Exam 1 Review PDF

Review for Exam 1 Chapter 1 objectives Sociology – the study of human society. Sociological imagination – the ability to connect the most basic, intimate aspects of an individual’s life to seemingly impersonal and remote historical...

Review for Exam 1 Chapter 1 objectives Sociology – the study of human society. Sociological imagination – the ability to connect the most basic, intimate aspects of an individual’s life to seemingly impersonal and remote historical forces. Sociology, a relatively young discipline, was developed in the nineteenth century because of August Comte inventing what was called “social physics” or “positivism. The key theoretical perspectives in sociology are conflict theory, functionalism, and symbolic interactionism. C. Wright Mills - (1916 – 1962) argued that in the effort to think critically about the social world around us, we need to use our sociological imagination. Structure-Agency – Structure is the recurrent patterned arrangements which influence or limit the choices and opportunities available. Agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own free choices. Sociology and Common Sense – Sociology is more about understanding society through a logical approach. Common Sense stems from personal experiences and can only be relevant to a particular section. August Comte - (1798 – 1857) believed that the best way to understand society is by determining the logic or scientific laws governing human behavior, which he called “social physic”. Karl Marx - (1818 – 1883) probably the most famous of the three early sociologists; from his name the term Marxism (an ideological alternative to capitalism) derives, and his writings provided the theoretical basis for Communism.  Max Weber - (1864 – 1920) emphasized subjectivity and is credited as one of the most brilliant sociologists. Emile Durkheim - (1858 – 1917) wanted to understand how society holds together, and how modern capitalism and industrialization have transformed the ways people relate to one another. Functionalist Perspective – (Macro level theory) the perspective that various social institutions and processes in society exist to serve some important (or necessary) function to keep society running. Conflict Perspective - (Macro level theory) the perspective that conflict between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in general. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective - (Micro level theory) the perspective in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people’s actions. Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains structured and recurrent patterns of unequal distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments. Chapter 2 objectives Scientific method – a procedure involving the formulation, testing, and modification of hypothesis based on systematic observation, measurement, and/or experiments. Hypothesis – a proposed relationship between two variables, usually with a stated direction.  Independent variable – a measured factor that the researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent variable. Dependent variable – the outcome the researcher is trying to explain. Correlation - (association) when two variables tend to track each other positively or negatively. Random sample – subset of a statistical population in which each member of the subset has an equal probability of being chosen. Reliability – the likelihood of obtaining consistent results using the same measure. Validity – the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure. Qualitative research – research that attempts to collect information about the social world that cannot be readily converted to numeric form. Quantitative research – research that seeks to obtain information about the social world that is already in or can be converted to numeric form. Generalization – the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied. Surveys – an ordered series of questions intended to elicit information from respondents. They can be powerful methods of data collection. Experiments – procedure typically used to confirm the validity of a hypothesis by comparing the outcomes of one or more groups to a control group on a given measure. Experimental group – the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested. Control group – the group in an experiment that does not receive a particular invention or treatment.  Observation – the process of assigning a precise definition for measuring a concept being examined in a particular study. Secondary Analysis – the use of existing research data to find answer to a question that was different from the original work. Hawthorne Effect – when a participant’s behavior changes as a result of being observed, rather than as a result of an intervention. Code of Ethics – sets forth the principles and ethical standards that underlie sociologists’ professional responsibilities and conduct. Golden rules of Research 1. Do not harm: design studies that do no physical or psychological harm to subjects 2. Obtain informed consent: Subjects have a right to know they are a part of a study, what they are expected to do, and how the results will be used. 3. Ensure voluntary participation. People have a right to decide if they want to participate in your study (must be allowed to drop out with no penalty). Chapter 3 objectives Culture – the sum of the social categories and concepts we operate within in addition to beliefs, learned behaviors, and practices. Culture is always a relative concept, we cannot talk about culture without reference to the global world. Culture universals – traits or habits that can be found around the world and throughout time. Often include rites of passage, religious beliefs, and ethical behavior. Globalization – an ongoing process that involves interconnected changes in the economic, cultural, social, and political spheres of society.  Diffusion – how new ideas, technologies, or practices spread across cultures or social groups. Sociobiology – the systematic study of the biological basis of social behavior in all organisms, including humans. Cultural relativism – taking into account the differences across cultures without passing judgment or assigning value. Innovation – the process through which new ideas, objects, practices, or values are introduced and accepted into a society or cultural group. Discovery – new findings about previously unknown or unrecognized aspects of a culture. Invention – an object or concept’s initial appearance in society. Various elements of culture include symbols, languages, norms, values, and artifacts. Material culture – everything that is a part of our constructed, physical environment, including technology. Non-material culture – includes values, beliefs, behaviors, and social norms. Technology – the application of knowledge, techniques, and tools to adapt and control physical environments and material resources to satisfy wants and needs. Cultural lag – the time gap between the appearance of a new technology and the words and practices that give it meaning. Culture variations include cuisine, art, gender roles, economic systems, and social hierarchy among any number of other humanly organized behaviors. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis – posits that language either determines or influences one’s thought.  Non-verbal communication – the process of communicating by sending and receiving wordless messages. Values – moral beliefs. Norms – how values tell us to behave. Mores – moral standards that determine right and wrong. Folkways – the customs or conventions of daily life. Positive sanctions – rewards given for conforming to norms. Negative sanctions – punishments for violating norms. Culture – the sum of the social categories and concept we recognize in addition to our beliefs, behaviors (except the instinctual ones), and practices. Culture is everything but nature. Dominant ideology – a system of concepts and relationships; an underlying explanation of phenomena in society; a framework of causes and effects. Reflection theory – culture is a projection of social structures and relationships into the public sphere, a screen onto which the film of the underlying reality or social structures of our society is shown. Code switching – swapping out one set of meanings, values, and/or languages on the fly. Cultural scripts – modes of behavior and understanding that are not universal or natural, shape our notions of gender. Subculture – groups united by sets of concepts, values, symbols, and shared meaning specific to the members of that group. Argot – a characteristic and specialized language used by a group, particularly a subculture.  Counterculture – a large cultural group defined in opposition to the ideologies, values, and norms of the mainstream culture. Culture shock – confusion and anxiety caused by not knowing what words, signs, and other symbols mean. Ethnocentrism – the belief that one’s own culture or group is superior to others, and the tendency to view all others cultures from the perspective of one’s own. Cultural relativism – taking into account the differences across cultures without passing judgment or assigning value.