ETHICS Prelim Coverage.pdf

MODULE 1: KEY CONCEPTS AND MAN AS A MORAL AGENT Unit 1. The Ethical Dimension of human existence A: What is philosophy? Ethics? Morality? Nina is a 17-year old Grade 12 student who strives to be an honor student. In a periodical exam given by the teacher, Nina saw man...

MODULE 1: KEY CONCEPTS AND MAN AS A MORAL AGENT Unit 1. The Ethical Dimension of human existence A: What is philosophy? Ethics? Morality? Nina is a 17-year old Grade 12 student who strives to be an honor student. In a periodical exam given by the teacher, Nina saw many of her classmates cheating and opening their “kodigos”; while she remained honest in answering the exam questions. When the teacher noticed the cheating, he turned to ask Nina: “ Have you seen your classmates cheat? I saw you looking at them while they are cheating?” Nina hesitantly answered and said yes. Did Nina do the right thing? Did she betray her classmates? You might be wondering, “Why should human beings be moral? Why should I do what is right? Here are some compelling reasons: a. It is enlightened self-interest- “I will be better off” b. It is the traditional law – “Because some authority says so” c. It is a responsibility – “It is expected of me” d. It is what is fair and equitable – “ It is about fairness and justice: But most of all. e. People have shared human needs, goals, desires, and/or objectives; and these are better met when people treat each other in a manner that promotes what is right and good. (Thiroux and Krasemann, 2009) Explain Everyday, we are faced with so many decisions to make and some of them involve ethical and moral value. As a human being created in the image of God, it is important to always make the right decision; although sometimes it is indeed difficult to be morally and ethically right.  What is philosophy? Philosophy is a commonly thought of today as a particular discipline in college curriculum; perhaps a subject that one could take, or a course in which one could get a degree. The word philosophy is rooted in the Greek words that translate to “love of wisdom”. Philosophy is a way of thinking about the world, the universe, and society. It works by asking very basic questions about the nature of human thought, the nature of the universe, and the connections between them What is ethics? Ethics is a branch of philosophy that simply tells us to do what is right and to avoid doing what is wrong. Ethics is the standard of what is right and wrong as accepted by the society; therefore ethics are a set of rules provided by an external source such as religion, culture, laws, social policies, etc. Ethics include a set of human values that tell us what is acceptable and what is not acceptable. Ethics as a subject is about determining the grounds for the values with particular and special significance to human life. In ethics, we encounter many other related concepts such as morality, values, aesthetics, judgment, moral dilemma, attitude and conduct - which we need to explore in order to fully understand the ethical dimension of human behavior. Sometimes, ethics and morals are interchanged and oftentimes, many consider the two words as similar. What is morality ? Morality is a set of personal rules and values that guide a person in doing what is right and wrong. Morality is the standard we set for ourselves in regards to what we personally think is acceptable. What are morals? Morals refers to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or people act or perform. Thus, it is sometimes said that an individual’s personal conduct is referred to as moral, and if he falls short of behaving properly, this can be described as immoral. Thus, a person who consistently does wrong even when he knows what is right is considered as immoral. Man is considered as moral because he has the capacity to choose between what is right and wrong based on logic and reasoning; then accept the consequences of one’s action. Other animals are considered as amoral because they don’t have the capacity to use reasoning and accept consequences of one’s moral decision.  A moral issue is a situation that needs for moral valuation and judgment. For instance, imagine a situation wherein a person cannot afford a certain item, but then the possibility presents itself for her to steal it. This is a a matter of ethics (and not just law) insofar as it involves the question of respect for one’s property. We should add that “issue: is also often used to refer to those particular situations that are often the source of considerable and inconclusive debate (thus, we would often hear topics such as capital punishment and euthanasia as moral “issues”). What is a moral dilemma? A moral dilemma is a complicated situation wherein a person is torn between choosing one of two goods or choosing between the lesser of two evils. We have a dilemma when an individual can choose only one from a number of possible actions, and there are compelling ethical reasons for the various choices. For example, a a mother maybe conflicted between wanting to feed her hungry children but then recognizing that it would be wrong for her to steal food to give to her children. What is human reasoning? Our capacity to think and to reason gives us the ability to judge whether or not our actions are acceptable or not. How do we decide that an action is unethical or immoral? What are our