Religious and Scientific Cosmology Review PDF

Estrellado, Iris_Singson, Maxine Religious Cosmology ➔ Explains the origin of the universe based on a specific mythical tradition ➔ In some cultures, the universe was created by one great entity (God, Supreme Being, Deity) ➔ Cosmos -> order of things...

Estrellado, Iris_Singson, Maxine Religious Cosmology ➔ Explains the origin of the universe based on a specific mythical tradition ➔ In some cultures, the universe was created by one great entity (God, Supreme Being, Deity) ➔ Cosmos -> order of things TYPES: Mormon Cosmology ➔ According to Mormon Cosmology, there is a presence of pre-existing or pre-mortal life ➔ The belief of human spirits are literal children of heavenly principles (eternal and without beginning) ➔ Concept of ex nihilo ➔ Biogenesis Buddhist Cosmology ➔ The existence of the universe is dependent upon the action or karma of its inhabitants ➔ The belief that the universe is passing in and passing out; thus the universe has no beginning nor end ➔ Concept of multiverse Hindu Cosmology ➔ Belief that the creation is timeless; thus no beginning ➔ The universe is in a repetitive cycle of creation, preservation, and dissolution. ➔ There are many universes that follows the rhythm of creation and dissolution ➔ Creation and dissolution occurs at a period of 1000 Maha Yuga (great year of cycles) ➔ “Samsara” -> Nirvana Islamic Cosmology ➔ The islamic view of the origin of the universe is one where God created everything ➔ It teaches t visualize the cosmos for meditation and contemplation to be used for spiritual upliftment ➔ They said that angel Gabriel gave the bible to an islamic person thats why both religions have counterparts ➔ Their god is Allah ➔ Hindu - 1st (oldest) // Buddhist - 2nd // Islamic - 3rd  Scientific Cosmology ➔ The quest for truth and enlightenment enabled humans to search for tools and the use of the scientific method was known to undermine religious beliefs ➔ Natural forces govern the universe Albert Einstein ➔ E = mc^2 ➔ The theory of relativity which explains how space time works Edwin Hubble ➔ discovered that galaxies are moving, -> Hubble Telescope Theories of the Formation of the Universe Georges Lemaitre ➔ Father of the Big Bang Theory ➔ He believes that God created everything so he created the Big Bang Theory to explain it. ◆ *He believes everything that comes from God can be explained by science (Not all but most of the ideas can be explained.)* Edwin Hubble ➔ Other galaxies were moving away from each other as seen on earth THEORIES: 1. BIG BANG ➔ Proposed by Georges Lemaitre and Alexander Friedman THEORY ➔ There was an expansion of space that hurled matter and energy, even space and time in all directions of the Universe (not an explosion) ➔ As the universe expands, it cools ➔ Particles grouped together form light elements ➔ Atoms grouped to form stars, and with the presence of gravity, galaxies were formed ➔ It all began in a tiny compact point called a singularity EVIDENCES UNRESOLVED PROBLEMS 1. Galaxies are moving away, 1. Flatness of the universe and the presence of a (according to WMAP) redshift. a. WMAP: Wilkinson 2. Presence of the cosmic Microwave microwave background Anisotropy Probe a. Remnant energy b. The theory says the from the Big Bang universe should have Explosion warping & curving of 3. Abundance of light elements space 2. The presence of magnetic monopoles in the universe a. The theory states  that there are magnetic monopoles, but they been observed 3. Horizon of the Universe 2. Steady ➔ Proposed by Thomas God, Fred Hoyle, Herman Bondi State Theory ➔ The universe is always expanding but maintaining a constant average density ➔ Matter is continuously formed ➔ Universe has no beginning nor end ➔ Not able to explain the Cosmic Microwave Background ➔ 3. Cosmic ➔ 1980 by Alan Guth, Andrei Lind, Paul Steinhard, and Andy Albrecht Inflation Theory ➔ Rapid expansion of space-time, prior to the more expansion of the Big Bang (An extension of the BIG BANG THEORY) ➔ The inflation was driven by the repulsive force of gravity ➔ During the rapid expansion, the energy density of the universe was dominated by cosmological-constant type of vacuum energy, which eventually declared to produce the matter and radiation of the universe Solutions Remember: 1. Flatness: in astronomical The inclusion of rapid proportion, the universe inflation in the Big Bang also appears flat because poses additional principles inflation stretches any kind to complete this new model of curvature (dark matter, dark energy, 2. Horizon: it assumes a burst radiation, and ordinary of exponential expansion in matter) the early universe, allowing ○ Dark energy: force the distant regions to be that expedites the much closer with each other expansion of the  prior to