Hydrology PDF

HYDROLOGY WATER - A clear, odorless, and tasteless liquid essential for most plant and animal life - Under nomenclature used to name chemical compounds, dihydrogen monoxide is the scientific name for water, though it is almost never used  SOME CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF...

HYDROLOGY WATER - A clear, odorless, and tasteless liquid essential for most plant and animal life - Under nomenclature used to name chemical compounds, dihydrogen monoxide is the scientific name for water, though it is almost never used  SOME CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure. The intrinsic color of water and ice is a very slight blue hue, although both appear colorless in small quantities. Water vapor is essentially invisible as a gas Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent. Substances that dissolve in water, e.g., salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases – especially oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving) substances, while those that do not mix well with water (e.g., fats and oils), are known as hydrophobic (water-fearing) substances.  The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure. (On the top of Mt. Everest water boils at 68 °C, compared to 100 °C at sea level). Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C. It has the anomalous property of becoming less dense, not more, when it is cooled down to its solid form, ice. It expands to occupy 9% greater volume in this solid state, which accounts for the fact of ice floating on liquid water, as in icebergs. WATER TRIVIA AND FACTS ✓ Only 3% of Earth’s water is fresh water, 97% is salt water ✓ Over 90% of the world's supply of fresh water is located in Antarctica ✓ The total amount of water in the body of an average adult is 37 liters ✓ Human brains are 75% water ✓ If a human does not absorb enough water dehydration is the result ✓ Hot water weighs more than cold water ✓ Frogs do not need to drink water as they absorb the water through their skin ✓ Although Mount Everest, at 29,028 feet, is often called the tallest mountain on Earth, Mauna Kea, an inactive volcano on the island of Hawaii, is actually taller. Only 13,796 feet of Mauna Kea stands above sea level, yet it is 33,465 feet tall if measured from the ocean floor to its summit ✓ Water is the only substance that is found naturally on earth in three forms: liquid, gas, solid ✓ In a 100-year period, a water molecule spends 98 years in the ocean, 20 months as ice, about 2 weeks in lakes and rivers, and less than a week in the atmosphere  HYDROLOGY HYDROLOGY - The study of water and its movement along its various pathways within the hydrological cycle. - It is applied by engineers who use hydrological principles to compute river flows from rainfall, water movement in soils from knowledge of soil characteristics, evaporation rates from water balance or energy balance techniques.  THE HYDROLOGICAL (WATER) CYCLE - The hydrological cycle is central to hydrology - As shown, water evaporates from the earth’s oceans and water bodies and from land surfaces. (About seven times more evaporation occurs from oceans than from the earth’s land surfaces) - The evaporated water rises into the atmosphere until the lower temperatures aloft cause it to condense and then precipitate in the form most globally as rain but sometimes as snow. - Once on the earth’s surface, water flows into streams, lakes, and eventually discharge into surface waters.  Through evaporation from surface waters or transpiration from plants, water molecules return to the atmosphere to repeat the cycle. The term evapotranspiration is used referring to combined evaporation and transpiration. * Transpiration - the process where water contained in liquid form in plants is converted to vapor and released to the atmosphere. Much of the water taken up by plants is released through transpiration. In general, of 100 units of rain that falls on grassland in temperate zones, 10 to 20 units will go to groundwater, 20 to 40 units will transpire and 40 to 70 units will become stream runoff. GROUNDWATER SUPPLIES - Ground water is both an important direct source of water supply and a significant indirect source since a large portion of the flow to stream is derived from subsurface water. - Near the surface of the earth in the zone of aeration, soil pore spaces contain both air and water. Moisture from this zone cannot be tapped as water supply source since this water is held on soil particles by capillary forces and is not readily released. - Below the zone of aeration is the zone of saturation, in which the pores are filled with water. Water within this zone is referred to as Groundwater. A stratum containing a substantial amount of groundwater is called an aquifer and the surface of this saturated layer is known as the water table. If the aquifer is underlain by an impervious stratum, it is called an unconfined aquifer. If the stratum containing water is trapped between two impervious layers, it is known as confined aquifer. SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES - Surface water supplies are not as reliable as groundwater sources because quantities often fluctuate widely during the course of a year or even a week, and the quantity of surface water is easily degraded by various sources of pollution.  