ENWC201 Exam 2 History of Wildlife PDF

ENWC201 Exam 2 History of Wildlife in NA Lecture 9 11,500 B.P. → Before Man The fastest animals have adapted over time to escape the many predators in the area ○ Many different kinds of carnivorous predators were present The Ice Age ○ Drop in the sea level → land brid...

ENWC201 Exam 2 History of Wildlife in NA Lecture 9 11,500 B.P. → Before Man The fastest animals have adapted over time to escape the many predators in the area ○ Many different kinds of carnivorous predators were present The Ice Age ○ Drop in the sea level → land bridge Humans began to find their way into North America ○ Yukon Corridor 11,000 B.P. to 1500 → Pre-European Era The Clovis: the first group of people who inhabited North America ○ Used spears a lot ○ Arrow heads The Pleistocene Overkill ○ Overexploitation + Climate Change → (Extinction of Megafauna) Very large omnivorous mammals were hunted It took a while for new offspring to be produced since these animals were K-strategists, so a large number of them were lost Predators had nothing to eat, so they also started to disappear Native American Agriculture ○ Spiritual relationship with animals ○ Very little documentation of how wildlife was managed in this era Columbus / Early Explorers ○ Arrived in 1492 ○ Brought diseases ○ Killed Native Americans Over 90% of the population was lost 1500 to 1850 → Era of Abundance Abundance of Animals ○ Audubon spoke about how the population of pigeons was abundant at that time ○ The plains were thick with about 60 million bison ○ Streams were filled with salmon ○ 230-430 million ducks ○ The steller’s sea cow was 27 feet long and 14,000 pounds ○ Abundant with a now extinct species of parrot  In England, hunting was only reserved for royalty and not the common people The belief that nature needed to be tamed ○ King James - Genesis 1:28 “Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the Earth, and subdue it, and have domination over the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth on Earth.” 1850 to 1900 → Era of Overexploitation Railroad expansion and travel Passenger pigeons were considered pests since there were too many ○ Considered very good for hunting ○ Martha was the last existing passenger pigeon Lost in 1914 at the Cincinnati Zoo Bisons were almost killed to extinction ○ Killed because the Native Americans depended on them for food ○ Many uses for the animal Tongue → delicacy Leather → used for machinery belts Hide → useful for clothing ○ In 1984, the last free roaming bison outside of Yellowstone were shot The number has grown since then due to captive breeding The steller’s sea cow went into extinction 27 years later The Carolina parakeets were also hunted to extinction ○ They were killed for their feathers and seen as pests ○ The last one passed away in 1914 at the Cincinnati Zoo Ducks were hunted using boats with guns attached Market hunting → our darkest days ○ The practice of hunting and selling animals for profit The millinery trade ○ Plumage of birds were put into hats Over-exploitation of fishing Bounties on predators led to animals being wiped out ○ Wolves, cougars Species that were lost forever: ○ Passenger pigeon ○ Carolina Parakeet ○ Steller's sea cow ○ Labrador Duck ○ Heath Hen ○ The Great Auk  ○ The Hawaiian Rail Some people began to take notice ○ Thoughts began to change ○ Charles Darwin published “The Origin of Species” Expressed that humans were a part of nature and not separate Things start to happen: ○ Game commissions are formed Manage and protect wildlife ○ Wardens are hired ○ Some states create bag limits The maximum number of fish or game animals permitted by law to be taken by one person in a given period 1900 to 1930 → The Era of Protection Two Events ○ The Lacey Act (1900) Limits trade of illegal wildlife across state boundaries Stops interstate commerce in feathers First time the government took steps to conserve wildlife ○ Theodore (Teddy) Roosevelt 1858-1919 The Golden Age in Conservation Tripled the size of national forests (+51,000,000 ha) Created the forest service Wildlife Refuges across the U.S. 84,000,000 acres of oil and coal reserves Millions of acres as national monuments Beefed up enforcement Created more National Parks Gifford Pinchot ○ Trained abroad ○ Appointed head of the forest service ○ Coined the term “Conversation” ○ “Sustained Use” → use nature sustainably John Muir ○ Sierra Club ○ Wanted to conserve Yosemite and the neighboring valley Hetch Hetchy Yosemite was successful, Hetch Hetchy was not All is not roses ○ Science is lacking ○ Predator control  ○ Humans can improve upon nature 1930 to 1966 → Game Management Aldo Leopold ○ The “father of wildlife management” ○ Report of the Committee on North American Game Policy (1930) ○ The first professor of Game Management (1933) ○ The Wildlife Society / Wrote books ○ “An intelligent humility toward man’s place in nature” ○ “To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering” New awareness ○ Other creatures protected ○ Parks more restrictive ○ Maintain healthy ecosystems ○ But still a primary focus on game animals Funding ○ Pittman-Robertson Act of 1937 Excise tax on firearms and ammunition Generates revenue for improvement of wildlife conservation ○ Dingell-Johnson Act of 1950 Provides funding to state fish and wildlife agencies Rachel Carson’s book titled “Silent Spring” written in 1962 ○ “An era dominated by industry, in which the right to make money, at whatever costs to others, is seldom challenged.” 1966 to 1979 → Era of Environmental Management Increased national awareness Endangered Species Act (1973) Earth Day (1970) Dozens of acts: ○ Safe Drinking Water Act ○ The Clean Air Act ○ The Clean Water Act ○ The Toxic Substances Control Act 1979 to 2011 → Era of Conservation Biology (present) Conservation Biology: an Evolutionary-Ecological Perspective Alaska National Interest Lands Act ○ 101,000,000 acres ○ Established conservation areas in Alaska  Ronald Reagan in office ○ Anti-environmental policies Despite this, progress was made ○ EPA workers chose to resign Awareness ○ Human populations are still climbing at an exponential rate ○ The atmosphere is warming ○ Tropical and temperate rainforests are being cut at alarming rates ○ Serious pollution is much more prevalent that admitted previously Recognition = the chance to remedy ○ Public perceptions need to change at this time Era of Extinction? Are we currently in the era of extinction? Overexploitation Lecture 10 The Pangolin Extinction Vortex Smugglers were arrested with 2.5 tons of pangolin scales Overexploitation Exploitation: living off the land or seas Overexploitation: living off the land or seas in a manner that cannot be sustained ○ The hunting, trapping, collecting, and fishing of wildlife at unsustainable levels ○ Biggest threat for Marine systems ○ Habitat loss and destruction for terrestrial birds, mammals, and plants Temperate Terrestrial Systems Hunting in the United States  ○ “Mostly” well controlled management Overexploitation → Exploitation (deer) ○ Prairie dogs and are still being overexploited since they are seen as pests ○ It is a southern tradition to roundup rattlesnakes Hunting in other nations is sometimes well controlled ○ The illegal killing of birds ○ Trophy hunting ○ Wildlife trade Tropical Terrestrial Systems 40% → 60% of people means higher use and demand of resources Unsustainable timber extraction The Bushmeat Trade ○ The killing and hunting of animals (not controlled) ○ Defaunation of Tropical Forests: removing animals faster than trees Market hunting / Bushmeat Trade ○ Mostly affects the places with the largest populations of people South-east Asia → 522 people / 1 km Central West Africa → 99 people / 1 km Latin America → 46 people / 1 km Unintended Side Effects ○ Changes the structure of forests Medicine Trade ○ Wildlife is being overexploited for traditional medicine  Tiger bones and rhino horns Pet Trade ○ The USA is the second largest importer of wildlife products and a large destination for the illegal pet trade Every month, bushmeat arrives from Africa Overexploitation in Marine Ecosystems Marine exploitation is well documented ○ Definitions for each level → underexploited, moderately exploited, fully exploited, overexploited, depleted, and recovering Overfishing ○ Atlantic cod population has collapsed ○ Factory Trawler Boat contraption used to catch fish Chinese Bahaba ○ Used for traditional medicine ○ Interested in the swim bladder Sells for the price of gold in China ○ 99% decline in population The Cove