University of Batangas - Course Orientation PDF

**LESSON 1:  UB PVMGO, UBDE VMO, AND COURSE ORIENTATION** **UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS  ** The University of Batangas is the first university and biggest private educational institution in the Province of Batangas.  \  \ **Philosophy  ** The University of Batangas, a stock non-sectarian, private educ...

**LESSON 1:  UB PVMGO, UBDE VMO, AND COURSE ORIENTATION** **UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS  ** The University of Batangas is the first university and biggest private educational institution in the Province of Batangas.  \  \ **Philosophy  ** The University of Batangas, a stock non-sectarian, private educational institution, believes in the pursuit of knowledge, values, and skills necessary for the preservation and improvement of the Philippine society. It has faith in the dignity of the human person, in the democratic process, in the reward for individual excellence, and in the freedom of a person to worship God according to his conscience. Thus, the institution believes that the development of the individual as a person and worker is an effective means in building a better family, community, and nation, and a better world.    **Vision  ** We envision the University of Batangas to be a center of educational excellence committed to serve the broader community.   **Mission  ** The University of Batangas provides quality education by promoting personal and professional growth, thus enabling the person to participate in a global, technology and research-driven environment.     Objectives   - Pursue educational excellence in traditional and other modes of instructional delivery.   - Promote well-being through an integrated process that will enhance human delivery character and dignity.   - Engage in community services through varied educational, health, economic, and environmental projects.   - Ensure institutional improvement through dynamic programs for human, physical, financial, and technology resources.   - Adopt global perspective to achieve international competitiveness.   - Commit to productivity and innovation in research, scholarly, and creative activities relevant to national development.   - Maintain student leadership in academic and co-curricular activities in South Luzon.       **Core Values  ** - Faith in God  - Love of Wisdom   - Service to Fellowmen   **University of Batangas Distance Education  ** University of Batangas Distance Education is the first and only CHED-approved private distance education in CALABARZON.  Anchored on the spirit of quality education, solid competence, and global preparedness, the University of Batangas Distance Education unveiled its objectives to provide a quality learning environment that is accessible to all, breaking the barriers of time and space. At the forefront of academic excellence, the institution aims to holistically develop the students and prepare them to be globally competent in an educational setup with goals achievable anytime, anywhere, and anyhow.     **Vision**   The University of Batangas Distance Education envisions itself to be a premier private institution, committed to providing learner-centered university experience through flexible distance learning education.     **Mission ** The University of Batangas Distance Education, being the steward of quality education, provides a learning environment responsive to the needs of the students through flexible distance learning education accessible to all, and formed with solid competence to meet the dynamic demands of society.     **Objectives  ** - Provide equal opportunities for alternative access to quality higher education by offering baccalaureate and post-baccalaureate degree programs through flexible distance education;   - Develop a system of uninterrupted education for professional growth, knowledge-based and technical skills, especially for learners who are geographically challenged and those who cannot leave their jobs or homes for full-time studies; - Collaborate with other colleges and universities through partnership and capacity-building activities, research and linkages; - Uphold the university's core values, and institutional objectives and contribute to the academic success of the university by innovating and utilizing necessary instructional materials and technology; and - Produce employable lifelong learners.    **UBDE Attributes **  - Dynamic flexible learners   - Employable distance education graduates   - Advocators of education for all   - Lifelong learners   **Distance Education Academic Learning (DEAL) Package**   Distance Education Academic Learning (DEAL) Package is a learning package exclusively provided by the University of Batangas Distance Education (UBDE) to its learners. It is composed of reading material: the UBDE Independent Learning Material (ILM), audio-visual material, and its podcast version. These three components are all aligned with one another.     **Distance Education Enrichment Dialogue (DEED) Framework  ** Distance Education Enrichment Dialogue (DEED) provides opportunities for learners to meet their professor/lecturer through video conferencing to receive updates and feedback with regard to their class performance. There are five (5) DEEDs in total for the whole semester which are all pre-scheduled.     **Distance Learning Application (DLA)** The UBDE as a learner-centered learning environment has its learner support system that utilizes its exclusive Distance Learners App (DLA), being the official one-stop-app exclusively designed for the UBDE learners features the e-Brahman, the student services, information, technical, social and library supports and the chatbots.  \ \ **Course Code and Title** ETH - Ethics    **Course Description**   This course deals with the ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources (CMO 20, s. 2013). It helps the students understand that morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong, which an individual originally picks up from the community. The course discusses the context and principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of individual, society and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources. The course also teaches students to make moral decisions by using dominant moral frameworks and by applying a seven-step moral reasoning model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas. \ The course is organized according to the three (3) main elements of the moral experience: (a) agent, including context---cultural, communal, and environmental; (b) the act; and (c) reason or framework (for the act).The course includes also the mandatory topic on taxation.  **LESSON 2: WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?**   **Introduction** This lesson deals with what Philosophy is all about and the historical background of Philosophy. It also deals with the definition of Philosophy and the different branches of Philosophy. The purpose of this lesson is to make the students understand the position of Ethics in the whole paradigm of philosophy.   **Discussion** **                           **Philosophy comes from the two Greek words *philein* which means ―to  love‖ and *sophia* which means ―love of wisdom. Wisdom deals with the principles of things, ―The first cause of beings; one's existence and the importance of the things around him. Several philosophers provided an answer to where the existence of things came from. Man is a rational being. We are given with faculty of reason which sets us apart from animals as human is the highest form of animal. It means that we are capable of thinking, deciding, and choosing. As a rational being, the human person asks for the meaning of life and searches for the source of his fulfillment and happiness Ethics can help us to determine the acts that will make us attain our fulfillment and happiness in life. This draws the line of connection between Philosophy and Ethics, as Ethics is one of the branches of Philosophy. Ethics is the study of moral judgments. It tries to study human acts and searches for the means to obtain wisdom as to how life should be lived. It also tries to seek a means on how to determine whether the action is to be considered good or evil. When it comes to Ethics, it deals with actions ―that ought to be done which means an action that is needed in the situation that is right and good at the same time.   **Why do we study Philosophy?** Philosophy offers the students a chance to explore the fundamental questions about human existence. Ø  It can help us clarify our thoughts. Ø  It digs into the root causes of people's problems and discovers new solutions and remedies to human ills. Ø  It gives us a clear understanding of the human person and the reason for his existence.   **How did Philosophy come about?** **                  **                                         The birthplace of Philosophy was the seaport town of Miletus.                                               **The historical development of Philosophy is divided into four periods:** 1.    **Ancient:** Concerned with the origin and nature of the universe; Where everything did come from? Cosmocentric = cosmos means universe and centric which means center.      2.    **Medieval:** The source of all things must be an infinite being; the Existence of God and the Nature of His being; Theocentric = theos which means God and centric which means center.      3.    **Modern:** Is the human mind capable of obtaining certitude? Ideocentric = ideos which means ideas/knowledge and centric which means center.     4.    **Contemporary:** Concerned with the human person itself; How to ground human value making the rediscovery of human dignity the main goal of philosophy; Anthropocentric = anthropos means  man and centric which means center.   **The Beginning of Philosophy**             On the question *What was the origin of everything?* the answer was that human beings developed from the meeting of sperm and egg. Hence, the beginning of the human person is in liquid content. Everything must have come from **water**. Because he was the one who started the ball rolling, he was considered the **Father of Philosophy.**                                                                                                         Thales of Miletus (624-546 BCE)   Philosophy can be divided into three major divisions: 1.    Philosophy of Thought -- Epistemology and Logic 2.    Philosophy of Reality -- Metaphysics, Theodicy, Cosmology, Psychology, Social and Political Philosophy 3.    Philosophy of Morality -- **Ethics (the study of right living),** Aesthetics, and Philosophy of Person.    **LESSON 3: ETHICS DEFINED**   **Introduction** This lesson introduces the philosophical need for Ethics by beginning with a brief discussion of Moral Law and how the human being intuits ethical principles during his or her development process. Furthermore, this lesson discusses the meaning and branches of Ethics, with one way of thinking about ethics being through its historical meaning, which has to do with a person\'s ethos. This is the notion that ethics is linked with character, and it is a high-standard approach to what it means to act in a particularly cogent and courageous manner, as well as to demonstrate personal integrity.   **Discussion** To start the lesson proper, watch the 3-minute video clip:   **The Concept of a Good Life**  People are always searching for a good life. Good life became a problem when man started thinking. Since the early people were living in harmony, issues about truth, goodness, and beauty were never a problem. For the Eastern people, questions about goodness and beauty were never a problem. Eastern people were not aiming for the attainment of material and intellectual greatness. They were just aiming for the perfection of the self. In the East, metaphysical and epistemological truths were not much of their concern because knowledge of such things could only make their existence more difficult. In the West, people were living in a diaspora. They did not only barter material goods. They were also bartering ideas or intellectual goods. Since they were coming from different regions and different beliefs, people were able to realize that their ideas of the beautiful were not anymore to be considered beautiful when compared with others. People began to philosophize and think of the reason why there were lives more beautiful than that of others. Material evolution led people to discriminate against others and look down on people whose lives were not as good as theirs. In this case, we may say that when man becomes civilized, the more he becomes uncivilized.   **The Implication of Civilization** Civilization has made man think in a spatio-temporal dimension. Human beings will always look for the cause and effect in all their actions. Hence, goodness and beauty are always connected with their daily activities. Goodness becomes causal and material. When a human person became aware of himself, different philosophers came out, each having a different view as regards what and who is a human person. *Man is an animal and yet not an animal.* *Man is the only creature who is capable of asking about the meaning of his life.* \* *   **The Need to Redefine Ethics **  Because of the development of science and technology, man's concept of goodness has changed. Before, his concept of goodness is related to the norm of morality. When man was able to taste a more pleasurable life brought about by technological advancements, his concept of goodness became related to physical pleasures. Plato considered Ethics as the *Supreme Philosophy*, the science par excellence. Because Ethics deals with the attainment of man's highest good---happiness, ethics is the only discipline that deals with the attainment of the ultimate goal of a human person. Confucius, Plato, and Aristotle held that philosophers must be the rulers of all people. In the *Republic*, Plato held that society must be ruled by the philosopher-king.   **ETHICS, as defined** Ethics comes from the  Greek word ethos'  (/ˈiːθɒs/  or  US:  /ˈiːθoʊs/)  which means ―customs or  \"character\".  It is used to describe the guiding beliefs or ideals that make up a community, nation, or ideology. Historically, the Greeks also used this word to refer to the power of music to influence emotions, behaviors, and even morals. (Singer, 2021) Ethics, as a discipline, is a branch of philosophy that studies ideal human behavior and ideal ways of living (Rich n.d.). In other words, it is a subfield of philosophy concerned with systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior (Annabelle, 2017). It is concerned with questions of how people should act, as well as the search for a definition of right conduct and the good life. The Fundamentals of Philosophy aims to provide answers to the questions, \"What is the best way for people to live?\" ―In what circumstances are certain actions right or wrong?  In response to these questions, \'ethics\' attempts to provide norms for the goodness and badness of a particular act. According to Reyes (1989 as cited in Buenaflor, 2018), it is a set of human behavior rules that have been influenced by societal standards or himself with his society. Additionally, ethics is a philosophical science that studies the morality of human acts. As a science, ethics is concerned with the analysis of the nature of human conduct from the point of view of morality (Roa, 2012).  