WATER QUALITY Water in nature is most nearly pure in its evaporation state, however, it acquires impurities once condensed and additional impurities are added as the liquid water travels through the remainder of the hydrologic cycle and comes into contact with materials in the air and on or beneath the earth’s surface. In addition, human activities contribute further impurities in the form of industrial and domestic wastes, agricultural chemicals, and other less obvious contaminants. These impure water returns to the atmosphere as relatively pure molecules through evaporation.  The impurities accumulated by water throughout the hydrologic cycle and as a result of human activities may be both suspended (larger particles) and in dissolved form (molecules, ions). Colloids are also very small particles that are suspended but often exhibit many characteristics of dissolved substances.  Water Quality Water Quality means the characteristics of water, which define its use in characteristics by terms of physical, chemical, biological, bacteriological or radiological characteristics by which the acceptability of water is evaluated.  Classification of Water Potable water: It is safe to drink, pleasant to taste, and usable for domestic purposes. Palatable water: It is aesthetically pleasing; it considers the presence of chemicals that do not cause a threat to human health. Contaminated (polluted) water: It is that water containing unwanted physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substances, and it is unfit for drinking or domestic use. Infected water: It is contaminated with pathogenic organism  PHYSICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS 1) Suspended Solids Sources: ▪ inorganic material- clay, silt, and other soil constituents ▪ organic material - plant fibers and biological solids (algal cells, bacteria, etc) ▪ Other suspended solids may result from human use of water (Domestic wastewater usually contains large quantities of solids that are most organic in nature. Industrial use of water result in a wide variety of impurities of either organic or inorganic in nature)  Impacts: objectionable in water, aesthetically displeasing and provides adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents. Measurement ▪ Total solids – all solids in water, suspended and dissolved, organic and inorganic. This parameter is measured by evaporating a sample to dryness (104°C) and weighing the residue expressed as mg/L. ▪ Suspended solids – solids removed by filtration. This parameter is measured by filtering the water sample, drying the residue and filter paper to a constant weight and determining the mass of the residue retained in the filter paper. This is expressed as dry mass per volume (mg/L)  ▪ Dissolved solids – solids that pass through a filter paper also expressed as mg/L. This parameter is the difference between total solids and suspended solids of a water sample. Total solids = suspended solids + dissolved solids In the laboratory: ▪ Filterable residues – pass through the filter along with the water and relate more closely to dissolved solids ▪ Nonfilterable residues – retained on the filter and relate more closely to suspended solids ▪ The organic fraction of the residue for both total and suspended solids can be determined by firing the residues in a muffle furnace at 550°C  Uses: ▪ to measure the quality of wastewater influent and effluent and to monitor several treatment processes. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maximum suspended solids standards = 30 mg/L for treated wastewater discharges ▪ helpful to the operators of the wastewater treatment plant because they roughly approximate the amount of organic matter existing in the total solids of wastewater, activated sludge, and industrial wastes Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per liter as follows: Freshwater: 5000 mg/L TDS 2) Turbidity A measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by suspended material in water. Turbidity is not a direct quantitative measure of suspended solids. Sources: ▪ caused by suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and other particulate materials in water ▪ results from erosion of colloidal material – clay, silt, rock fragments, metal oxides from soil ▪ vegetable fibers and microorganisms ▪ soaps, detergents, emulsifying agents  Impacts: ▪ aesthetically displeasing (opaqueness or “milk coloration” is apparent) ▪ Provides adsorption sites for chemicals that are harmful, causes undesirable taste and odor ▪ interfere with light penetration and photosynthetic reactions in streams and lakes ▪ accumulation results in sediment deposits which affects the flora and fauna of streams ▪ Suspended particles provide adsorption media for heavy metals such as mercury, chromium, lead, cadmium, and many hazardous organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many pesticides causes undesirable taste and odor  Measurement: ▪ measured photometrically