential to cause normal cells to become cancerous. 8. **Tumor Suppressor Genes**\ Genes that help regulate cell growth and division; mutations in these genes can lead to cancer. 9. **Nadir (chemotherapy)**\ The point of lowest blood cell count following chemotherapy, increasing the risk of infections. 10. **Effusion**\ Accumulation of fluid in body cavities, such as pleural effusion or ascites, often caused by cancer. 11. **Radioresistant Tumors**\ Tumors that do not respond well to radiation therapy and may require alternative treatments. 12. **Antimitotic Drugs**\ Drugs that interfere with cell division, specifically targeting cancer cells in mitosis. 13. **Gene Therapy (cancer)**\ An experimental treatment that involves replacing mutated genes responsible for cancer. 14. **Remission**\ A state in which cancer symptoms are reduced or have disappeared, although the disease may still be present. 15. **Cachexia**\ Severe weight loss and muscle wasting seen in cancer patients, often due to metabolic changes caused by the tumor. 16. **Palliative Care**\ Treatment focused on relieving symptoms and improving quality of life in advanced cancer cases. 17. **Adjuvant Therapy**\ Additional treatment, such as chemotherapy or radiation, given after primary cancer surgery to reduce the risk of recurrence. 18. **Invasiveness**\ The ability of malignant tumors to grow into and destroy nearby tissues. 19. **Immunotherapy**\ A type of cancer treatment that boosts the body's natural defenses to fight cancer cells. 20. **Metastatic Spread**\ The process by which cancer cells break away from the original tumor and spread to other parts of the body. 21. **Bone Marrow Depression (radiation)**\ A decrease in bone marrow activity due to radiation therapy, leading to anemia, infections, and bleeding issues. 22. **Genomic Tumor Profiling**\ A diagnostic tool that assesses the genetic mutations within a tumor to guide treatment options. 23. **Paraneoplastic Syndrome**\ A set of symptoms that occur when a cancerous tumor releases hormones or other substances affecting distant organs. 24. **Chemoprevention**\ The use of drugs, vitamins, or other agents to try to prevent or delay the development of cancer. 25. **Surgical Resection**\ The removal of a tumor or part of an organ through surgery to treat cancer. **From Congenital and Genetic Disorders (Chapter 21):** 26. **Polygenic Inheritance**\ A type of inheritance where multiple genes influence a single trait or disorder. 27. **Epicanthic Fold**\ A skin fold of the upper eyelid that is common in individuals with Down syndrome. 28. **Single Palmar Crease**\ A single crease across the palm, often seen in individuals with Down syndrome. 29. **Hypotonia**\ Reduced muscle tone, a characteristic of certain genetic disorders such as Down syndrome. 30. **High-Arched Palate**\ A structural abnormality in the mouth often seen in individuals with certain congenital disorders. 31. **Slanted Eyes**\ A characteristic feature seen in individuals with Down syndrome. 32. **Delayed Developmental Stages**\ A common issue in genetic disorders where milestones such as walking and talking are reached later than usual. 33. **Amniocentesis**\ A prenatal diagnostic test where amniotic fluid is collected to test for genetic and chromosomal abnormalities. 34. **Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)**\ A prenatal test involving the sampling of placental tissue to diagnose chromosomal or genetic disorders in the fetus. 35. **Nondisjunction**\ The failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis, leading to chromosomal abnormalities such as trisomy 21. 36. **TORCH Infections**\ A group of infections (Toxoplasmosis, Other, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, Herpes) that can cause congenital anomalies when contracted by a pregnant woman. 37. **Organogenesis**\ The process of organ formation during early fetal development, which can be disrupted by exposure to teratogens. 38. **Phenylalanine**\ An amino acid that cannot be properly processed in individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU), leading to toxic buildup. 39. **Delayed Lethal Genotype**\ A genetic mutation that manifests later in life, potentially after the affected individual has reproduced (e.g., Huntington\'s disease). 