inflation universe 3. Monopole: the presence of ○ Dark matter: matter monopoles (loosely or “entity” that described as a magnet with cannot be seen in only one pole) is allowable as telescope it was produced prior to the ○ Ordinary matter: inflationary epoch. ions, atoms, molecules, protons, electrons, neutrons The presence if gravitational wave distortion in space time FOCUS: Ripples manifested as spiral patterns in the cosmic microwave background The link of gravitational waves to inflation theory Evidence of Temperature fluctuations 4. String ➔ The general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics Theory ○ Quantum Mechanics; How atomic and subatomic particles behave in nature ○ Quantum Mechanics relates to relativity;Relativity predicts definite outcomes, but Quantum Mechanics provides only probabilities. ➔ The point-like particles often used in physics is replaced by fundamental building blocks called strings ➔ Open strings and closed strings ➔ The Vibration of strings may represent a different fundamental particle ➔ The presence of graviton ➔ The framework is hypothetically called the theory of everything (TOE) Formation of the Solar System Solar System ➔ The gravitationally bound system of the sun and the objects that orbit it ➔ Composed of the following: sun, planets, asteroids, comets, meteors Vortex Theory ➔ Formulated by Rene Descartes in 1644, where the Solar System was formed into bodies with nearly circular orbits from pre-solar materials ➔ The sun is our vortex’s center ➔ The presence of primary and secondary vortices  ○ Primary Vortex - Orbit of the planet ○ Secondary Vortex - Orbit of the satellite ➔ Transformation hypothesis VS law of gravitation ○ Transformation Hypothesis - If a vortex is about to die, it will transfer its stellar content to another vortex. This process creates and alters the content of the new one, while also shifting its location in the universe. ➔ Encounter ➔ Buffon’s collision theory + Jean-Jefferys’ tidal theory = encounter Hypothesis hypothesis ➔ A star or comet passed by the sun to draw out a steam of solar gas that condensed to form planets ➔ Flaws such as the close counter of star to the sun and angular momentum ○ Angular momentum - energy in rotational motion ➔ Nebular ➔ Proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon Laplace Hypothesis ➔ A nebula (cloud of dust & gas) collapsed due to gravitational pull forming planets and the sun ➔ Most of the angular momentum is in the sun ➔ Flaws on the accuracy of the theory due to angular momentum ➔ The sun has 2% of angular momentum while the remaining 98% are with the planets (which is not possible) ○ Angular momentum = Dependent on its mass Solar Nebular ➔ Solves the hypothesis’ problems Model ➔ Collapse of dust cloud - interstellar gas & dust cloud collapse due to a neighboring Supernova explosion (otherwise, unchanged). It continued to shrink & rotational speed increased(gravitational mgsomething into  heat). It flattened into a disk, the center called the protostar which became the sun. ➔ Continuous shrinking of the dust cloud accompanied with increased rotational speed, flattened to form a disk called protostar ○ Neighboring supernova gave the push to collapse the dust cloud ○ 2 directions for a dying star; supernova or a black hole ➔ Formation of planetesimals & protoplanets - The remaining gas formed into disk shaped bodies called solar nebula which became the planetesimals (cm to km in diameter). The combination of planetesimals created protoplanets and became planets. ➔ Contraction converted gravitational energy into heat which made a flow in the center (protostar became the sun) ➔ Formation of planets - The disk is hotter near the center which allows condensation; the frost line indicates the warm & cool regions; the warm region contains terrestrial planets while cool regions contain Jovian planets. ○ Frostline indicates temp differences of how planets are formed ○ Beyond are colder, frost line warmer ○ Transition of warmer to colder temp Formation of Terrestrial Planets ➔ Terrestrial planets are formed via accretion ○ Accretion - accumulation of materials which can condense into one solid object ➔ Steps in the formation: 1. Condensation of gases to form rocky particles; 2. Formation of clumps from rock particles; 3. Accretion of clumps 4. Formation of planetesimals 5. Growth of planetesimals to limiting size; 6. Formation of Terrestrial Planets ○ Limiting Size - All of the particles that made up planets are made out of gases; without limiting size, it will continue to collect gases creating GAS GIANT/Planet The Oort Cloud ➔ Far beyond the planets and the sun exists a place full of icy materials and Kuiper Belt and rocks called the Oort belt (named after Jan Hendrick Oort) ➔ This extends around 750 billion