by determining the percentage of light of a given intensity that is either absorbed or scattered (use of turbidimeter). ▪ Secchi disk depth – depth in which a secchi disk may still be visible to the naked eye when submerged in water. ▪ Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric turbidimeter, which expresses turbidity in terms of NTU or TU ▪ Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be visible to the average person while turbidity in muddy water, it exceeds 100 NTU. ▪ Groundwater normally has very low turbidity because of the natural filtration that occurs as the water penetrates through the soil. Use: ▪ EPA drinking water standards specify maximum of 1 FTU (formazin turbidity units) When water clarity is high, the Secchi disk is seen at a greater depth (left). If there is sediment and particles suspended in the water, water clarity is low and the Secchi disk is only seen at a shallow depth (right). 3) Color Pure water is colorless ( as perceived by the naked eye) but water in nature is often colored by foreign substances. Apparent Color – color partly due to suspended solids; the entire water sample color and consists of both dissolved and suspended components color True Color – color contributed by dissolved solids that remain after the removal of suspended solids Sources: ▪ yellowish brown water – after contact with organic debris (leaves, weeds, wood etc.), water pick tannins, humic acid and humates ▪ reddish water – iron oxides cause it ▪ brown or black – due to manganese oxides ▪ industrial wastes add substantial color in water  Impacts: ▪ not aesthetically acceptable to the general public. ▪ Phenolic compounds, which are common constituents of vegetative decay products produce objectionable taste and odor with chlorine. ▪ Some compounds of chlorine with naturally occurring organic acids are suspected to be carcinogenic Measurement: ▪ comparison with standardized colored materials, use of tubes containing standards (results expressed in TCUs – true color units) ▪ Spectrophotometric techniques – used by industries in measuring color.  Nessler tubes are color comparison tubes containing water of different colors and assigned a color unit ranging from 1 to 70 4) Taste and Odor Substances that produce an odor in water will almost invariably impart a taste as well however, there are many mineral substances that produce taste but no odor Sources: ▪ minerals, metals, and salts from soil, products of biological reactions ▪ Inorganic substances produce taste unaccompanied by odor ✓ alkaline – imparts bitter taste to water ✓ metallic salts – give a salty taste to water ✓ Organic substances produce both taste and odor - petroleum based products and biological decomposition of organics like H2S (imparts a rotten egg odor)  Impacts: ▪ aesthetically displeasing, water is supposed to be tasteless and odorless. Odors produced by organic substances may be carcinogenic. Measurement: ▪ Gas or liquid chromatography is used for organics. Human senses of taste and smell (Threshold Odor Number or TON) Use: ▪ Associated with drinking (potable water). A TON of 3 has been recommended by the Public Health Office Olfactometer  Sensory method – a panel of human subjects are initially exposed to odor free air then sampled air which has been diluted with odor free air 5) Temperature One of the most important parameter Temperature of surface waters governs the biological species present and their rates of activity Temperature has an effect on most chemical reactions that occur in natural water Temperature has an effect on the solubility of gases in water Sources: ▪ Ambient temperature – shallow bodies of water are more affected than deeper bodies of water ▪ The use of water for dissipation of waste heat in industry and its subsequent discharges may result to dramatic temperature changes in receiving streams  Impacts: ▪ At lower temperature, biological activity (utilization of food supplies, growth, reproduction) is slower. ▪ An increase of 10°C is usually sufficient to double biological activity if essential nutrients are present. ▪ At elevated temperatures and increased metabolic rates, organisms that are more efficient at food utilization flourish while others decline and are perhaps eliminated. ▪ Accelerated growth of algae often occurs in warm water and become a problem because Eutrophication will occur. ▪ Fishes are affected by temperature and dissolved oxygen levels. ▪ Temperature changes also affect the reaction rates and solubility of chemicals as well as other physical properties of water such as viscosity, density, etc.  