In doing ethics, one does not seek the truth. What one would like to know, or at least to become clearer about, is the truth about the point, the good, the worth, of human action, i.e., of one's living so far as it is constituted and shaped by one's choices. (Finnis, 1983)    **Ethics VS. Morality** The terms \'ethics\' and \'morality\' are not always used consistently and precisely in everyday contexts, and their ordinary meanings do not always correspond with philosophers\' use of the terms. However, historically, the roots of the words ―ethics and ―morality meant the same thing. One was a translation of the other which related to ―right and ―wrong conduct. **Ethics **is often used in connection with the activities of organizations and with professional codes of conduct. Illustrations: Medical and business ethics, which are often formalized in terms of exhaustive sets of rules or guidelines stating how employees are expected to behave in their workplaces (such as in respect of a duty of care or confidentiality that healthcare workers owe to their patients; or the medical ethical principles of beneficence, non-maleficence, respect for autonomy, and justice. **Morality **is more often used in connection with how individuals conduct their personal, private lives, often about personal financial probity, lawful conduct, and acceptable standards of interpersonal behavior (including truthfulness, honesty, and sexual propriety). These \'everyday\' uses of the terms \'ethics\' and \'morality\' are not so much incorrect by philosophical standards, as too limited. The philosopher\'s interest in the theoretical study of ethics is in the idea of conduct that is right, fair, and just, does not cause harm, and that can be applied to a wide variety of cases. For our purposes, each of the terms \'ethics\' and \'morality\' captures the essence of that idea sufficiently well. In what follows, then, it is not necessary to overemphasize the distinction between ethics and morality; here, those terms may be used interchangeably to refer to ideas about how humans ought to act.   **Why Do We Have to Be Ethical?** From the aforementioned ethical bases, it can be said that a human person needs to do what is ethical to obtain freedom and to prepare himself for an immortal life with God. In this regard, the human person must be able to determine what is the right thing to do as this will also determine what is the right thing to do as this will also determine what kind of person he will be.  However, determining what one wants to do can be contradictory to what is the right thing to do and the right thing to do may not be the practical thing to do. Because of this, determining what the proper thing to do becomes difficult. One would become moral and yet impractical while the other is becoming practical while doing what others would consider immoral. For this reason, it becomes quite difficult to determine the morality of one's actions. It becomes difficult for a person to know whether he is acting morally or not. This is the reason why there is a need to have a guide to moral action so that it will become easier for him to decide in certain situations. There is a need to have an ethical principle that will make deciding a lot easier. To develop one's character, there is a need to become ethical.   The Divisions of Ethics To know whether an action is ethical or not, it is important first to determine the types of ethics because ethics, as a discipline, will help the human person determine whether his action is morally acceptable or not. From the traditional point of view, ethics can be divided into two main divisions: **(1) general ethics, and (2) applied ethics.**  According to Dr. Florentino Timbreza (1993), **general ethics** refers to all the diverse ethical formulations of general and universal concepts and principles that serve as the foundation of morality. It attempts to identify the moral norms that will determine which actions are to be considered good and evil. Because the norms are considered to be the action guide, the said norms are going to be considered valid in situations that will require the same ethical decisions. Since general ethics deals with the issue of morality, it can, therefore, be referred to as **normative ethics**, which can be distinguished from **non-normative ethics**. Non-normative ethics deals with a factual investigation of the social patterns of a society as compared to those of other societies. This refers to the cultural practices which a particular society will accept as ethical. On the other hand, normative ethics attempts to disclose the underlying moral norm by which people act, judge, and decide on certain ethical matters. Meanwhile, **Applied Ethics** focuses on particular situations in life where the principles of general ethics can be applied. It does not only apply the general moral concepts and principles but also specifies the particular situation in life in which they are valid and legitimate; hence it is also known as **special ethics**. In an attempt to resolve specific moral problems, the principles of general ethics are going to be applied. From this applied ethics comes the other subdivisions like professional ethics, which deals with the rules by which people would behave and act so that they can properly live their professional lives. Other than that, there is also the legal ethics that the people in the legal profession should follow. There is also a code of ethics for teachers so that they can follow the principles appropriate for educators. There is also the ethics for the medical profession which is also known as** bioethics**. From all these ethical principles, one would be able to get some guidelines to perform a moral action and eventually become a person of moral character. These ethical standards will serve as moral rules that everyone should follow to provide order to get things done. The ethical standards provide a basis for why actions that can seriously injure other fellow human beings, like theft, rape, fraud, slander, and murder are considered evil. It also provides a justification why the rules of the majority do not always apply moral principles. In other words, one should not consider an action as moral simply on the basis that it is being considered by the majority as acceptable even if it is not moral. In this regard, moral values will be understood as more important than other values like cheating to obtain socio-economic improvement. The ethical standards, must, therefore, focus on respecting one's relationship with others, which includes one's family and friends, as well as the poor and the disabled. When a human person fails to comply with moral standards, he may tend to seriously injure his fellow human beings. In this sense, one fails to become truly human. **LESSON 4: THE FOUNDATIONS OF MORALITY - THE MORAL AGENT, THE MORAL CHARACTER, AND THE ACT **   **Introduction** ** **This focuses on how moral agents make moral decisions in response to a specific moral dilemma. In making moral decisions, the moral agent may use his culture as a point of reference. As an application, the various Filipino moral values and strengths were included to assess how they shape the morality of the general Filipinos' decisions.   **Discussion** The morality of one's action will be based on the morality of the agent acting in a particular situation. An action can be considered moral or immoral depending on the decision of the person acting on it. There are also cases when a particular situation will produce two results: one good and one evil. But not taking any action in the said situation will also produce an evil effect. This situation is called a dilemma. From the ethical viewpoint, dilemmas are experiences where an agent is confused about the right decision to make because several competing values are seemingly equally important and urgent. How should a person handle a dilemma? How he makes decisions on a dilemma will become the basis of how he is living his life. The study of ethics should not only be focused on a mere acquisition of knowledge but on how to apply such knowledge into his own everyday life. A moral standard is that which deals with matters that may seriously injure or may greatly benefit human beings. If there are situations that will be beneficial to more people, then the action will be considered morally good. However, if it will cause greater pain, then it is considered to be morally evil. Therefore, the validity of moral standards will be based on the justification of one's action. Hence, an action is considered to be moral not because it is accepted by the majority but because of the goodness that such action would entail to other people.   **Cultural and Moral Behavior** The question as to whether a culture contributes to the moral upbrings of a person or not is not anymore debatable. However, the question now may be whether these norms and values of a particular community where a person is a member can make a person morally upright. Different sources might influence the way a person behaves morally. These include our family, the community we belong, the religion we practice, our school, and even the virtual world we see -- the social media. These factors may, in one way or another, affect our behavior as a moral person.   **Cultural Relativism** This is the view that ethical systems and cultural beliefs vary from one culture to another. It also upheld the idea that said ethical systems are all equal in validity and of relevance. It comes from the idea that moral standards are the product of society. This philosophical principle was started by the Greek philosopher Protagoras of Abdera (490-420BCE).  Protagos was known primarily for his 3 claims:  1.    That man is the measure of all things; 2.    That he could make the worse argument appear better or the weaker appear to be stronger; and 3.    That one could not tell if gods existed or not. There is no standard for testing whether one person's perception is right and another person's perception is wrong. Knowledge is relative to each person.   **The Filipino Morality** The opposite of relativism is Ethnocentrism.   It is a belief that there is one correct culture. The common ground between the ethical/cultural relativism and ethnocentrism is the shared values, i.e., the values common to one another.   Strengths of the Filipino Character: -  A typical Filipino has high regard for others, better known as *pakikipagkapwa-tao* - Filipinos have a strong sense of family orientation. - Filipinos have also a different sense and perception of joy and humor. - Filipinos are also said to be flexible, adaptable, and creative. - Filipino is also known for hard work and industrious. - Filipinos are also very religious.      **Weaknesses of the Filipino Character** - *Extreme Personalism*. Filipinos tend to ―take things personally. Because of this personalistic world view, Filipinos have difficulty dealing with all forms of impersonal stimuli. Hence, one is uncomfortable with bureaucracy, with rules and regulations, and with standard procedures---all of which tend to be impersonal. Personal contacts are involved in any transaction and are difficult to turn down. Preference is usually given to family and friends in hiring, delivery of services, and even in voting. - *Extreme Family-Centeredness*. Excessive concern for the family creates an in-group to which the Filipino is fiercely loyal, to the detriment of concern for the larger community or the common good. - *Lack of Discipline*. Our lack of discipline often results in inefficient and wasteful work systems, the violation of rules leading to more serious transgressions, and a casual work ethic leading to carelessness and lack of follow-through. - *Passivity and Lack of Initiative*. One waits to be told what has to be done. There is a strong reliance on others. This is related to the attitude towards authority. Filipinos need a strong authority figure and feel safer and more secure in the presence of such an authority. There is a high tolerance for inefficiency, poor service, and even violations of one's basic rights. - *Colonial Mentality.* This is made up of two dimensions: (1) lack of patriotism or an active awareness, appreciation, and love of the Philippines; (2) an actual preferences for things foreign. - *Kanya-kanya Syndrome.* Filipinos have a selfish, self-serving attitude that generates a feeling of envy and competitiveness towards others, particularly one's peers, who seem to have gained some status or prestige. Towards them, Filipinos demonstrated the ―crab mentality. This syndrome results in the dampening of cooperative and community spirit and in the denial of the rights of others. -  *Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection*. Joking about the most serious matters prevents us from looking deeply into the problem. The Filipino lack of self-analysis and our emphasis upon form is reinforced by an educational system that is often more form than substance and a legal system that tends to substitute law for reality.   **The Development of Moral Character** The Life of Lawrence Kohlberg Lawrence Kohlberg was born on October 25, 1927, in Bronxville, New York, USA. Kohlberg was an American psychologist and educator, who is know for his theory of moral development. He finished his studies at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts in 1945. His theories on both psychology and education are very much influential. His theory is said to be the only one that provides a very detailed explanation regarding the moral development of children. In 1971, while he was doing research in Belize, Kohlberg was said to have contracted a parasitic infection that led him to develop severe illness and depression for the rest of his life. On January 17, 1987, Kohlberg committed suicide (Doorey, 2018).   **The Moral Ideas of Lawrence Kohlberg**  A person who demonstrates a certain character has somehow obtained a certain level of success. Moral character has a two-way effect: to the receiver and the giver. When we think of the good and arrive at it, we are already at the heart of ethics. Moral character is necessarily a product of FREEDOM. Is there a strong relationship between moral progress in history and the moral character of certain individuals? MORAL CHARACTER IS THE FORCE BEHIND MORAL ACTION. Kohlberg's theory of moral education is both psychological and philosophical. The stages of Moral Development: Pre-conventional stage, Conventional stage, and Post- conventional stage     **Pre-Conventional** **      **·    Self-Focused ·         Concerned with concrete consequences to individuals, focusing on pursuing concrete interest, while avoiding sanctions.   STAGE 1: Punishment: Authority Orientation ·         Obey or Pay ·         Authority---Fear   STAGE 2: Pleasure Orientation ·         Self-Satisfaction ·         What's in it for me?   Stages 1 and 2 are typical of young children and delinquents and are described as ‗pre- moral' since decisions are made largely based on self-interest.   **Conventional Level** **      **·   Group-Focused ·         Concerned with fulfilling role expectations, maintaining and supporting the social order, and identifying persons or groups involved in this order.   STAGE 3: Peer and Group Acceptance orientation       ·   Approval---Group Norm ·         Loyalty---Belongingness   STAGE 4: Legalistic Orientation ·         Law and Order ·         Duty to Society        Stages 3 and 4 are the ―conventional stage at which most of the adult orientation operates.   **Post-Conventional Level** ** **Stage 5---Standards of Society Stage 6---Logical Moral Principles   The final  ―principled‖  stages are characteristic of  20  to  25  percent of the adult population, with perhaps 5 to 10 percent arriving at Stage 6. (From the textbook, Unraveling the Absolute Moral Principle: Ethics for Filipino Students pages 35 -- 41)   Kindly watch these videos to have a better understanding of Kohlberg\'s Theory of Moral Development: Ø  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sBop4yfH4pg Ø    **The Act**  No one can deny the fact that when the human person is placed in a moral dilemma, his decision can also be greatly affected by his feelings. The moral decisions that man makes will not be fully objective. For instance, one's decision regarding the morality of the death penalty will vary if he is placed in a situation wherein his family is greatly affected by a murderous act. A person who is never a victim of any crime may view the death penalty as morally unacceptable. At the same time, a person who has a very close relative indicted for robbery may cry for forgiveness while those who do not have such may demand punishment. In this regard, a moral decision can be a product of feelings or emotions.   **Feelings and Morality**  During the early part of his philosophizing, David Hume (1711- 1776) believed virtue conforms to reason. Like truth, morality is discerned merely by ideas. To distinguish the good and the bad, we have to consider reason alone.  Philosophers during the time of Hume emphasized the prominence of reason over feelings. Western philosophers were reacting to the position held by the church scholars who asserted that religion is a necessary foundation for morality. According to religious apologists, moral decisions must be rooted in religious laws and doctrines. For the western thinkers, the foundation of morality is the reason. Such a position was held even by the ancient western thinkers.   **Reason and Impartiality**  Human beings have evolved as rational beings. Because we are rational, we can take some facts as reasons for behaving one way rather than another. Man is able to find reason for actions that would help satisfy our desires, needs, and so on---or if it would promote our interests. We ought to do what there are the strongest reasons for doing. We consider morality as a matter of acting on reason. Basic Ideas: Each individual's interest are equally important. Therefore, each must acknowledge that other person's welfare is equally important as our own. Impartiality is a proscription against arbitrariness in dealing with people. ―A conscientious moral agent is someone who is concerned impartially with the interest of everyone affected by what he or she does; who carefully sifts facts and examines their implications; who accepts principles of conduct only after scrutinizing them to make sure they are sound;  who is willing to listen to reason even when it means that prior convictions may have to be revised, and who, finally, is willing to act on the results of this deliberation.   **8 Steps to Moral Reasoning Process:** 1\. Gather the facts; 2. Define the ethical issues; 3. Review relevant ethical guidelines; 4. Obtain consultation; 5. List the alternative courses of action; 6. Compare the alternatives with the principles; 7. Weigh the consequences; 8. Make a decision. **LESSON 1: THE ETHICS OF EPICUREANISM AND STOICISM**   **Introduction** This lesson discusses the ethics school of thought Epicureanism. It attempts to explain its concept and how it may be applicable to man's quest for pleasure. The Ethics of Epicureanism and Stoicism both regards the basis for moral decisions and understanding the concept of pleasure affect the ethical view of a person.   **Discussion** To start the proper lesson, students are to watch this video:   **Epicureanism and Hedonism: Man's Search for Pleasure** The main reason why Ethics is given great consideration now is the fact that every human person is searching for happiness. It is believed that in order to obtain happiness it is necessary that man must live an ethical life. Hedonism is the general term for any philosophy that says that pleasure is good and pain is evil. It comes from the Greek word edonh, which means ― pleasure. Followers of this philosophy look at the happy life in terms of having the most possible pleasure and the least possible pain. The pursuit of pleasure is our birthright. The great follower and probably the founder of this philosophy is believed to be Aristippus of Cyrene (c.430-450 BCE). This is basically a search for pleasure. He considered pleasure as always good---regardless of its source. Because pleasure is the natural goal of all life, we should try to have as much intense, sensual pleasure as we can. Inasmuch as sensual pleasures are more intense than mental or emotional pleasure, then they are the best of all. Physical pleasure is the best to all other things as it makes life more exciting, dynamic, and worth living. And because pleasure of the present is much more desirable than the pleasure of the future, then it is better to desire for the pleasure of the present for the future might not even come. Aristippus held that whatever pleases the person most at the moment is the highest good there can be.   **The Epicurean Philosophy** Political activities and ambitions are pointless. Epicurus founded a school which he called the Garden, which became known for good living and pleasant socializing, as well as for its philosophy. One of the distinguishing features of the Garden was that it welcomed everyone. It was one of the very few places in Greece where women were allowed and encouraged to interact with men as equal. Epicurus made no distinctions on social status or race.  He accepted all who came to learn: prostitutes, housewives, slaves, aristocrats. Epicurus was a practical philosopher. For him, philosophy is important because it may help the human person to free himself from ignorance and superstitions. Philosophy, according to him, should not be looked up as simply a mere acquisition of knowledge. Rather, he considered philosophy as the medicine of the soul. The chief aim of human life is pleasure. Human beings are not part of a created or purposeful order caused or ruled by God. Rather, people are only accidental products of the collision of atoms just like any other beings.   **The Duty of the Human Person** - Epicurean philosophy is a form of egoistic hedonism. - Because of the belief that the only important in life is one's own pleasure. - For him, neither life nor death is good or bad. Only the quality of our pleasures or pains is important. - The human person will find to be valuable if it gives a sense of pleasure to the human person. - The highest pleasures are intellectual and the greatest good is peace of mind.   **Types of Pleasure:** - Both Natural and necessary. (Example: food, clothes, shelter) - Natural but not necessary. (Example: sex) - Neither natural nor necessary. (Example: luxurious life - popular life)   **The Self-Centered Moral Philosophy** - The concern of Epicureanism was the individual pleasures and not the pleasures of the human society. - The concern of this philosophy is the attainment of the self. - The height of pleasure is the freedom from all pains and getting rid of all discomforts in both the body and the mind. - Happiness is the final goal of every person. - Unlike Plato and Aristotle, who believed that the leader of the society should be a philosopher, Epicurus held instead that philosophers should not engage themselves in any political affairs.   