Evaluation of Scrotal Masses PDF

Evaluation of Scrotal Masses Jeffrey D. Tiemstra, MD, and Shailendra Kapoor, MD Department of Family Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois Scrotal masses can represent a wide range of medical issues, from benign congenital conditions to life-thre...

Evaluation of Scrotal Masses Jeffrey D. Tiemstra, MD, and Shailendra Kapoor, MD Department of Family Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois Scrotal masses can represent a wide range of medical issues, from benign congenital conditions to life-threatening malignancies and acute surgical emergencies. Having a clear understanding of scrotal anatomy allows the examiner to accurately identify most lesions. Benign lesions such as hydroceles and varicoceles are often found incidentally by the patient or physician on routine examination. Epididymitis is bacterial in origin, readily diagnosed on physical examination, and treated with antibiotics. Indirect inguinal hernias usually are palpable separate from the normal scrotal contents and are a surgical emergency if strangulation is suspected based on symptoms of abdominal pain, tenderness, and nonreducibility. Testicular swelling may be caused by orchitis, cancer, or testicular torsion. Orchitis is usually viral in origin, subacute in onset, and may be accompanied by systemic illness. Testicular carcinomas are more gradual in onset; the testis will be nontender on examination. Testicular torsion has an acute onset, often with no antecedent trauma; the involved testis may be retracted and palpably rotated, and will be tender on examination. The swollen testis is always a true emergency. Although history and examination may suggest the diagnosis, testicular torsion can be reliably confirmed only with color Doppler ultrasonography, which must be obtained immediately. If torsion is suspected, surgical consultation should be obtained concurrently with ultrasonography, because the abil- ity to successfully salvage the affected testis declines dramatically after six hours of torsion. (Am Fam Physician. 2008;78(10):1165-1170. Copyright © 2008 American Academy of Family Physicians.) S crotal masses can occur from infancy occur on the scrotum of adults, typically pre- to old age, with the various causes senting as painless, slowly growing nodules distributed widely across the age in the skin. Occasionally such lesions become spectrum. Causes range from inci- infected, in which case they will be erythem- dental findings of little clinical significance atous and tender. They can be palpated in the to conditions that can cause permanent dis- dermal layer and are freely mobile and sepa- ability or death. Fortunately, with a careful rate from the testes and spermatic cord. history and physical examination, physi- Squamous cell carcinoma of the scrotal cians can usually identify those patients with skin is primarily an occupational illness. potentially serious conditions. Because of the Although it used to be common among possibility of emergent and life-threatening chimney sweeps, the disease is now fairly causes, and because a swollen scrotum is rare because the risks of exposure to occupa- usually of great concern to patients, imme- tional carcinogens have been recognized, and diate evaluation is always required. use of protective clothing and equipment has Scrotal masses are best categorized by their become routine. However, squamous cell car- anatomic origin. Because the anatomy of the cinoma of the scrotal skin is seen on occasion, scrotum is easy to appreciate on physical and has been reported in a variety of indus- examination, identifying normal anatomy trial occupations, such as textile milling and by inspection and palpation will usually lead metalworking. Scrotal carcinoma has also to an accurate differential diagnosis of most been cited as a complication of PUVA (pso- scrotal masses (Figure 1). Figure 2 illustrates ralen plus ultraviolet A) therapy for psoriasis. the normal anatomy of the scrotum, and The frequency of scrotal carcinoma increases Table 1 classifies causes of scrotal masses by with age, peaking around 75 years of age. It anatomic origin. typically presents as a raised papule or plaque that progressively enlarges and ulcerates.1,2 Causes of Scrotal Swelling SKIN TUNICA VAGINALIS AND PROCESSUS VAGINALIS Any lesion of the skin may occur on the skin During fetal development, the processus of the scrotum. Sebaceous cysts commonly vaginalis testis forms as an extension of  Downloaded from the American Family Physician Web site at www.aafp.org/afp. Copyright © 2008 American Academy of Family Physicians. For the private, noncommercial use of one individual user of the Web site. All other rights reserved. Contact [email protected] for copyright questions and/or permission requests. Scrotal Masses SORT: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE Evidence Clinical recommendation rating References Any patient reporting swelling of the scrotum should be evaluated immediately. A careful physical C 16-18 examination should include identification of the normal anatomic structures of the scrotum, and transillumination of any mass. If