Psychrophiles: thrive in low temperature niche (0 – 15OC) Mesophiles: thrive between 15 – 45OC Thermophiles: thrive between 45 – 70OC 6) Electrical Conductivity measures how well a sample of water or similar solution can carry or conduct electrical currents. Conductivity levels will increase as the amount of ions in the water increases High conductivity means that the water contains a high amount of contaminants. On the other hand, potable water and ultra-pure water are practically unable to conduct an electrical current. Electrical Conductivity is measured in micromhos per centimeter (μmhos/cm) or microsiemens per centimeter (μs/cm)  CHEMICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS 1) Total Dissolved Solids The material remaining in the water after filtration. This material is left as a solid residue upon evaporation of the water and constitutes a part of total solids. Dissolved solids may be organic or inorganic Sources: ▪ Results from solvent action of water on solids, liquids, and gases ▪ Materials from decay products of vegetation ▪ organic chemicals and organic gases Measurement: ▪ weight of the residue remaining after evaporation of water sample that has been filtered to remove suspended solids. The organic fraction can be determined by firing the residue at 550°C in a muffle furnace Total Dissolved Solids: Ca, Mg, Na, K, anions such as chlorides, sulfates, bicarbonates Common measure of water salinity Fresh water - less than 1500 mg/L Brackish water – can have values up to 5000 mg/L Saline waters – above 5000 mg/L Sea water – 30,000 to 34,000 mg/L Indicator of the usefulness of water for various applications Upper limits for livestock (quoted by the US Geological survey) ▪ Poultry = 2860 mg/L ▪ Pigs = 4290 mg/L ▪ Beef cattle = 10,100 mg/L For crops: ▪ Tolerance = 1500 mg/L ▪ Not suitable for irrigation >2100 mg/L 2) pH It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a pH of approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric carbon dioxide gas. Safe ranges of pH for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for domestic use and living organisms need A high pH makes the taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine. The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances Effects of pH on animals and plant: Most aquatic animals and plants have adapted to life in water with a specific pH and may suffer from even a slight change. Even moderately acidic water (low pH) can decrease the number of hatched fish eggs, irritate fish and aquatic insect gills, and damage membranes. Water with very low or high pH is fatal. A pH below 4 or above 10 will kill most fish, and very few animals can endure water with a pH below 3 or above 11. Amphibians are extremely endangered by low pH because their skin is very sensitive to contaminants. Some scientists believe that the current decrease in amphibian population throughout the globe may be due to low pH levels induced by acid rain Effects of pH on other chemicals in water: Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and chromium dissolve more easily in highly acidic water (lower pH). This is important because many heavy metals become much more toxic when dissolved in water A change in the pH can change the forms of some chemicals in the water. Therefore, it may affect aquatic plants and animals. a) Acidity refers to the measure of how much acids are in a specific solution Acidity in water is usually due to carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum sulfates Acids can influence many processes such as corrosion, chemical reactions and biological activities Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the respiration of aquatic organisms causes acidity when dissolved in water by forming carbonic acid b) Alkalinity Quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions. It is a measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids This includes CO32-, HCO31-, OH1-, HSiO31-, HPO42-, H2PO41-, HS1-, and NH3 Sources: ▪ results of the dissolution of mineral substances in soil and atmosphere ▪ Phosphates may originate from detergents in wastewater, from fertilizers and insecticides from agricultural lands ▪ Sulfides and ammonia may be products of microbial decomposition of organic material  Impacts: ▪ Alkalinity imparts bitter taste to water, precipitates can foul pipes and other water – system Measurement: ▪ Titration of the water with an acid and determining the hydrogen equivalent expressed as mg/L of CaCO3 Use: ▪ Included in the analysis of natural water to determine buffering activity 3) Hardness a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters mainly caused by the presence of magnesium and calcium ions They enter water mainly from contact with soil and rock, particularly limestone deposits These ions are present as bicarbonates, sulfates, and sometimes as chlorides and nitrates. Generally, groundwater is harder than surface water. Concentration of all multivalent cations in solution Sum of calcium and magnesium ions Two types of Hardness: a. Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates and bicarbonates can be removed by boiling b. Permanent hardness which is remaining after boiling is caused mainly by sulfates and chlorides Total Hardness = Temporary Hardness + Permanent Hardness  Source: ▪ multivalent metallic ion in natural water: Ca2+ and Mg2+ with smaller quantities of Fe3+ , Mn2+ , Sr2+ , Al3+ Impacts: ▪ Soap lathering problem, pipes and boiler scaling ▪ Mg 2+ hardness – laxative effect on persons not used to it ▪ 50 mg/L – desirable for potable water  Measurement: ▪ spectrophotometric techniques, chemical titration to determine Ca2+ and Mg2+, titrated with EDTA (ethylenediaminetetracetic acid) using EBT (eriochrome black T) as indicator. 