km from the sun to the edge of the solar system beyond the orbit of neptune ➔ The Kuiper belt on the other hand is located at 4.5 billion km from the sun (named after gerard Kuiper) ➔ It is a region of the solar system beyond the planets, extending from the orbit of neptune ➔ The oort cloud is much farther away compared to the Kuiper belt  ➔ Dwarf planets now reside on the Kuiper belt except for ceres who resides on the asteroid belt ○ Asteroid belt - separates the inner and outer planets ○ Dwarf Planets: Pluto, Iris, Haumea, Make-Make ○ MA - Mega-anum; 1 million years ○ GA - Giga-annum; 1 billion years Other ➔ What is the fate of the universe? Will the universe continue to expand or will it eventually contract because of gravity? ◆ It's a vast area wherein there's no assurance of what will happen, certain advances are being done in which the universe will continue to expand ➔ Collision of the milky way + andromeda galaxy Earth’s Habitability CHARACTERISTICS EARTH VENUS MARS Size and mass 7,917.5 miles (12,742 7,521 miles (12,104 4,212 miles (6,779 km) km) diameter, 5.972 x km) diameter, 4.867 diameter, 6.39 x 10^24 10^24 kg mass x 10^24 kg mass kg mass Rotation and Revolution 2 day = 24 hours: 365 243 days: 225 days 24.6 hours days Anti-clockwise clockwise Axis Tiltation 23.4 degrees 177.3 degrees 25.2 degrees (retrograde) Thickness and Composition 100 km thick, mostly 100 km thick, 10 km thick, mostly of the Atmosphere nitrogen (78%), mostly carbon carbon dioxide (95%), oxygen (21%), argon dioxide (96.5%), nitrogen (2.7%), argon (0.9%), trace gases nitrogen (3.5%), (1.6%), trace gases trace gas Atmospheric Temperature and Average surface Average surface Average surface Pressure temperature of 15°C temperature of temperature of -63°C (59°F), atmospheric 462°C (864°F), (-81°F), atmospheric pressure of 1013 atmospheric pressure of 6 millibars pressure of 92 bars millibars Presence of Liquid Water Abundant liquid No liquid water on Underground liquid water on the surface the surface due to water high temperatures and pressure Volcanic Activity Around 50-70 active Evidence of past Also has a lot of volcanoes are volcanic activity, volcanoes but is but no currently currently inactive active volcanoes To allow life to flourish, a star 1. Age of Star ➔ the star must be at least 3 must have the FF: Ga (3 million years) old and has luminosity,size, and life span which is determined using its initial mass ➔ Luminosity 2. Stable Planetary Habitable ➔ A star must (ALWAYS) be in Zone a habitable zone or “goldilocks zone” where it could maintain liquid water. ➔ 3. High Metallicity ➔ The presence of heavier elements (metals). Stars with planets are metal rich 4. Low-Stellar Variation ➔ The fluctuation in a star’s luminosity. Significant variation in luminosity affects the amount of energy radiated toward the bodies in orbit. ➔ Amount of energy or light of a star that is radiated from the star itself ➔ Low stellar variation indicates stable luminosity, while high stellar variation means significant fluctuations in a star's brightness. This variability can disrupt life forms that are accustomed to a consistent light pattern, leading to challenges as they adapt to these changes in luminosity. ◆ EXAMPLE: Cold-blooded animals are highly sensitive to temperature changes. If there is significant stellar variation, resulting in extreme  temperature fluctuations (very hot or very cold), these animals may struggle to adapt to such rapid changes. Habitable Planets ➔ Planetary habitability index measures an astronomical body’s potential to be habitable. Listed below are the following principles ➔ Mass of a planet matters because without the appropriate size and mass of the planet it will not be able to have its own gravity and won't be able to hold its own water and atmosphere. ◆ They are vulnerable to radiation ➔ Benefits of Volcanic Eruptions ◆ certain gasses are emitted in the atmosphere, the neighboring soil near volcano become more fertile is more appropriate for planting crops ◆ Formation of new landforms ➔ Distance from ➔ Planet’s mass must be in the a star “goldilocks zone.” ➔ Terrestrial ➔ A planet's mass must be large enough to retain the atmosphere and have a molten core that serves as a heat engine driving geological processes. ➔ Orbital ➔ Eccentricity is a ration Eccentricity describing the shape of the elliptical orbit. The greater the eccentricity, the greater the temperature fluctuation. ➔ Axial Tilt ➔ If the tilt is great, the surface temperature difference would be too great to sustain diverse forms of life. Seasons become extreme and the biosphere would not be able to sustain homeostasis. ➔ Rotation ➔ If the rotation of a planet is too short, the atmospheric wind velocities will be too great for life. If too long the diurnal