40. **Translocation (chromosomal)**\ A chromosomal abnormality where a piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome. 41. **Gene Replacement Therapy**\ A type of gene therapy where a faulty gene is replaced with a healthy version to prevent or treat genetic diseases. 42. **Mosaicism**\ A condition where an individual has two or more populations of cells with different genetic makeups, often seen in Turner syndrome. 43. **Gene Mutation**\ A change in the DNA sequence that can result in genetic disorders or increased disease susceptibility. 44. **Phenylketonuria (PKU)**\ A metabolic disorder where individuals cannot break down phenylalanine, leading to intellectual disability if untreated. 45. **Congenital Hip Dislocation**\ A developmental disorder where the hip joint is improperly formed, leading to instability and dislocation. 46. **Cleft Palate**\ A birth defect where the roof of the mouth does not fully develop, often requiring surgical correction. 47. **Delayed Sexual Development (Down Syndrome)**\ A feature of Down syndrome where puberty and sexual development occur later or may be incomplete. 48. **Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (FMR1)**\ The gene responsible for Fragile X syndrome, which leads to intellectual disabilities and developmental delays. 49. **Autosomal Chromosomes**\ The 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes that determine most genetic traits in humans. 50. **Karyotype Testing**\ A laboratory technique that creates a visual display of chromosomes to detect genetic or chromosomal abnormalities. **Dyspnea**\ **Definition:** Shortness of breath, often occurring during pregnancy or in aging individuals due to cardiovascular or respiratory issues. **Gestational Age**\ **Definition:** The age of a fetus or newborn, measured from the first day of the mother's last menstrual period, typically lasting 40 weeks. **Primigravida**\ **Definition:** A woman who is pregnant for the first time. **Multipara**\ **Definition:** A woman who has completed two or more pregnancies where the fetus has reached viability. **Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)**\ **Definition:** A prenatal test in which a sample of chorionic villi is taken from the placenta to test for chromosomal abnormalities. **Amniocentesis**\ **Definition:** A medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis where a small amount of amniotic fluid is sampled to screen for genetic conditions. **Neonatal Jaundice**\ **Definition:** A condition in newborns characterized by yellowing of the skin and eyes due to high bilirubin levels. **Teratogens**\ **Definition:** Substances or environmental exposures that can cause congenital abnormalities during fetal development. **Organogenesis**\ **Definition:** The process during embryonic development where the organs begin to form, usually occurring between 3 to 8 weeks of gestation. **Postpartum Hemorrhage**\ **Definition:** Excessive bleeding following childbirth, a serious complication requiring immediate medical attention. **Lochia**\ **Definition:** Vaginal discharge consisting of blood, mucus, and uterine tissue that occurs after childbirth. **Placenta Accreta**\ **Definition:** A condition where the placenta attaches too deeply into the uterine wall, potentially causing complications during delivery. **Premature Rupture of Membranes (PROM)**\ **Definition:** The breaking of the amniotic sac before labor begins, increasing the risk of infection and premature birth. **Polyhydramnios**\ **Definition:** An excessive amount of amniotic fluid during pregnancy, which can cause complications for both mother and fetus. **Oligohydramnios**\ **Definition:** A condition where there is too little amniotic fluid around the fetus, which can lead to developmental issues. **Braxton Hicks Contractions**\ **Definition:** False labor contractions that are irregular and not as painful as true labor contractions. **Hyperemesis Gravidarum**\ **Definition:** Severe, persistent nausea and vomiting during pregnancy that can lead to dehydration and weight loss. **Spontaneous Abortion (Miscarriage)**\ **Definition:** The natural loss of a pregnancy before 20 weeks of gestation, commonly referred to as a miscarriage. **Intrauterine Fetal Demise (IUFD)**\ **Definition:** The death of a fetus after 20 weeks of pregnancy but before delivery, also known as stillbirth. **Colostrum**\ **Definition:** The first form of milk produced by the mammary