1 mL of 0.01M EDTA measures 1 mg of hardness as CaCO3. Use: ▪ Analysis on natural waters and on water intended for drinking and certain industrial uses 4) Fluorides Seldom found in appreciable quantities in surface waters Appear in ground water in a few geographical regions Toxic to humans and animals in large quantities, small concentrations are beneficial Levels: 1.0 mg/L – can help prevent dental cavities 2.0 mg/L – can cause discoloration of teeth (mottling) 5 mg/L – can cause bone fluorosis 1.5 mg/L – recommended limit in drinking water * Bone fluorosis – accumulation of fluoride - can contribute to osteoporosis 5) Metals Metals are opaque, lustrous elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity Metals are usually malleable and shiny, that is they reflect most of incident light Basically, all metals are soluble to some extent in water Excessive amounts may present health hazards  Toxic Heavy Metals – those metals that are harmful in relatively small amounts. ▪ HM can be absorbed and can be accumulated in the body ▪ Can be eliminated by the kidney ▪ Kidney - complex filters whose primary purpose is to eliminate toxic substances ✓The kidneys contain millions of excretory units called nephrons. ✓ Nephrotoxins – chemicals that are toxic to the kidneys. ✓ Cd, Pb, and Hg are nephrotoxic metals. Impacts of HM on the body include: nervous system breakdown, kidney damage, creation of mutation, induction of tumors.  Sources: ▪ Include dissolution from natural deposits, and discharges from domestic, industrial or agricultural wastewaters Non – toxic metals: ▪ Calcium and Magnesium – hardness ions ▪ Sodium, Iron, Manganese, Aluminum, Copper and Zinc – nontoxic metals found in water  Non- toxic metals Sodium ▪ most abundant in natural waters and in the earth’s crust. ▪ It is highly reactive with other elements. ▪ Excessive concentration cause a bitter taste in water and a health hazard to cardiac and kidney patients. ▪ It is also corrosive to metal surfaces and is toxic to plants in large concentrations.  Iron and Manganese ▪ not a health hazard but cause color problems in water at concentrations of 0.3 mg/L Iron and 0.05 mg/L Manganese. ▪ Bacteria use these metals for energy source so the resulting slime growth produce taste and odor problems. ▪ metals usually occur in groundwater in solution as ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+) ions ▪ These ions can also cause black or brown stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures ▪ measured by many instrumental methods such as atomic absorption spectrometry, flame atomic absorption spectrometry, cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry, electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma (ICP)  Copper and Zinc ▪ when both are present, maybe toxic to biological species ▪ nontoxic if found in small concentrations ▪ both essential and beneficial for human health and growth of plants and animals ▪ can cause undesirable tastes in drinking water ▪ At high concentrations, zinc imparts a milky appearance to the water ▪ measured by the same methods used for iron and manganese measurements  Toxic Metals ▪ Toxic metals comprise a group of minerals that have no known function in the body and, in fact, are harmful. ▪ Mainly produced by industrial activities, and deposit slowly in the surrounding water and soil ▪ Today mankind is exposed to the highest levels of these metals in recorded history ▪ Include Cadmium, Chromium, Lead, Mercury, Vanadium, Thallium, Osmium etc.  Toxic Metals ▪ Toxicity may occur through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal exposure ▪ Toxicity is either acute or chronic ▪ Metallic taste is ingested except arsenic which is tasteless ▪ Can cause both local and systemic effects ▪ Most metals cause diarrhea except lead which causes constipation ▪ The antidotes are called Chelators  Cadmium ▪ used in metal plating, active ingredient in rechargeable batteries ▪ causes high blood pressure and kidney damage and a probable carcinogen ▪ Cadmium contamination of a water source can be through natural erosion of cadmium-containing rocks, industrial dust/waste (impurity in zinc), fertilizer (contaminant in phosphate rock), pigment production, mine tailings or spoils, smelting, and plasticizers production. ▪ Extremely toxic even in low concentrations, and will bioaccumulate in organisms and ecosystems  Chromium – natural impurity in coal, used in the manufacture of stainless steel. Hexavalent Chromium causes a suite of adverse health effects  Lead ▪ incorporated in pigments, used in house paints and in glazes, applied to dishware, used in pipes and solder. ▪ It is also used as a gasoline additive ▪ It interferes with the development of the nervous system and is therefore particularly toxic to children, causing potentially permanent learning and behavior disorders  Lead ▪ Most common metallic poison ▪ Occurs in organic and inorganic forms ▪ Absorption of ingested lead in children is much more than in adults (50% children and 10% adults) ▪ Probably the most important chronic environmental illness affecting children ▪ In