testicular torsion is suspected, emergent surgical consultation with or without Doppler B 15, 19-21 ultrasonography should be obtained. Surgery for testicular torsion must be performed within six hours of the onset of pain to maximize the odds of salvaging the testis. Color Doppler ultrasonography is the test of choice for immediate evaluation of scrotal masses. B 25-29 A = consistent, good-quality patient-oriented evidence; B = inconsistent or limited-quality patient-oriented evidence; C = consensus, disease- oriented evidence, usual practice, expert opinion, or case series. For information about the SORT evidence rating system, go to http://www.aafp. org/afpsort.xml. Diagnosing Scrotal Masses Swelling of the testis Swelling of the epididymis Tender, onset < 24 hours Nontender, gradual onset Diffusely swollen, Nodule, stable in size tender, acute onset Torsion versus orchitis Spermatocele; consider Epididymitis ultrasonography to confirm Solid Transilluminates Emergent surgical referral Suspect testicular Hydrocele obscuring carcinoma; order ultra­ testis; order ultra­ sonography or referr sonography to confirm Swelling of the spermatic cord Swelling of the skin Swelling extends “Bag of worms” texture Smooth, transilluminates Irregular, enlarging; Smooth, cystic, to inguinal ring occupational risk stable in size Varicocele Hydrocele; consider Indirect inguinal hernia ultrasonography to confirm Rule out squamous Sebaceous cyst cell carcinoma note: Emergent surgical referral should be strongly considered for any acutely painful scrotum when testicular torsion is a possibility. If testicular tor- sion is not suspected, ultrasonography may be performed to confirm the diagnosis. Figure 1. Algorithm of the likely diagnoses of a scrotal mass based on physical examination findings. the peritoneum, descending into the scrotum and sur- tent processus vaginalis. Hydroceles are common in rounding the testis. With complete descent of the testis, newborns, but often disappear within the first year of the surrounding tunica vaginalis testis separates from life. However, a hydrocele may appear at any age as a the processus vaginalis testis. A hydrocele is a collec- painless, unilateral scrotal swelling of acute or insidious tion of fluid in either the tunica vaginalis or a persis- onset. On examination, a hydrocele is fluctuant, ovoid, 1166 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 78, Number 10 ◆ November 15, 2008  Scrotal Masses Spermatic cord and nontender. Hydroceles in the tunica vaginalis may obscure the adjacent testis, whereas hydroceles arising from a persistent processus vaginalis are palpated above the testis along the spermatic cord. Transillumination (shining a light through the swelling) demonstrates light transmission through the fluid-filled hydrocele, Cremaster compared with nontransmission or limited transmis- Vas deferens muscle sion through the solid testis.3 Hydroceles may develop and fascia Pampiniform in adulthood as a result of lymphatic obstruction by dis- plexus Appendix of eases such as filariasis, and are common in areas where epididymis such infection is endemic.4 Epididymis Appendix A persistent processus vaginalis may lead to a hydro- of testis cele or an indirect inguinal hernia. Inguinal hernias Testis (covered can also present at any age. Indirect inguinal hernias by visceral layer of tunica follow the path of the processus vaginalis through the vaginalis testis) internal inguinal ring and into the scrotum. Although ILLUSTRATION BY todd buck the persistent processus vaginalis is congenital, symp- tomatic indirect inguinal hernias may develop at any Parietal layer of age. Patients may present with scrotal swelling that tunica vaginalis testis fluctuates in size, and may note increased swelling with Valsalva-type maneuvers. On palpation, the indirect Figure 2. Anatomy of the scrotum. inguinal hernia may be felt as a swelling extending up Table 1. Causes of Scrotal Lesions by Anatomic Origin Pain/ Aggravating/alleviating factors, Anatomic origin Lesion/condition Onset/progression tenderness associated symptoms Skin Sebaceous cyst Acute/chronic, stable No — Squamous cell Chronic, progressive No — carcinoma Tunica vaginalis Hydrocele Acute/chronic, stable No Transilluminates testis Hematocele Acute, caused by trauma Yes Does not transilluminate well Processus Indirect inguinal Acute/chronic, stable or No; yes if May enlarge with Valsalva-type maneuvers; vaginalis testis hernia progressive strangulated size may fluctuate Hydrocele Chronic, stable No — Pampiniform Varicocele Chronic, stable No “Bag of worms” consistency plexus Epididymis Epididymitis Acute, progressive Yes May have symptoms of urinary tract infection Spermatocele Chronic, stable No — Testis Testicular torsion Acute, progressive Yes Elevation of testis may aggravate pain; abnormal testicular lie; cremasteric reflex usually absent Appendix testis Acute, stable Yes Blue dot sign torsion Orchitis Acute, self-limited Yes Elevation of testis may relieve pain, may have systemic symptoms of viral illness Testicular cancer Chronic, progressive No — November 15, 2008 ◆ Volume 78, Number 10 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 