Habitat Loss, Degradation, and Fragmentation Lecture 11 The largest threat to biodiversity and the leading cause of animal extinctions in the world Thousands of fires burning in the Amazon Definitions Habitat: the physical and biological resources required by an organism for its survival and reproduction ○ These requirements are species-specific Habitat Degradation Habitat Degradation: impacts many, but not all species ○ Can have many causes Livestock grazing Rangelands ~25% of terrestrial land Invasive species Habitat Fragmentation Habitat Fragmentation: reduction in the area covered by habitat, change in configuration The division of large habitat area into smaller patches ○ Smaller patches = less population stability and less biodiversity ○ Distance of patches to intact forest is also important Island Biogeography Theory ○ The farther it is from the mainland, the lower the immigration rate ○ The larger the island, the lower the rate of extinction ○ Rate of Immigration, Rate of Extinction Edge Effects ○ Air and soil temperature, moisture, light ○ Vegetation density ○ Predator intrusion ○ Community composition ○ Not all edges are created equal Smaller patches = more edge, less interior per km2 Irregular shape = more edge, less interior per km2 The Matrix: the surrounding landscape of fragmented habitat Example 1 → Interior forest birds, nest parasitism ○ Cowbirds take their eggs and put them in other nests Example 2 → Florida Panther ○ Barriers to move across landscapes ○ They do not like crossing under the underpasses (killed as a result) 100-150 left in the wild Connectivity and Proximity ○ Landscape linkage Habitat Loss Habitat Loss: impacts so severe that almost all species are adversely affected ○ Two types: Urbanization Conversion  Urbanization ○ Urban sprawl: unplanned, uncontrolled spreading of urban development to areas adjoining edges of cities Las Vegas Expansion of buildings, homes, etc. Conversion ○ Conversion: when human activities transform one habitat type into another Native habitat to agriculture or pasture Management (e.g., damming or fire suppression) ○ Example 1 → Greater Prairie Chicken ○ Example 2 → Wetlands Water quality Water quantity Bank stabilization Wildlife habitat Fish nurseries Food and energy for the entire ecosystem More productive than other land types Example → Chesapeake Bay Wildlife Diseases Lecture 12 Why are we concerned about wildlife diseases? Wildlife diseases are connected to: ○ Conservation of threatened and endangered species ○ Recreational use of wildlife ○ Public health / loss of life (pet and human) ○ Agriculture (livestock) Basic Disease Vocabulary Disease: a disturbance to the normal function or structure of an organism Epizootic: a disease that appears at an unexpected rate ○ Synonymous with Epidemic in humans ○ White-nose syndrome affecting bats Infectious: viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites (internal and external), etc. ○ Pathogen: a disease-causing agent Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) Mad Cow Disease Can jump to humans  Non-infectious: Toxins (manmade, plant, fungal or bacterial), Physiological, Nutritional, Congenital, Degenerative, Cancer ○ Mercury Poisoning Mercury is a product of coal and other fossil fuel power generators Heavy metal toxin → Methyl mercury Also emitted when items with mercury are incinerated Thermometers, batteries, light switches, fluorescent bulbs Bioaccumulates, Biomagnifies Bioaccumulation is the process by which a substance accumulates in an organism's cells over time Biomagnification is the concentration of a substance increases in organisms higher up the food chain Consumption advisories for fish Disease Dynamics Reservoir: any living or nonliving substance that may perpetuate a pathogen in nature ○ Non Living → water, dead animals Reservoir Host: a host that acts as a reservoir for the pathogen, but generally do not suffer ill effects from the disease Host: an organism on or in which another organism lives Vector: an organism that carries pathogens from one host to another, or from a reservoir to a host ○ Biological Vector → carries the pathogen inside the body Mosquito ○ Mechanical Vector → carries the pathogen outside body Flies Disease and Agriculture Swine fever, avian flu, bird