To obtain a moral life, epicureans follow these **eight counsels** as the basic guide to good living. - Do not fear God; - Do not worry about death; - Do not fear pain; - Live a simple life; - Pursue pleasure wisely; - Make friends and be a good friend; - Be honest in your business and private life; and - Avoid fame and political ambition. According to the Epicureans, by following the eight counsels, one will be able to avoid physical pain and mental troubles. When this happens, the human being will then be capable of obtaining a good and meaningful life.   **Critique on Epicureanism** - Pleasure must be controlled. Minimum desires. - Pleasure cannot just be limited to the avoidance of physical pain and troubles of the mind because it can still be considered morally acceptable if the experience of such pains may lead the person to greater glory and for the greater good. (example: studying) - Implies limitation of social relationships.   To understand the concept of Stoicism,  watch the video clip:   **The Ethics of Stoicism** Just like Epicureanism, Stoicism was also aiming for **happiness**. Epicureans held that happiness can be obtained by the way of **pleasure**, on the other hand Stoics held that happiness can only be obtained by **way of wisdom**. Stoics believed that excessive desires may lead the person to depression and, therefore, to unhappiness.               **Cynicism: the Origin of Stoic Philosophy** The origin of Stoic Philosophy, founded by **Antisthenes**, and took **Socrates** as a model of the Stoics. For Cynics, happiness is not obtained from pleasure but from self-discipline, rational control of all desires and appetites, and minimal contact with conventional society.   **The Philosophy of the Stoics** Centers on the ethical living: The universe is governed by absolute law; the essential nature of the human person is the reason "Live according to nature." Given importance on logic, physics, and ethics. Stoics believed in destiny and fate. Man cannot control what may transpire, but man should learn to control the attitudes towards what might happen.   The world is governed by reason, God is Reason.   **The Human Drama** Stoicism rests on the simple insight that the world is like a stage where every person is an actor or actress. Human wisdom -- recognizing the role that one has to play in the drama of life and performing the part well. Divine Providence governs everything and Moral virtue is the only good, and wickedness is the only evil.   **The Stoic Morality** The doctrine that has its own basis in physics, i.e., in the nature of living beings. οικειοσις meaning  ― orientation and  ― appropriation. The basic  desire  of all living  things  is  self - preservation.   Nature = living according to virtue. Virtue alone is necessary and sufficient for happiness but not the final end and the supreme good. It was only the real good. Good action = conforms to universal law and in accordance to nature Evil action = deprives others rights.   Focused on an absolute renunciation of things. All the temporal goods because these cause disturbance of the mind. The Stoics does not believe in the immortality of the soul, such renunciation can be made only for a selfish motive so as not to lose the tranquility of the spirit. (egotistical pride) The Stoics became inevitable to develop a strong notion of cosmopolitanism, i.e., the idea that all persons are citizens of the same human community. Every human person is equal to one another and should not deprive others. For the Stoics, growing up emotionally and philosophically involves adopting realistic expectations and accepting one's limits. Hardships and sufferings as not totally negative. The goal therefore, is not really to avoid the trials and sufferings but to use them to become a good person. The Logos was considered as a parent or a teacher. "While making reasonable efforts to get what we want, it is wise to learn to be happy with what we get."   **Critique on Stoicism** The following of the Reason or the Divine Providence may lead to idleness since everything is already planned, accordingly, there is no need for a person to work hard. Learning to be happy with what one gets may lead to contentment can be looked in two perspectives. On the positive side, one will be able to accept one's fate and will not feel bad should there be failures. On the negative side, being contended may lead one to rely on one's fate.  **   LESSON 3: THE NATURAL LAW ETHICS OF ST. THOMAS AQUINAS**   **Introduction** This particular lesson discusses St. Thomas\' Ethics, a Christianization of the philosophy of Aristotle. In this section, an analysis on the philosophy of St. Thomas will be discussed and will be differentiated from the Virtue Ethics of Aristotle. This lesson begins by discussing how virtue ethics paved the way for the development of St. Thomas Aquinas' Natural Law ethics during the Medieval Period. It provides additional examples of how such an ethical principle can be applied to various moral issues that an individual may face. It concludes with examples of the various natural and inalienable rights of every human being that exist today.   **Discussion** St. Thomas Aquinas was a Catholic priest and Dominican monk. He was an Italian philosopher and known to be the Prince of Scholastics who was one of the most prominent thinkers during the medieval period. He wrote two comprehensive treatments of philosophy and theology: the Summa Theologica and the Summa Contra Gentiles. Aquinas insists that faith and reason shouldn't conflict if approached correctly. While reason gives us some basic truths about God and morality, divine revelation builds on these and provides other truths that exceed the powers of reason. Thomas Aquinas begins his idea on natural law from the standpoint of faith. Aquinas argued that based on faith, Aristotle's description of happiness is correct, in the sense that there is natural happiness which consists in a proper and excellent use for human being's rational facilities which brings a degree of fulfillment, but according to Aquinas, it is incomplete because he believes in supernatural happiness, which consists in the contemplation of God in the afterlife. What makes a person's action bad is that it moves a person away from the ultimate goal - complete happiness in God. In this regard, St. Aquinas' perspective presupposes the existence of a God who is the creator, author (source) and the goal (end) of all reality. This Creator for Thomas, however, relates in freedom with the human person and so enables him/her in freedom to recognize through reason, the very principle of foundations of all things. In accordance with this fundamental knowledge, a person can distinguish and choose in such a way that is worthy of one's very reality. The human being then is said to be gifted with ―the ability to know the highest good that engages him/her in freedom in ―choosing to act on the good that he/she ought to do. In other words, For St. Aquinas, actions in accordance with human nature fulfills God's eternal plan, and Scripture's commandments. Thus, the natural law is God's law known to human reason. Unlike the lower animals, we have the ability to understand the laws of our nature, and the free will to follow or disregard these laws. But how do we attain knowledge of the natural law? Let us discuss the four types of laws accordingly.   **The Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas** Philosophy and theology played complementary roles in the human person's quest for truth. All knowledge originate in sensation, but sense data can be made intelligible only by the action of the intellect. To reach understanding of the highest truth, those with which religion is concerned, the aid of revelation is needed. This is Aquinas' moderate realism. Moderate realism places universals firmly in the mind in opposition to extreme realism, which posited these universals as independent of human thought. It was necessary for the salvation of man that certain truths which exceed human reason should be made known to him by Divine Revelation. Man is capable of knowing the nature of God in this life because our knowledge is limited by its origin in sense-experience. The divine reality is far above the capability of human understanding. It is natural for man to search for his origin and link himself with a Creator; hence, the Quique Viae.   **The Five Ways of Proving God's Existence** The First Way begins with the sense experience of motion or change in the universe. It upholds the principle omne autem quod movetur, ab alio movetur. The Second Way is from the nature of the Efficient Cause. The Third Way is taken from the possibility and necessity; The Fourth Way is taken from the gradation of perfection. The Fifth Way is taken from the governance of the world.   **The Relationship of God with His Creatures** The given proof of God's existence does not exactly tell us positively what God is. The imperfect goodness and wisdom of man may be taken to represent or mirror the perfection of these qualities in God. Good land wise in God and man are not equivocal nor univocal terms. They are analogous terms. Goodness and wisdom may be found in man but it will be found in a perfect manner in God. God's purpose in creation is to communicate His perfection, which is His goodness, to the world. The universe contains both the corruptible and the incorruptible entities. Both happiness and pain, life and death, would exist simultaneously with one another. Suffering and death occur not because God wills these evil as such. Evil exists because of the privations and inherent and unavoidable in creatures of different grades of goodness. Man is created endowed with goodness. He yearns for goodness because of his synderesis and conscience. Synderesis is the intellectual habit or disposition by which man, in given situations, is in possession of the fundamental principles of morality. The fundamental principles of morality: DO GOOD AND AVOID EVIL.   **The Nature of God** ·         The idea of First Mover, God is powerful. ·         The idea of First Cause, God is eternal ·         The idea of Necessary being, God is pure actuality ·         The idea of ultimate truth and goodness, God has the perfect goodness ·         The idea of Orderer or the Designer of the universe, God is the supreme intelligence.   **The Natural Law Ethics** ·         According to St. Thomas, imperfect goodness and wisdom of God's creatures can be taken to represent or mirror the perfection of these qualities in God as their Creator. ·         Man is created in the image and likeness of God. ·         Since goodness and wisdom can be seen from man, then it says that God is good and wise but in most perfect way.   **The Relationship of God with His creatures** ·         St. Thomas believed that there is Divine Creation. ·         God is the first cause of everything. ·         God's purpose in creation is to communicate His perfection (His goodness by bringing into existence outside of Himself a world which is best as a whole). ·         There is hierarchy of being in different degrees of goodness. ·         The universe would not be perfect if only one grade of goodness were found in things. ·         The universe contains both the corruptible and incorruptible. (happiness and pain; life and death). ·         Suffering and death occur not because God wills these evils, but because of the privations and unavoidable in creatures of different grades of goodness. ·         Why did God not create better world instead? ·         What we can know is that God created the universe because of his goodness. ·         St. Thomas believed that God created the world "ex nihilo" (out of nothing) ·         He believed that the world came into being instantaneous, not over some period of time. ·         Creatures have a real relation to God because were it not for the creative work of God, they would not have come into existence (contingent being).   **The Nature of the Human Person** ·         The source and the ultimate end (final end) of man is God. ·         God is that of which everything is but a **participation** and **imitation**; from whom all things proceed and to whom all things return. ·         The moral end of man is the Good in which a person, in his innermost being, yearns for and made manifest to him in **synderesis** and **conscience**. ·         **Conscience** -- is the concrete particular judgment by which, in a given situation, a person knows what he ought to do. ·         **Synderesis** -- generally, the intellectual habit or disposition. A possession of the fundamental principles of morality -- do good and avoid evil. Also, the innate principle in the moral consciousness of every person which directs the agent to good and restrains him from evil. ·         Moral law is the dictate of the voice of reason: ―the good must be done and the evil must be avoided. ·         Following the voice of conscience means a person is doing what is good. If not, he would feel a sense of guilt. ·         The basis of moral obligation is found first of all in the very nature of humanity. ·         If act is suitable to human nature = action is good or moral ·         Human nature is the proximate norm of morality.   **The Threefold Natural Inclination of the Human Person** ·         **Self-preservation** -- protect his or her life and health. Putting one's life in danger considered immoral. ·         **Just dealing with others** -- all forms of inhumanity to human beings are by nature evil. ·          **Propagation of species** -- man and woman is created for pro-creation. Any forms of contraceptive that will defeat the purpose of reproduction and destroys reproductive organs are immoral.   **The Happiness of the Human Person** ·         Ultimate happiness consists in contemplating God and not in the goods of the body. ·         Man in his contemplation of God, must find way to obtain that ultimate happiness. ·         Man's action is always geared toward God.   **The Three Determinants of Moral Action** ·         Object or the end of an action (finis operas) -- that to which the act naturally tends before all else. ·         Purpose of the act ·         Circumstances (circumstantiae) -- when added to the natural of the moral act will certainly affect its morality. ·         May aggravate the goodness or badness of a particular action ·         Intention of the agent (finis operantis) -- the reason why the agent acts. ·         Human acts are good if they promote the purpose of God and his honor.   **The Moral Principles as Basis of Human Action** ·         The principle of Double Effect ·         The principle of Totality ·         The principle of Stewardship ·         The principle of Inviolability of Life ·         The principle of Sexuality and Procreation   **The Rights of a Human Person** ·         The right to Life ·         Right to Private Property ·         Right to Marry ·         Right to Physical Freedom or Personal Liberty ·         Right to Worship ·         Right to Work   **The Duties of a Human Person** ·         Duty to Keep Healthy and Take Care of Oneself ·         Duty to Take Care of One's Property and Respect the Property of Others. ·         Duty to Support One's Family ·         Duty to Respect Private Boundaries ·         Duty for Religious Tolerance ·         Duty to Perform at One's Best    **LESSON 4: THE DUTY ETHICS OF IMMANUEL KANT**   **Introduction ** This lesson deals with Immanuel Kant\'s philosophy which is also called Deontological Ethics because of its emphasis on duty and obligation as the basis of morality. According to Kant, for as long as we are doing our duty, irrespective of the consequence of an act, we will not go wrong. This material views how man as a self-governing, rational individual conforms to internal demands imminent to him/herself. This serves as a background for understanding the ethics of Immanuel Kant. It analyzes Kant's categorical imperative as well as its criticisms.   **Discussion** **Immanuel Kant\'s Epistemology** Ø  Kant disagreed with the philosophy of both the rationalists and the empiricists. Ø  Human persons possess a faculty that is capable of giving knowledge without an appeal to experience. Ø  He agreed with David Hume that all our knowledge are derived from experience. Ø  However, it does not follow that all our knowledge arises out of experience. Ø We can get knowledge not only from sense experience but also directly from the faculty of rational judgment, and therefore, a priori. Ø  With Hume, Kant agreed that our knowledge begins with experience, but unlike Hume, Kant sees the mind as an active agent doing something with the objects it experiences. Ø  Kant's main contention is that a human person is one that legislates, sets the rules and boundaries, for the emergence of the object. This is what is known as Kant's transcendental method (Wallace 1997, 304). It views the human subject as that which goes beyond itself and transcends itself to constitute the ―conditions of possibility‖ of the object. Ø Kant believed that human knowledge is limited in its scope. This limitation takes two forms: first, knowledge is limited to the world of experience. Ø  Second, our knowledge is limited by the manner in which our faculties of perception and thinking organize the raw data of experience. Ø  Kant distinguishes between the phenomenal reality, or the world as we experience it, and the noumenal reality, which is purely intelligible, or non-sensual reality. **The Kantian Concept of Morality** Kant's transcendental method views man as a self-governing, rational will, conforming to the peremptory but internal exigencies immanent in him as rational will. Kant held that the task of moral philosophy is to discover how we can arrive at principles of behavior that are binding upon all humanity. The human will is considered to be good when it acts so that it conforms itself to what duty demands. Conformity to duty is not simply external conformity, but true fidelity to what duty demands. Kant's ethical view is sometimes called **deontologism**, from the Greek words deontos and logos. Kant held the idea that duty is that which ought to be done.  But how can we determine those actions that ought to be done? Kant believed that morality is exclusively within the human personality, i.e., what is morally right or wrong is solely a matter of intent, motive, and will. Because the human person is a self-governing rational will, morality is based on the human person, i.e., the goodness and badness of an action depend on intuition. Intuition here means the internal motive or intention; hence, Kantian morality can also be considered as a form of **intuitionism** or a **motivist theory**. What makes an act moral is it\'s being done out of duty, as distinguished from an act done for other reasons. Duty can be considered by Kant as that which an individual ought to do despite the inclination to do otherwise. Hence, doing one's duty is doing what one is obliged to do. That is why duty is also known as **obligation**. Kant distinguished between acts done in accord with duty from an act done from a sense of duty. The essence of morality for Kant is to be found in the motive from which an act is done.      Kant believed in an objective right and wrong based on reason. We should do the right thing just BECAUSE it is right---and not because it promotes our desires or self-interest. So that an action should be morally good, it is not enough that it conforms to the moral law; it must also be done for the sake of the law. Nothing can be conceived that can be called good, without qualification, except goodwill. Goodwill is good, not because of its attainment of some proposed end, but simply under the volition; that is, it is good in itself. ** ** **The Categorical Imperative** To be able to determine whether or not a person is acting from a sense of duty in a particular situation, he/she must judge his/her action in the light of how Categorical Imperative, the core of Kant's ethical theory.  The categorical imperative is a command or maxim that encourages a person to do a certain action without qualification since doing such an act is the most universally accepted thing to do. Kant held that there are three general types of imperatives:** the imperative of skill, the imperative of prudence, and the imperative of morality**. Kant views the categorical imperative as something binding for all persons.   Kant gave three formulations by which to consider whether an action is based on the categorical imperative or not. 1.    Act only on that maxim whereby they can, and at the same time will, that it will become a universal law (Principle of Universality). 2.    Act to treat humanity, whether in your person or in that of any other, every case as an end, never as means only (Curtis, 46). This formulation is Kant's principle of justice, which has an important consequence for democracy (Principle of Humanity as End-in-Itself. 3.    Act so that your will is what makes universal law (Principle of Autonomy vs. heteronomy)   **Kant's examples to illustrate Categorical Imperative:** 1.    Suicide because of misfortune Maxim: Shorten one's life when it is unsatisfactory to end it. Kant: Cannot be a universal law 2.    Promising to repay the debt when one knows one cannot Maxim: Promise whatever if one is in a difficult situation Kant: Cannot be a universal law 3.    Not cultivating one's natural gifts Maxim: Give in to one's indulgence of pleasure or enjoyment instead of cultivating one's gifts Kant: Cannot be a universal law 4.    Not helping those in need when one is prosperous Maxim: One must only think of one's happiness Kant: Cannot be a universal law.   In Kant's concept of justice, every individual must be counted as being of equal value. Hence, no one should be discriminated against, irrespective of his gender, race, creed, or social, or financial status. Since every being is a rational creature, each has an inherent value and dignity, which is not determined by one's profession, upbringing, or financial capability. Because the categorical imperative is our guide to moral action, he considers this as a voice of duty, a sense of oughtness. Because this imperative is derived from reason, then it is a priori. For this reason, the categorical imperative is definite and changeless.   **The Kantian Person** Ø  Kant considers a human person as an autonomous, self-regulating will. Because the human person is capable of immanent activities, man's reason and justification of his decisions are his own. Ø  Kant distinguished between two types of duties: the perfect duty and the imperfect duty. Perfect duty is that which a person must always observe irrespective of time, place, or circumstances. Imperfect duty is that which a person must observe only on some occasions. A human person has the capability of making moral decisions and that duty is always a priori, i.e., it is always based on reason itself. Ø  Kant held that every person is capable of doing an action based on his will and decision. The real point here for Kant is that a person has worth and dignity since they are ends in themselves and are capable of making their own moral decisions. Because of this, every person should not be treated merely as a means for another's end. Mutual respect for autonomy between persons in moral relations is the basis of justice.