1167 Scrotal Masses the spermatic cord to the inguinal ring. Inguinal her- the testicular salvage rate for detorsion is 90 percent nias often enlarge with the Valsalva maneuver, and can if performed within six hours of symptom onset, but be reduced by the examiner unless the hernias are incar- drops to 50 percent after 12 hours, and to only 10 per- cerated. In contrast, patients with hydroceles will have a cent after 24 hours.15-22 palpably normal spermatic cord and inguinal ring above The presentation of torsion of the appendix testis the swollen area. About one third of patients referred for may be identical to that of testicular torsion. On physi- surgery for a palpable inguinal hernia have a nonpalpa- cal examination, however, a hard, tender nodule at the ble contralateral hernia as well, so ultrasound imaging superior aspect of the testis may be palpated just beneath should be considered in these patients.5,6 the skin, often with a bluish discoloration (i.e., the blue Strangulated indirect inguinal hernias present as acute dot sign). painful masses, often accompanied by abdominal com- Orchitis can occur when organisms travel up the vas plaints such as pain, nausea, and vomiting. The hernia deferens from the urinary tract, or it can be caused by is typically firm and tender, and is usually not reducible. systemic infections; potential pathogens include chla- Strangulated hernias are a surgical emergency.7 mydia, salmonella, mumps, brucellosis, and tubercu- Hematoceles are typically a result of direct trauma to losis. In addition to a painful swollen testis, patients the scrotum (including iatrogenic trauma from aspira- may have fever and other systemic signs and symptoms. tion of a hydrocele), although idiopathic cases have been Unlike the pain of testicular torsion, the pain of orchitis reported. Patients usually present following trauma with is usually relieved by elevation of the testes.23 pain and an acute scrotal swelling similar to a hydrocele, EPIDIDYMIS although not transilluminating well. Hematoceles can mimic testicular torsion and epididymitis. Epididymitis, acute infection of the epididymis, is usu- ally caused by sexually transmitted diseases or common TESTES genitourinary pathogens, including gonorrhea and chla- Testicular tumors are the most common malignant mydia. Patients typically have subacute onset of pain tumors encountered in men 25 to 35 years of age. His- and swelling, sometimes with associated urinary tract tologic classification of these tumors is complex, and symptoms, and on examination have a diffusely swollen, includes seminomas, choriocarcinoma, and a variety of tender epididymis distinct from the testis.23 teratomas, or germ cell tumors. Most palpable testicular A spermatocele is a retention cyst of the epididymis. tumors in adults are malignant, although 80 percent of The patient usually presents with a soft nodule in the nonpalpable testicular lesions are benign.8 Children with head of the epididymis. On examination, a swelling can testicular tumors are more likely to have benign lesions, be felt above and behind the testes, distinct from the tes- with 20 to 40 percent being benign.9,10 On examination, tes; typically it does not transilluminate.23 the testis is enlarged, nontender, has a firm consistency, PAMPINIFORM PLEXUS and does not transilluminate. In seminomas, the testic- ular surface is smooth and the consistency is uniform, A varicocele is a dilation of the pampiniform venous whereas teratomas may be more irregular. Urgent evalu- plexus along the spermatic cord. It is more common in ation and referral are indicated.11-14 tall, thin men and usually occurs on the left side. Patients Torsion of the testis is most common in males 10 to may be asymptomatic or may complain of a dull, drag- 25 years of age. Most torsions occur during sleep, with ging discomfort on the affected side. Palpation reveals scrotal trauma accounting for less than 10 percent of the classic “bag of worms” along the spermatic cord. The cases.15 Patients typically present with sudden onset mass disappears when the patient lies down and reap- of painful testicular swelling. The pain radiates to the pears when the patient stands. Because varicoceles may inguinal and hypogastric areas and may be accompa- contribute to lower sperm counts in some men, they nied by nausea and vomiting. The testis will be tender should be considered in infertility evaluations.22,23 and swollen, and is often high in the scrotum because of shortening of the spermatic cord with torsion.15 The Diagnostic Evaluation position of the epididymis varies depending on the HISTORY AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATION degree of rotation, but will be in the normal posterior Because of potential emergencies (e.g., testicular torsion) position with 360° rotation. The cremasteric reflex is and potentially life-threatening diseases (e.g., testicular usually absent, and elevation of the testes may aggravate carcinoma), any patient with a new or changing scro- the pain.15 Suspected torsion is a surgical emergency; tal mass should be evaluated immediately in the office 1168 