temperature changes would not be conducive to life. ➔ Geochemistry ➔ The planets should have  elements most vital to life such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Earth Subsystems 1. Geosphere ➔ The information about the earth’s core is based on seismic information and computer modeling and simulation ➔ In 1936, Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann discovered that Earth has a solid inner core which is made of iron-nickel alloy that is also magnetic ➔ The outer core on the other hand is made mostly of iron and nickel that can sustain temperatures around 4000 degrees to 5000 degrees which is why the outer core is liquid ◆ Seismic waves map the inner structure of the world ◆ Primary waves first used magkaroon ng solid and liquids where primary waves travel throughout inner structure of the earth ➔ The earth’s internal structure: Core ➔ The Core ◆ The Lehmann discontinuity is a seismic boundary that separates the outer and inner core. ◆ S waves can only travel liquids ◆ Outerore liquid in nature, flowing, electric current is there ◆ Inner core is solid because primary wave can travel center of the core ➔ Such properties of both cores provide the magnetic field of the planet ◆ EC = Electric Current > anything that has flowing particles or characteristics ➔ Mantles ➔ The mantle is the largest portion of the earth, which can be further divided into the upper and lower mantle. ➔ Its composition is made up of molten rocks. ➔ The lower mantle is considered to be plastic  ➔ The high pressure in this layer causes the formation of minerals that are different in the upper layer ➔ The Gutenberg discontinuity is found in between the lower manlet and other core as observed by changes in the seismic ➔ The uppermost mantle and the Earth’s crust takes up the relatively rigid lithosphere ➔ The upper boundary that separates the upper mantle from the earth’s crust is called the Mohorovičić discontinuity ➔ The asthenosphere is the layer that lies after the lithosphere ➔ The balance in temperature and pressure is so high that rocks have little strength and easily deformable Crust ➔ The crust is the outermost layer that consist the continental and oceanic crust ➔ The oceanic crust underlies all oceanic basins that are densely composed of iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks such as basalt. ➔ The continental crust underlies all continental areas that is less dense composed of sodium potassium aluminum silicate such as granodiorites Lithosphere ➔ It is not a continuous layer but rather it is divided into huge number of plates that move ➔ In totality, experts suggest that there are around 50 plates total ➔ The border between tectonic plates is called a plate boundary ➔ Continents are different from plates: Continents: Group of land on top of the plates (which is why they move every now and then). Plates: Chunks of lithosphere that are cracked Continents are situated ABOVE the plates 2. Hydrospher ➔ Upon looking at the earth from space of even a globe, you will notice e that the earth mostly consists of water ➔ The earth is covered by 5 recognized oceans ◆ Atlantic ◆ Pacific ◆ Arctic ➔ Sea VS Ocean ➔ Composition of the Hydrosphere:  ◆ Salt water has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand ◆ The amount of salt show in the figure might seem small but in actuality it is massive ◆ Presence of dissolved salts via chemical weathering and volcanic outgassing Chemical Weathering: Occurs when chemical reactions break down rocks, involving factors such as ice, water, or wind. Some rocks contain minerals that, through weathering, are broken down. These weathered minerals are eventually deposited in our waters. Volcanic Eruption: Eruption of volcanoes below sea level Surface Water Ground Water ➔ Can be found on surface or ➔ Marine and Fresh Waters land ➔ Found on the Earth’s surface ➔ Found beneath the Earth's in rivers, lakes, ponds, surface in the cracks and reservoirs, and oceans. spaces in soil, sand, and ➔ Comes from precipitation, rock. It is stored in aquifers. runoff, and contributions ➔ Originates from from groundwater sources. precipitation (rain or snow) that seeps through the ground. ➔ ➔ 3. Atmosphere ➔ composition of the primitive atmosphere ◆ Gaseous layer above the earth's surface primarily composed of different gases such as nitrogen and oxygen ◆ The early earth was very different from the Earth today ◆ Gases consisting CH4, H2O, CO2, NH2 SO2, CO, N2 were formed ◆ As earth cooled, water condensed to form the oceans, carbon dioxide dissolved into oceans forming carbonates. Nitrogen became the major component of the atmosphere ◆ Presence of radiation and photosynthesis on Earth ◆ Through the development, evolution, and growth of living organism, the quantity of oxygen in the atmosphere