flu Disease and Endangered Species Conservation of rare and endangered species ○ Common Loon Lake Erie Avian botulism Type - E Quagga and Zebra mussels Algae beds Invasive round goby fish Over 1,000 loons killed in one lake ○ Thousands of birds dying from harmful toxins found in lakes  ○ Serengeti Lion Dogs → Rabies, Canine Distemper Serious threat to the lion population Increasing Disease Emergence Why are we seeing the emergence of so many diseases? ○ More people → More habitat alteration → More stress on animals → More human (and livestock) / wildlife interactions Sea Otters ○ High stress (oil spills) ○ Latent herpes Zoonosis Zoonosis: an animal disease that can be transmitted to human ○ However, we are not necessarily part of the life cycle Example 1 → Lyme Disease ○ Cause: Bacteria (Borrelia burgdorferi) ○ Transmission: deer tick and lone-star tick ○ In 2011, Delaware had the highest rates of lyme disease ○ Symptoms: rash, fever, swollen lymph nodes, etc. If left untreated, further complications may arise such as: meningitis, facial palsy, heart abnormalities, and arthritis Example 2 → West Nile Virus ○ Cause: Virus ○ Transmission: Culex mosquito ○ Symptoms: most people do not develop any type of illness About 1 in 5 develop West Nile Fever About 1 in 150 develop a severe infection No specific treatment is available Example 3 → Ebola ○ Cause: Bushmeat, consumption of bats Example 4 → COVID19 ○ Cause: Consumption of bats Passed from human to human Introduced Species Lecture 13 100 starlings then = 200,000,000 today Introduced Species Conservation Implications Impacts of Invasions What determines whether a species becomes invasive How are species introduced Conservation Implications → The “Good” Industrialized agriculture = introduced species Hundreds of billions of dollars a year in the United States alone Conservation Implications → The “Bad” Unplanned introductions ○ Not every introduced species is successful All that succeed have some ecological impact (invasive) Some have dramatic impacts (invasive) 20% of endangered species are threatened by introduced species A prime example → The Zebra Mussels ○ What’s the problem with a few zebra mussels? They multiply extremely fast Led to the death of common loons and other lake animals Has cost $63.7 billion to eradicate them Take home message: ○ Broad scale ○ Positive and negative effects ○ Worth taking a closer look Impacts of Invasions Population and community impacts ○ Introduced predators ○ Introduced competitors Morphological and behavioral Impacts Genetic and evolutionary impacts Ecosystem impacts Introduced Predators Brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) ○ Shortly after WWII ○ Slowly spread → 1960’s population increases ○ 15 species of birds extirpated ○ 5 (sub)species of bird endemic to Guam became extinct ○ Other species eaten:  Anoles, Geckos, Skinks, Rats, Bats What is now the biggest fear about the brown tree snake on Guam? ○ The snakes find a way to jump from Guam to other surrounding islands The Giant African Snail → Hawaii ○ Rosy wolfsnail ○ 15 endemic snails extinct ○ 56 of 61 partulid snails on French Polynesia Domestic Cats ○ They kill a large number of birds, reptiles, and amphibians Introduced Competitors Back to the mussels ○ Not directly preying on other mussels ○ 40-75% of native mussels in great lakes classified as extirpated or of special concern Key points: Some invaders are both predators and competitors ○ Argentine Ant Sometimes an invader interacts to increase the effect of another invader ○ Urchins and Kelp Bryozoan weakens kelp (European) Codium Fragile out-competes weakened kelp (Asian) ○ Warty Comb Jelly and Carnivorous Jelly Morphological and Behavioral Impacts Some natives will respond with morphological changes or behavioral changes ○ European Green Crab and Local Snail ○ Asian Flowering Plant and Bumble Bees Native plant visits → 50% Genetic and Evolutionary Impacts Hybridization and Introgression affects genetics ○ Mallard, Hawaiian Duck, New Zealand Grey Duck, Florida Mottled Duck Ecosystem Impacts Any invader can have ecosystem impacts Some have much larger and more noticeable impacts Nutria escaped from fur farms, Beavers ○ Eats native vegetation ○ Erosion Will it be an Invader? Criteria for a successful