glands after childbirth, rich in antibodies to protect the newborn. **Involution of the Uterus**\ **Definition:** The process by which the uterus returns to its normal size and shape after childbirth. **Uterine Atony**\ **Definition:** A condition where the uterus fails to contract effectively after childbirth, leading to postpartum hemorrhage. **Preterm Labor**\ **Definition:** Labor that occurs before 37 weeks of gestation, potentially leading to premature birth. **Engagement in Labor**\ **Definition:** When the baby\'s head descends into the pelvic cavity in preparation for delivery. **Cervical Effacement**\ **Definition:** The thinning and shortening of the cervix during labor, helping to prepare the body for delivery. **Cervical Dilation**\ **Definition:** The opening of the cervix during labor, measured in centimeters from 0 to 10, indicating how close the woman is to giving birth. **Fetal Distress**\ **Definition:** Signs that the fetus is not well, often due to lack of oxygen, and may require immediate medical intervention during labor. **Meconium Aspiration Syndrome**\ **Definition:** A condition where a newborn inhales a mixture of meconium (first stool) and amniotic fluid during labor or delivery, which can cause breathing problems. **Placental Insufficiency**\ **Definition:** A condition where the placenta fails to deliver enough oxygen and nutrients to the fetus, leading to growth problems or other complications. **Intrauterine Infection (Chorioamnionitis)**\ **Definition:** An infection of the fetal membranes and amniotic fluid, often caused by bacteria entering the uterus. **Fundal Height**\ **Definition:** The distance between the top of the uterus and the pubic bone, used to estimate fetal growth and development during pregnancy. **Round Ligament Pain**\ **Definition:** Sharp pain or discomfort in the lower abdomen during pregnancy, caused by stretching of the ligaments that support the uterus. **Supine Hypotensive Syndrome**\ **Definition:** A drop in blood pressure in a pregnant woman when she lies on her back, caused by the uterus compressing major blood vessels. **Lightening in Pregnancy**\ **Definition:** The sensation of the baby dropping lower into the pelvis as labor approaches, usually felt in the weeks before delivery. **Uterine Rupture**\ **Definition:** A rare but serious complication during labor where the uterine wall tears, risking the life of both mother and baby. **Crowning**\ **Definition:** The stage during childbirth when the baby's head fully appears at the vaginal opening, signaling that delivery is imminent. **Vacuum-Assisted Delivery**\ **Definition:** A method of assisted vaginal delivery where a vacuum device is used to help guide the baby out of the birth canal. **Breech Presentation**\ **Definition:** A fetal position where the baby's feet or buttocks are positioned to be delivered first, rather than the head. **Prolapsed Umbilical Cord**\ **Definition:** A condition where the umbilical cord drops into the birth canal ahead of the baby, which can cut off the baby's oxygen supply. **Shoulder Dystocia**\ **Definition:** A birth complication where the baby's shoulders become stuck behind the mother's pelvic bone during delivery. **Chronic Meningitis**\ **Definition:** Inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord, often caused by infection, presenting as a long-term condition. **Anemia in Aging**\ **Definition:** A condition in elderly individuals where the body has fewer red blood cells than normal, leading to fatigue and weakness. **Sarcomas in Adolescence**\ **Definition:** A group of cancers that arise from connective tissues, such as bone or muscle, more common in adolescents. **Hyperpigmentation**\ **Definition:** Darkening of an area of skin caused by increased melanin, often due to aging or hormonal changes. **Seborrheic Keratosis**\ **Definition:** A benign, wart-like skin growth common in older adults, appearing in various shades of brown. **Vertigo**\ **Definition:** A sensation of dizziness or spinning, commonly seen in older adults due to inner ear problems or decreased blood flow. **Sleep Apnea in Aging**\ **Definition:** A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep, more common in elderly individuals due to muscle relaxation and other age-related changes. **Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)**\ **Definition:** A