increased, thus the ozone layer eventually formed in the stratosphere Layers of the Atmosphere Troposphere ➔ The lowest layer of the atmosphere, which  extends from the Earth’s surface to an average height of about 9-12 km at the poles and 17km at the equator ➔ It contains 80% of the atmosphere, where water vapor is present (most), contributing to the weather-associated clouds ➔ Temperature decreases as altitude increases due to atmosphere getting thinner ➔ The presence of tropopause at the top of the troposphere ◆ Temperature remains constant and temp stops increasing and decreasing. ➔ Types of clouds ◆ Cirrus ◆ Cumulus ◆ Stratus ◆ Nimbus Stratosphere ➔ The second layer of the atmosphere, above the tropopause ➔ It extends from 12 to 15km above the earth’s surface to the stratopause, around 50 km in altitude ➔ The temperature increases as altitude rises due to the presence of ozone ➔ The absorbance of ultraviolet radiation with the help of the ozone layer. ➔ The area where commercial airplanes fly due to lower air density and temperature ➔ At the stratopause as well, the temperature stops increasing ➔ The stratosphere lacks the weather-producing turbulence and is almost free of clouds Mesosphere ➔ It is the third highest layer of the earth's atmosphere which occupies the region above the stratosphere ➔ It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of 50km, to the mesopause at an altitude of 80km ➔ In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases. It is considered as the coldest region in the atmosphere (upper mesosphere) ➔ This also serves as protection from meteoroids that enters the atmosphere ➔ Meteoroids vs Meteors vs Meteorites ◆ Meteorites are planetary debris that are now traveling toward or entering Earth's atmosphere. Once this debris enters the atmosphere, it is called a meteor or shooting star. If any part of the debris survives the journey through the  atmosphere and lands on Earth's surface, it is then called a meteorite. ➔ Temperature stops decreasing decreasing at the mesopause Thermosphere ➔ It extends from the above the atmosphere at around 80 km to 700 km ➔ The portion of the thermosphere between 90 km and 500 km above the Earth’s surface is called the ionosphere, where ionized gas is formed ◆ Ion: atom or molecule that has a net charge (positive or negative) depending or loss or gaining of electrons ➔ The Layer of the ionosphere called the Kenelly-Heaviside layer, which reflects radio waves ➔ At the poles, ions interact with air molecules which in turn form auroras Exosphere ➔ The exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere, which extends from about 700 km to 1000 km above sea level. ➔ It is where most of the orbiting satellites as well as low-density elements are found 4. Biosphere ➔ The biosphere contains the entirety of Earth’s living things such as animals and plants ➔ From a geophysical perspective, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living things and their relationship, including their interactions with the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere ➔ Movements of chemicals through the biosphere is known as the biogeochemical cycle. ➔ These different cycle shows the movement of these chemicals from their nonliving reservoirs to the various food chains of the ecosystem and their return to these reservoirs ➔ Major constituent of energy is solar energy Biomes Large ecosystems are classified according to the predominant vegetation characterized by adaptations of organisms to the particular environment. Acquaitic Includes freshwater (ponds, lakes, and rivers), and marine (ocean and estuaries) which houses numerous species of plants and marine animals  Grassland Characterized by the dominance of grasses rather than large shrub trees Desert It is characterized by low rainfall (less than 50 cm/year). Most deserts have specialized vegetation as well as specialized animals that can adapt to its conditions Tundra It is characterized as the coldest among the different biomes. It has low biotic diversity and a simple vegetation structure Nitrogen Cycle ➔ Nitrogen makes up 78% of the atmosphere, but is not directly used by majority of the living things ➔ Certain processes are necessary before nitrogen can be used by living organisms (fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, denitrification) ◆ N2-lightning; bacteria ◆ N2 ←> N+N ◆ N2+3H2→2NH3 (ammonia) ◆ Fixation of nitrogen → ammonia ➔ Nitrogen Fixation Nitrogen gas (N₂) in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia (NH₃) by nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in soil or plant roots, or through industrial processes and lightning. Nitrification Ammonia is converted into nitrites (NO₂⁻) by nitrifying bacteria, and then into nitrates (NO₃⁻), which plants can