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 78, Number 10 ◆ November 15, 2008  Scrotal Masses A B C D Figure 3. Ultrasound images of a patient with mixed germ cell tumor of the right testis. Longitudinal views of the testes show (A) the heterogeneous nature of the tumor parenchyma on the right compared with (B) the normal parenchyma on the left. Color Doppler images show normal blood flow on (C) the right longitudinal and (D) left transverse views. or emergency department. Key features of the history len scrotum. Ultrasonography will readily confirm the include timing of onset, progression, trauma, aggravating diagnosis in extratesticular masses, such as hydrocele, and alleviating factors, pain, and genitourinary and sys- spermatocele, and varicocele. For the swollen testis, temic symptoms (Table 1). Careful physical examination ultrasonography usually demonstrates normal paren- should include attention to the location of the swelling chyma in cases of torsion and orchitis, and a heteroge- in relation to the normal anatomic structures within the neous appearance in carcinoma (Figure 3). In such cases, scrotum, and transillumination to check for testicular color Doppler ultrasonography is essential because it masses. Patients with suspected torsion should be evalu- will show decreased blood flow in testicular torsion, nor- ated emergently by a urologist, because surgery must be mal or increased flow in carcinoma, and increased flow performed immediately to maximize the likelihood of in orchitis. For testicular torsion, color Doppler ultra- salvaging the testis. sonography has a sensitivity of 86 to 88 percent and a specificity of 90 to 100 percent. When testicular torsion DOPPLER ULTRASONOGRAPHY is suspected, emergent surgical consultation should be Ultrasonography with color Doppler imaging has become obtained before ultrasonography is performed, because the accepted standard for evaluation of the acutely swol- surgical exploration as soon as possible is critical to sal- November 15, 2008 ◆ Volume 78, Number 10 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 1169 Scrotal Masses vaging the testis and should not be delayed for imaging 10. Shukla AR, Woodard C, Carr MC, et al. Experience with testis sparing surgery for testicular teratoma. J Urol. 2004;171(1):161-163. unless the diagnosis is in doubt.24-30 11. Horwich A, Shipley J, Huddart R. Testicular germ-cell cancer [pub- lished correction appears in Lancet. 2006;367(9520):1398]. Lancet. OTHER IMAGING 2006;367(9512):754-765. Radionuclide imaging is accurate in diagnosing testicu- 12. Shelley MD, Burgon K, Mason MD. Treatment of testicular germ-cell cancer: a Cochrane evidence-based systematic review. Cancer Treat Rev. lar torsion but, because of the time delay involved, is not 2002;28(5):237-253. often employed. Computed tomography and magnetic 13. Hartmann JT, Kanz L, Bokemeyer C. Diagnosis and treatment of patients resonance imaging can be used when carcinoma is sus- with testicular germ cell cancer. Drugs. 1999;58(2):251-281. pected if ultrasonography is inconclusive, and are also 14. Frank IN, Graham SD, Nabors WL. Urologic and male genital cancers. In: Holleb AI, Fink DJ, Murphy GP, eds. American Cancer Society Textbook used for staging testicular tumors.25 of Clinical Oncology. Atlanta, Ga.: The Society; 1991:283-287. 15. Kadish HA, Bolte RG. A retrospective review of pediatric patients with The Authors epididymitis, testicular torsion, and torsion of testicular appendages. Pediatrics. 1998;102(1 pt 1):73-76. JEFFREY D. TIEMSTRA, MD, is an associate professor of clinical family medi- 16. Ringdahl E, Teague L. Testicular torsion. Am Fam Physician. 2006;74(10): cine at the University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine. Dr. Tiem- 1739-1743. stra received his medical degree from Rush University Medical College in 17. Galejs LE. Diagnosis and treatment of the acute scrotum. Am Fam Physi- Chicago, and completed a residency in family medicine at the University of cian. 1999;59(4):817-824. Texas Southwestern Medical School in Dallas. 18. Prater JM, Overdorf BS. Testicular torsion: a surgical emergency. Am SHAILENDRA KAPOOR, MD, is a third-year resident in family medicine at Fam Physician. 1991;44(3):834-840. the University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine. Dr. Kapoor received 19. Lewis AG, Bukowski TP, Jarvis PD, Wacksman J, Sheldon CA. Evalua- his medical degree from Thanjavur Medical College in Tamilnadu, India. tion of acute scrotum in the emergency department. J Pediatr Surg. 1995;30(2):277-281. Address correspondence to Jeffrey D. Tiemstra, MD, Dept. of Family 20. Knight PJ, Vassy LE. The diagnosis and treatment of the acute scrotum Medicine (M/C 663), University of Illinois at Chicago, 1919 W. Taylor St., in children and adolescents. Ann Surg. 1984;20(5):664-673. Chicago, IL 60612 (e-mail: [email protected]). Reprints are not available 21. Granados EA, Caicedo P, Garat JM. Testicular torsion after 12 hours. III from the authors. [Spanish]. Arch Esp Urol. 1998;51(10):978-981. Author disclosure: Nothing to disclose. 22. Pillai SB, Besner GE. 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