degenerative eye disease that leads to loss of central vision, commonly affecting elderly individuals. **Nocturnal Emissions in Adolescence**\ **Definition:** Involuntary ejaculation of semen during sleep, commonly occurring in males during puberty. **Type 2 Diabetes in Adolescents**\ **Definition:** A form of diabetes that occurs when the body becomes resistant to insulin or doesn\'t produce enough of it, increasingly diagnosed in adolescents. **Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy in Adolescence**\ **Definition:** A condition where the heart muscle becomes abnormally thick, making it harder for the heart to pump blood, often undiagnosed until adolescence. **Cerebral Atrophy**\ **Definition:** The gradual loss of neurons and brain tissue, which occurs naturally with aging and in certain neurodegenerative diseases. **Cardiovascular Reserve**\ **Definition:** The heart\'s ability to increase output during increased physical demand, which diminishes with aging. **Hypercholesterolemia**\ **Definition:** An abnormally high level of cholesterol in the blood, which increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, common in aging populations. **Metabolic Syndrome in Adolescents**\ **Definition:** A cluster of conditions, including high blood pressure, high blood sugar, excess body fat around the waist, and abnormal cholesterol levels, seen in obese adolescents. **Senile Plaques**\ **Definition:** Clusters of beta-amyloid proteins that form in the brain, associated with Alzheimer\'s disease and aging. **Pseudogout**\ **Definition:** A condition where calcium pyrophosphate crystals deposit in the joints, causing inflammation similar to gout, common in older adults. **Involutional Melancholia**\ **Definition:** A type of depression often seen in elderly individuals, associated with the changes and losses of aging. **Arthritis in Adolescence**\ **Definition:** A condition causing inflammation and pain in the joints, including forms like juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA). **Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis**\ **Definition:** A curvature of the spine with no known cause, commonly diagnosed during adolescent growth spurts. **Myocardial Infarction (Heart Attack)**\ **Definition:** Occurs when a blockage in the coronary arteries reduces or stops blood flow to the heart muscle, leading to tissue damage. **Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident)**\ **Definition:** A condition where blood flow to part of the brain is interrupted or reduced, leading to brain cell death, commonly seen in aging populations. **Cachexia**\ **Definition:** A syndrome characterized by weight loss, muscle atrophy, fatigue, and weakness, often associated with chronic illnesses like cancer or aging. **Lipodystrophy**\ **Definition:** A condition involving abnormal or degenerative conditions of the body\'s adipose (fat) tissue, which can occur in both adolescents and adults. **Osteomalacia**\ **Definition:** Softening of the bones due to vitamin D deficiency, causing bone pain and weakness, often occurring in older adults. **Leukoplakia**\ **Definition:** A condition where thick, white patches form on the mucous membranes of the mouth or tongue, sometimes seen in older adults, potentially precancerous. **Urticaria (Hives)**\ **Definition:** A skin condition characterized by itchy, red welts caused by an allergic reaction or stress, seen across all age groups. **Exophthalmos**\ **Definition:** Protrusion of the eyeball, often associated with hyperthyroidism, particularly Graves\' disease, which can be seen in both younger and older adults. **Osteopenia**\ **Definition:** A condition where bone mineral density is lower than normal but not low enough to be classified as osteoporosis, seen in both adolescents and elderly. **Lipoma**\ **Definition:** A benign tumor made of fat tissue, commonly seen in older adults, presenting as soft, movable lumps under the skin. **Dupuytren's Contracture**\ **Definition:** A condition where the fingers become permanently bent due to thickening of the palmar fascia, common in older adults. **Hypogonadism in Adolescence**\ **Definition:** A condition in which the body doesn\'t produce enough testosterone, leading to delayed or incomplete sexual development. **Pubertal Gynecomastia**\ **Definition:** The benign enlargement of breast tissue in