absorb through their roots. Assimilation Plants take in nitrates and convert them into organic compounds like proteins and nucleic acids, which animals consume by eating plants. Ammonification When plants and animals die or release waste, decomposers (bacteria and fungi) convert organic nitrogen back into ammonia, returning it to the soil. Denitrification Denitrifying bacteria in anaerobic conditions convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas, releasing it into the atmosphere and completing the cycle Oxygen Cycle ➔ Oxygen not only supports life, it arises from life. (product of photosynthesis from plants) ◆ Abundance of oxygen in the atmosphere: photosynthesis of algae ➔ Oxygen plays a vital role as a building block of practically all vital molecules; almost all organic matter in biosphere originates in the process of photosynthesis ◆ Difference between a molecule that was oxidized or reduced: Oxidized: Lost electrons Reduced: Gained electrons ➔ Carbon dioxide, oxygen, water ◆ 2NH3 →Ammonia ◆ H2S → Hydrogen Sulfide ◆ O3 ⇄O2 O3 → Ozone O2 → Oxygen Carbon Cycle ➔ The study of carbon cycle in the atmosphere is fundamental in the study of the overall global interactions of living organisms and their physical and chemical environment ➔ It includes the process of photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion Energy Pyramid ➔ ➔ Light that comes from the sun can be processed 3 ways; ◆ It can be reflected back into space ◆ It can be used for photosynthesis ◆ It can be transmitted to an object ➔ When organisms consume other species from one trophic level to another, they get 10% of the energy that was originally available from the consumed organism. 90% of the energy is lost through processes like metabolism, heat, and waste. ◆ Metabolism: Digest of food as it can ◆ Excrecion/removal of waste products ◆ Althomont of energy through tissues  ➔ ➔ Apex Predator: Most powerful in the ecosystem that they live in Properties of Minerals How do minerals ➔ Crystallization from magma form? ➔ Precipitation ➔ Pressure and temperature ◆ Metamorphism - subjected to extreme pressure and temp, changes the composition of the rock or the rock-forming mineral so a new mineral is formed ➔ Hydrothermal solution ◆ Hot mineral-rich waters can seep through rocks and as it cools down, the water seeped into the rocks become minerals. Mineral Characteristics / Physical Properties Crystal Form ➔ Minerals have a definite chemical composition ➔ Forms a definite structure that has a specific crystal form Crystal Habit ➔ The outward appearance of the specific crystal form of mineral ➔ The ideal shape of crystal faces such as; cubes, octahedra, blades, hexagonal prisms, dodecahedra, compound forms, rhombohedral, and tetragonal prisms. Color ➔ Small amounts of different elements can give the same mineral a different color Streak ➔ The color of a mineral in its POWDERED form Luster ➔ Used to describe how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral ◆ Can vary from glassy, metallic, dull, or opaque in nature. ➔ Identified when you flash a light towards the mineral Cleavage ➔ The tendency of a mineral to cleave or break, along flat, even surfaces ➔ Describe in two ways: ◆ The number and direction of cleavage planes ◆ Quality of the breakage ABSENT No Cleavage  POOR Difficult to see GOOD Small and step-like flat surfaces EXCELLENT Smooth and flat Fracture ➔ The uneven breakage of mineral ➔ Two types of fractures; Irregular Conchoidal No pattern on the surface The shell-shaped, smooth, and curved surface Hardness & ➔ Hardness: Measure of the resistance of a mineral being scratched. Tenacity ➔ Tenacity - Toughness and resistance of minerals to deformation and breakage. ➔ Mohs scale - consists of 10 minerals arranged from 10 (hardest) to 1 (softest) [Applies for both hardness and tenacity] Physical Properties Cleavage 1. Talc 2. Gypsum 3. Calcite 4. Fluorite 5. Apatite 6. Orthoclase 7. Quartz 8. Topaz 9. Corundum 10. Diamond Density ➔ Property of all matter, the ratio of an object’s mass to its volume. ➔ Specific Gravity ◆ Measure of the density of a mineral. It is defined as the weight of a mineral relative to the weight of an equal volume of water. ◆ Most minerals have a specific gravity of 2.7, while Gold has 19  ◆ Heft is how heavy a mineral feels in the hand, an informal sense of density Other Distinctive Properties MAGNETISM physical phenomenon produced by the motion of charges, resulting in attraction and repulsion forces. (e.g. magnetite) TASTE definitive for halite (rock salt), of course but a few other evaporite minerals also have distinctive taste. (eg halite is salty/rock salt) EFFERVESCENCE reaction to acid. (eg calcite and carbonates will react with weak acids FEEL alc is greasy, SOME MINERALS CAN BE POWDERY IN NATURE)