basis? To put it in another way, what reasons do we give to decide or judge that a certain way of acting is either right or wrong? Reasons for acting and deciding include fear of punishment, need to be appreciated, promise of rewards, or maybe acting based on some principles. Beyond rewards and punishment, it is possible for our moral valuation - our decisions and judgments - to be based on principle. That’s why a person who refuses to steal because it is a disrespect of other people’s property is an example of acting based on a belief or principle. From this, principles can be defined as rationally established grounds by which one justifies and maintains her moral decisions and judgments. The ability of the mind to find reasons and justify actions Unit 1.Ethical dimensions of human existence B. What is a value? What are the different types of valuations? What is a value? A value is something we consider as important or an act that has human relevance. When a person loves a things, he strives to keep it and take care of it. When a person considers an attitude valuable, he practices it (like honesty, friendship, etc.) generally, people are predisposed to adopt the values they are raised with. People also tend to believe that these values are right because they are the values of their particular culture. Conflicts arise when people have different conflicting values. Some values have intrinsic worth like love, truth and freedom. Some values are instrumental in achieving goals such as ambition, courage, and responsibility; while some values are considered as sacred values such as patriotism and religiosity, which are considered as moral imperatives to those who believe them. Ethical decision making involves weighing values against each other and choosing which value to elevate. In ethics, a value is a personal belief or principle that guide a person in making moral judgments. Values could be universal such as love, religiosity, generosity, love of family, kindness, and honesty. Many institutions usually have core values that guide them in achieving their vision and mission. The following are examples of core values What are valuations and value judgments? Valuations are judgments or perceptions or decisions a person make concerning a particular thing, activity, attitude, belief or practice. This referred to as value judgments. Everyday, we are faced with a lot of situations to decide and to judge: what to wear, what to eat, what color to choose, what course to take, what action to take, etc. There are many instances when we make value judgments. Types of Value judgments  1. Aesthetics - a value judgment made that pertains to artistic or creative choice. The word aesthetics is derived from the Greek word aisthesis (sense or feeling) and refers to judgments of personal approval or disapproval that we make about what we see, hear, smell, and taste. For instance, to say that I like the color blue, I like the smell of flowers, I like to eat and I like to watch romantic movies - are instances where value judgment do not involve ethical behavior or morality. It simply shows the personal values or preferences of a person. 2. Etiquette - sense of approval or disapproval concerning certain actions; but not serious enough to belong to a discussion of ethics. For instance, laughing loudly in a business meeting or wearing too-revealing clothes at school are actions that are not considered as an acceptable social etiquette, depending on culture and traditions. 3. Technical Valuation - the right and wrong technique in doing things that is not necessarily an ethical issue. Technique comes from the Greek word “techne”, meaning the proper way of doing things. For instance, learning how to bake, how to play basketball, and to follow the rules of doing some actions are not something that belongs to a discussion in ethics. 4. Moral valuations - involve valuations that we make concerning human action, characterized by certain gravity that involves human well-being and human life itself. Therefore, matters that concern life and death such war, capital punishment, mercy killing, abortion and other matters that concern human well- being such as poverty, inequality, sexual identity are often included in discussions of ethics. Elaborate Read and internalize the following passage Lisa is a college student who loves to play badminton. While playing, she likes to wear jogging pants instead of short pants; and prefers to drink water instead of energy drinks. Lisa is a bit shy that’s why she does not like to play with a lot of people and prefers single or dual sports. Lisa mastered playing badminton while she was still in elementary, when she was trained by a P.E. teacher at school. For many years now, Lisa has learned the many techniques in playing badminton and is now considered as a badminton coach at school.  