adolescent males, caused by hormonal changes during puberty. **Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Adolescents**\ **Definition:** A mental health condition triggered by experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, increasingly recognized in adolescents. **Ankylosing Spondylitis**\ **Definition:** A type of arthritis that causes inflammation in the joints of the spine, leading to stiffness and reduced mobility, often starting in adolescence or early adulthood. **Delayed Menarche**\ **Definition:** Late onset of menstruation in adolescent girls, which can be caused by factors such as malnutrition or excessive physical activity. **Aortic Stenosis in the Elderly**\ **Definition:** Narrowing of the aortic valve, commonly seen in older adults, leading to reduced blood flow from the heart. **Presbycusis**\ **Definition:** Age-related hearing loss, particularly affecting the ability to hear high-pitched sounds. **Meniere's Disease**\ **Definition:** A disorder of the inner ear causing vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss, which can occur at any age but is more common in older adults. **Postural Instability in Aging**\ **Definition:** Difficulty maintaining balance, leading to an increased risk of falls in elderly individuals. **Gravidity**\ **Definition:** The number of times a woman has been pregnant, regardless of the outcome. **Parity**\ **Definition:** The number of pregnancies in which the fetus has reached viability (about 20 weeks of gestation), regardless of whether the fetus was born alive or stillborn. **Primigravida**\ **Definition:** A woman who is pregnant for the first time. **Multigravida**\ **Definition:** A woman who has been pregnant more than once. **Nulligravida**\ **Definition:** A woman who has never been pregnant. **Primipara**\ **Definition:** A woman who has given birth to one child who reached viability. **Multipara**\ **Definition:** A woman who has given birth two or more times to fetuses that reached viability. **Nullipara**\ **Definition:** A woman who has never given birth to a fetus that reached viability. **Viability**\ **Definition:** The ability of a fetus to survive outside the uterus, typically after 20 weeks of gestation. **Term Pregnancy**\ **Definition:** A pregnancy that has reached between 37 and 42 weeks of gestation, considered full-term. **Preterm Pregnancy**\ **Definition:** A pregnancy that reaches between 20 and 37 weeks of gestation but is delivered before full term. **Postterm Pregnancy**\ **Definition:** A pregnancy that extends beyond 42 weeks of gestation. **Abortion**\ **Definition:** The termination of pregnancy before the fetus reaches viability, whether spontaneous (miscarriage) or induced. **Spontaneous Abortion (Miscarriage)**\ **Definition:** The natural loss of a pregnancy before 20 weeks of gestation. **Threatened Abortion**\ **Definition:** A condition in which a pregnant woman experiences symptoms such as vaginal bleeding, suggesting that a miscarriage may occur. **Incomplete Abortion**\ **Definition:** A miscarriage where some, but not all, of the products of conception have been expelled from the uterus. **Missed Abortion**\ **Definition:** A condition where the fetus dies but is not expelled from the uterus, usually discovered during an ultrasound. **Habitual Abortion**\ **Definition:** The occurrence of three or more consecutive miscarriages. **Stillbirth**\ **Definition:** The birth of a fetus that has died in the womb after reaching viability, usually after 20 weeks of gestation. **Estimated Date of Delivery (EDD)**\ **Definition:** The expected date a baby will be born, calculated based on the first day of the last menstrual period (LMP). **Naegele's Rule**\ **Definition:** A method for estimating a woman's due date by adding 280 days (or 40 weeks) to the first day of her last menstrual period (LMP). **Gestational Age**\ **Definition:** The age of the fetus or pregnancy, typically measured in weeks from the first day of the mother's last menstrual period. **Biological Age**\ **Definition:** The actual age of the fetus, starting from conception, typically 2 weeks less than gestational age. **Primiparity**\ **Definition:** The state of having given birth to one child that reached viability. **Grand Multipara**\ **Definition:** A woman who has given birth five or more times to fetuses that have reached viability.