invasion ○ 1) A route in → Pathway of Invasion Snakes on a plane Spiders in cargo ships Weeds on boat trailers Intentional introductions A new road into the forest ○ The pathway to invasion determines: Propagule Pressure Quantity of arriving organisms Quality of arriving organisms Frequency of arriving organisms ○ 2) Any path that can transport species beyond their native range ○ Invading Species Characteristics: High fecundity Dispersal ability Generalists (broad tolerance) Novelty ○ The community where it is established has just as many important factors ○ Luck can be a factor How are species introduced? Unintentional introductions Intentional introductions ○ Common carps ○ Burmese Python Pollution Lecture 14 Agricultural Pollution Agriculture: production, processing, marketing, and use of foods, fibers, and byproducts from plant crops and animals ○ Plow ○ Harvesting and efficiency ○ Fertilize crops ○ Pesticides Fertilizer Nutrients are removed Fertilizers supplement Consist of: ○ Macronutrients - N, P, K ○ Micronutrients - B, Zn, etc Has allowed the semi-viable land to be farmed 100 million tons/yr of nitrogen fertilizers 40 million tons/yr of phosphate fertilizers What are the consequences of fertilizer? Eutrophication: excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land Causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from a lack of oxygen Methanogenesis: creation of methane ○ Fertilizer stimulates methanogenesis ○ Methane contributes to global warming Other implications of fertilizer use ○ Pollution → example: high nitrate levels can cause coma and death ○ Heavy metal accumulation: uranium, cadmium, arsenic Pesticides Pesticide: any chemical used to kill or control unwanted populations of fungi, animals or plants ○ Insecticides ○ Fungicides ○ Rodenticides ○ Herbicides DDT Used in World War II to control malaria and typhus 1962 Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring Affects raptors the most (birds) ○ Affected offspring Parkinson's Disease Human Health and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons Diabetes  Premature birth and low birth rate Developmental delays Parkinson’s Asthma Cancers Organophosphates and Carbamates Interfere with the function of the nervous system Non-specific High toxicity to humans Do not persist in the environment Herbicides Acute exposure Cancer Parkinson's Reproductive effects Genetic damage Rodenticides Warfarin - causes internal bleeding in any animal that consumes it Non-specific Water Pollution Water is an essential of life, part of many species, and provides habitat for many species, plants need it for photosynthesis In the US, 45% of streams are considered polluted Point Source Pollution: where you can pinpoint a certain location/area where the pollution is coming from (ex: factory dumping water) Easiest to deal with Non-Point Source Pollution: do not know where pollution is coming from Much harder to deal with it Source of Water Pollution Industrial ○ Chemical contamination ○ Radioactive materials Mining industries are particularly prone to pollution ○ Thermal Pollution  Municipal ○ Fecal coliform bacteria and human pathogens ○ Soaps and detergents ○ Antibiotics ○ Hormones ○ Fire retardants ○ Other chemicals Air Pollution Primary Air Pollution: substances directly emitted from a process (vehicular pollution, power plants) Secondary Air Pollution: pollutants form in the air where primary pollutants react or interact (ex: smog) Criteria Air Pollutants ○ Carbon monoxide ○ Particulate matter ○ Sulfur Dioxide - Primary ○ Nitrogen Oxides - Primary ○ Lead ○ Ozone Acid Rain ○ Secondary air pollution ○ Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides Form sulfuric acid and nitric acid 4.5 on pH scale Effects on Wildlife and Biodiversity ○ Acid deposition alters the pH of aquatic environments ○ Range of tolerance ○ Trees die embryos die, etc ○ Removes nutrients like calcium and magnesium Light Pollution Bright light sources from humans Birds become disoriented, exhausted ○ Estimates range from 4,000,000 - 40,000,000 Sea turtle hatch Trash Different materials take either 3-4 weeks (bananas) or 1 million years (plastic jug) for it to go away Climate Change Lecture 15 Weather vs. Climate The difference is based on time frame ○ Weather is daily ○ Climate is across a long period of time The Greenhouse Effect Short term radiation penetrates greenhouse gasses Longwave radiation is being reflected back to the Earth’s surface ○ Increase in temperature Without greenhouse gasses, the Earth would be 0 degrees fahrenheit Cretaceous CO2 X axis → geological period Y axis → parts per million of CO2 Dinosaurs were thriving during this period ○ They were cold blooded animals Cretaceous Plants Environment was anoxic (low in oxygen) and wet Carbon sink ○ Limestone deposits Mass Extinction Event This lasted about 32,000 years Tertiary CO2 CO2 levels are increasing No sunlight Massive plant extinction Volcanic activity What replaced the Cretaceous plants? Tertiary trees ○ Carbon sink Tertiary Climate Ice is a characteristic of this period Glacial cycling ○ 10,000 years ago ice age stopped Industrial Revolution ~150 years Utilize fossil fuels (oil, coal) Releasing carbon as a result CO2 in the atmosphere is increased Power plants Releasing it from cars Cutting down trees The Greenhouse Effect 50% increase in gasses since pre-industrial revolution Global Temperature A lot more warmer temperatures nowadays The West is a lot hotter than the East ○ Ocean currents How does climate change affect all of these things? Temperatures increasing ○ Loss of species and habitat Ex) Coral Reef → coral bleaching Range of tolerance and ability to adapt play a big role in how well species will survive climate change Ticks on moose ○ Shifts in time and space among species How warm the seasons are Leaves are coming out earlier or later Species are responding to these changes in climate ○ Space shifts Polar bears are losing their ice Polar bears are traveling lower Brown bears seem to be traveling North because of the warmth Incidences where polar bears and brown bears have mixed up Mismatched Phenology  English Oak leaves come out earlier → Winter moths come much earlier → Pied Flycatcher does not get any cues that this is happening, so they come at the same time as usual No food at that point since other species came earlier than them Gaps in resource availability Hummingbirds are unable to get much nectar from flowers since they are changing their blooming time Ice decreasing ○ Feedbacks Melting of sea ice → lowered albedo → increase in absorbed sunlight ○ Impacts from melting ice and snow Freshwater storage loss Habitat Loss Flooding Precipitation either increases or decreases (depending on location) ○ Precipitation changes ○ Sahara desert is flooded ○ Lake Mead – Colorado River 42% capacity, very low ○ Impacts from precipitation changes Changes to disturbance patterns Floods Droughts Erosion Habitat and species loss Sea level increases ○ Hurricanes ○ Sea-level rise IPCC 2018 At least 30-130 cm rise depending on locality That is 1’- 4.3’ ○ What are the impacts of sea level rise? Loss of land Key Deer Salt water intrusion ○ Salt and freshwater being mixed Increased storm flooding & erosion Erosion and plovers Salt water intrusion Loss of habitats and species  Ocean acidification increases ○ pH drops ○ What are the impacts of ocean acidification? Calcium in bodies of fish Affects the whole food web What will we end up at? Previous extinction cycles were 80 million years long Slowly depositing in the bank We are pulling it out as fast as we can In terms of wildlife–if a species can not adapt as fast as changing conditions then Lecture 16 Anthropogenic causes of extinction Overexploitation + Habitat degradation + Introduced species + Disease + Pollution + Climate change Types of extinction Ecological extinction: low density, no longer interacts Local extinction: species lost in only an area or region (extirpation) Global extinction: all of Earth Many potential attributes Rarity Narrow range Large area requirements Low reproduction Specialization Some extinctions can lead to others Cascade effect → extinctions lead to others ○ Sea otters Species with greatest impacts Dominant species: common, large effect ○ Deer Ecosystem engineers: modify habitat ○ Beavers Keystone species: greater impact than expected  ○ Wolves Patterns of endangerment International union for the conservation of nature and natural resources (IUCN) ○ Red list: systematic listing (of species on an extinction list)