One day while in the school gym, a newbie in the game or a new male student in the campus requests for Lisa to teach her how to play badminton for reasons that he seems to have a crush on Lisa. Lisa’s badminton mentor instructed Lisa to ignore the request because they are busy; and that Lisa should give more time practicing the game in order to win the regional meet competition. When Lisa refuses to follow her mentor’s instructions and instead went on to give time to the interested newbie, Lisa’s instructor got angry and shouted at the newbie to stop disturbing them and to train somewhere. The instructor went further by saying to Lisa that she is allowed only to train female, and not male newbies. The following table summarizes the examples of valuations indicated in the passage. Type of value Action judgment Aesthetics * Lisa loves to wear jogging pants * Lisa loves to play badminton * Lisa prefers non-team sports * Lisa loves to drink water, not energy drinks Etiquette * Lisa’s instructor shows an unacceptable behavior when he shouted at the newbie * The newbie asking to be trained in badminton only because he likes Lisa Technical * One could judge that Lisa knows how to play badminton like a pro valuation because she has been practicing this game for many years already Moral judgments * When the instructor told Lisa not train male newbies - an ethical issue that needs ethical discussion or consideration Unit 1.Ethical dimensions of human existence C. What are the different sources of moral authority? Explain Several common ways of thinking about ethics are based on the idea that the standards of valuation are imposed by a higher authority that commands our obedience. In this learning unit, we shall explore on the three sources that usually influence our moral decision making: The religion, the law, and the culture. 1. Religion  In the Holy Scriptures, God commands all men to love Him first above all things - because after all, He is the Creator of mankind and the provider of our needs. The idea that one is obliged to obey God in all things is appealing and valid especially people who have religious sensibility. Obedience to the divinity called God, Allah or Supreme Being is a topic in ethics referred to as divine command theory, where the creation is subject to obey the will of the Creator who knows best for His created beings. This is dominantly appealing because many of us were trained and grew up in a a religious affiliation, imposing moral prohibitions such as “Thou shall not kill; thou shall not steal, etc”. Moreover, religious commands usually coincide with morality and ethical principles (except for those whose affiliations inflict hurt unto others). From the churches where we grow up, we were taught to practice love, generosity, forgiveness, patience, and understanding. These intrinsic values are ethical principles used by many in making moral decisions. However, there are problems with religion as the source of morality considering the multiplicity of religions; and other cults whose beliefs hamper on the rights and freedom of its members. Also, some religious sects enforce their teachings and doctrines which are contrary to some ethical and intrinsic values of peace and forgiveness. 2. The Law It is supposed that law is one’s guide to ethical behavior. In the Philippines, Filipinos are obliged to obey the laws of the land as stated in the country’s criminal and civil codes. Furthermore, the law is enforced by way of a system of sanctions or legal consequences of one’s bad actions. However, one problem with the law as the only source of morality is the law is very broad; it does not tell us the details of ethical behavior because there are laws of the government that are allowed but are actually unethical. For example, many companies hire employees for six months and terminate them after six months because the law only require employers to regularize employees after working for 6 months. This act does not violate the law; but is considered as unethical because it does not give job security to a good productive employee. Also, many times, the law has loopholes and can be twisted to fit the demands of some unethical rich individuals. 3. Culture Culture is defined as a persons’ way of living or lifestyle (choices, manners, habits, and general conduct) based on societal expectations and traditional practices. Our exposure to differentiate societies and their cultures makes us aware that there are ways of thinking and valuing that are different from our own. There are aesthetic differences (Japaneses versus Indian Art0; religious differences (Hinduism versus Christianity); etiquette differences (conflicting behaviors regarding dining practices). IN these bases, it is easy to conclude that this is the case in ethics as well. Our culture help shape our behavior and belief system; that’s why culture is considered as very influential in how we make moral and ethical decisions. However, one problem with this is the issue of cultural relativism - a principle which posits that there no single universal standard by which we could judge what is ethical or unethical because of the differences in the belief system in every culture. Therefore, what is acceptable to one culture may be an unacceptable action in another culture. Cultural relativism is something good because it makes us accept the reality of our differences; respect and understand these cultural differences; and finally helping us internalize that our own cultures system of moral code is not superior or inferior from other. However, there are problems behind cultural relativism: 1) considering that all cultural practices are considered as correct and we should not judge others behavior relative to their culture, it has now become a difficult concern to distinguish what is right from wrong - negating the universality of goodness and some intrinsic values such as love and generosity; 2) under cultural relativism we are not in the position to render moral judgment to others, resulting to abuse of the rights of some women and children (and all vulnerable individuals) where external cultures should not interfere. This actually delimits the roles and responsibilities mandated in the United Nations. How do we know then if the cultural practices goes beyond the limits, especially when the people within that culture believe in that the practice is acceptable. Unit 1. Ethical dimensions of human existence D. What are the different senses of the self? It is sometimes thought that one should not rely on any external authority to tell oneself what standards of moral valuations are; but should instead turn inwards. In this topic, we will study the three theories of ethics that center on the self: subjectivism, psychological egoism, and ethical egoism. Before going into the details of the three theories, pleas carefully read the following passage/story: Maria, a 23-year old woman, was an abandoned child before, who was left in the monastery after birth. She did not know who her biological parents were and grew up without knowing a single relative. At age 14, she escaped from the monastery because she feels being imprisoned by her caregivers. She escaped to find freedom and to get education from a formal school setting. After escaping, life became more harsh and more difficult for her. Nevertheless, she fought the challenges of life and became more resilient at each problem. Now, she just completed college and recently passed the licensure examination for teachers. What do you think made maria strong? Considering her experiences of living without a family and harsh treatments from others, where do you think she learned her good values and virtues? The three senses of the self: 1. Subjectivism. The center of subjectivism is the recognition that the individual thinking person (the subject) is at the heart of moral valuations. She is the one who is confronted with the situation and is burdened with the need to make decisions or judgment. The following are some famous line showing the principle of subjectivism 1. “ No one can tell what is right and wrong..” 2. “ No one knows my situation better than myself…” 3. “I am entitled to my own opinions..” 4. “ It is good if I say it is good..” There is something appealing in these statements because they seem to express a cherished sense of personal independence. But a closer look at these statements may reveal problems and in seeing these, we see the problems of subjectivism. To claim that the self seeks to protect its interest is not absolute. Therefore, to say that no one can tell me what is right and wrong is to say that one’s experience is so unique to himself or herself so that listening from others’ opinion is unnecessary. But about the fact that human experiences are shared and are common? Do other people don’t have something to suggest that may be of help? In subjectivism, the issue of interdependence and opinion-sharing is reduced to nothing because the self has the absolute say that others cannot influence. 2. Psychological egoism - a theory that posits that self-interest and self- welfare is the underlying motivation of every human action. All forms of egoism require explication of “self-interest” (or “welfare” or “well-being”) and that each person has but one ultimate aim: her own welfare. Whatever a person does: watching a movie, buying clothes, completing college - all because of self-interest. However, this theory had flaws in it. Consider for example, the act of generosity. Based on psychological egoism, even the act of giving is motivated by self-welfare and interest; therefore, making it gloomy to look at man as naturally self-seeking and selfish. Based on this theory also, all actions are self-seeking so that a luxurious woman who buys expensive clothes and a woman who donates to charity - do not differ in their motivations: self-welfare.  3. Ethical Egoism differs from psychological egoism is that it does not suppose all are our actions are self-serving. Ethical egoism describes that we should make our own ends; not our own interests. We may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but we should do that only if it ultimately benefits us. Therefore, based on this theory we should not allow other people to distract us from our own pursuit. However, according to Socrates this theory is not absolutely right because there is what we call us “justice”. Sometimes, the self becomes so selfish and appetitive, to the point of losing reason. Summary of the characteristics of the three senses of the self Sense of the self Flaws/Negative feedback Subjectivism Moral opinions are There is no such thing as objective based on what we feel is or right or wrong. It is the self which right for the self. decides which is morally right or wrong. The self my not always have the answer to all questions in life. Others could help too. Psychological egoism People’s actions are Generosity and altruism are primarily driven by self- negated. The act of helping others is interest. still for the benefit of the self. Ethical egoism Man ought to do his or The ethics of selfishness Any her own interests consequences caused by an action because the pursuit of driven by self-interest is ethical. doing good to the self is actually good for everyone.