children, probably no organ system is immune to the effects of lead poisoning  Mercury ▪ a naturally occurring element that is found in air, water and soil. It exists in several forms: - elemental or metallic mercury, - inorganic mercury compounds, and - organic mercury compounds ▪ Only metal that is liquid at room temperature ▪ Greek word Hydrargyrum – “water silver” ▪ For fetuses, infants, and children, the primary health effect of mercury is impaired neurological development. ▪ During these poisoning outbreaks some mothers with no symptoms of nervous system damage gave birth to infants with severe disabilities, it became clear that the developing nervous system of the fetus may be more vulnerable to mercury than is the adult nervous system  Arsenic ▪ is a naturally occurring chemical element that is widely distributed in the Earth’s crust. ▪ it can be found in water, air, and soil ▪ Arsenic levels tend to be higher in groundwater sources, such as wells, than from surface sources, such as lakes or reservoirs ▪ Increased level in water, air, and soil may be due to mining and fracking, coal-fired power plants, arsenic-treated lumber, and arsenic-containing pesticides 6) Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) Elements essential to the growth and reproduction of plants and animals and aquatic species depend on the surrounding water to provide the nutrients  Nitrogen ▪ The element nitrogen does not normally exist as a single atom, but is usually combined with another nitrogen atom very tightly in a triple bond. ▪ This molecule, nitrogen gas, N2, is the predominant gas in our atmosphere, making up over 79% of air ▪ The bond is so tight that it is only broken by very energetic natural events, like lightning. ▪ When this happens, and it happens often, various compounds of nitrogen and oxygen are formed in a process called nitrogen fixation.  ▪ Sometimes, fixed nitrogen is called reactive nitrogen. ▪The most oxidized form is called nitrate. Sources: animal wastes, chemical fertilizers, and wastewater discharges ▪ Over – enrichment problems may also lead to Eutrophication (natural aging process in which the water is organically enriched leading to increasing aquatic weeds – algal bloom) Impacts: Excessive nitrogen can cause nitrate poisoning on babies (blue baby syndrome or methemoglobinemia)  Phosphorus ▪ Next to calcium, phosphorus is the most abundant mineral in the body. ▪ These 2 important nutrients work closely together to build strong bones and teeth ▪ About 85% of phosphorus in the body can be found in bones and teeth, but it is also present in cells and tissues throughout the body ▪ Phosphorus is one of the key elements necessary for growth of plants and animals. ▪ Phosphates (PO4) are formed from this element. ▪ Phosphates exist in three forms: orthophosphate, metaphosphate (or polyphosphate) and organically bound phosphate. ▪ Each compound contains phosphorous in a different chemical formula. ▪ Phosphorus enter waterways from human and animal waste, phosphorus rich bedrock, laundry, cleaning, industrial effluents, and fertilizer runoff. ▪ These phosphates become detrimental when they over fertilize aquatic plants and cause stepped up eutrophication ▪ Phosphate will stimulate the growth of plankton and aquatic plants which provide food for fish. ▪ This may cause an increase in the fish population and improve the overall water quality. However, if an excess of phosphate enters the waterway, algae and aquatic plants will grow wildly, choke up the waterway and use up large amounts of oxygen 7) Organics Sources: Come from natural sources or results from human activity ▪ Natural organics – decay products of organic solids ▪ Synthetic organics – result of wastewater discharges or agricultural practices 2 Categories of dissolved organics in water: (a) Biodegradable Organics – organics that can be utilized for food by naturally occurring microorganisms within a reasonable length of time - in dissolved form, these materials usually consist of starches, fats, proteins, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and esters - end product of initial microbial decomposition of plant or animal tissues, or from domestic or industrial wastewater discharges. ▪ Microbial decomposition of organics is accompanied by: Oxidation – addition of oxygen to or removal of hydrogen from elements of the organic molecule Reduction – addition of hydrogen to or removal of oxygen from elements of the organic molecule ▪ Decomposition is either aerobic or anaerobic Aerobic – denotes the presence of oxygen. End – products of microbial decomposition of organics are stable and acceptable compounds Anaerobic – denotes the absence of oxygen. Decomposition results in unstable and objectionable end - products (b) Non – biodegradable / Refractory organics - organics resistant to biological degradation - examples include tannic and lignin acids, cellulose and phenol Characteristics of Refractory Organics: - molecules with exceptionally strong bonds - ringed structure ex. ABS (alkyl benzene sulfonate) – a detergent compound which causes frothing and foaming in waste water. It is now being substituted by LAS (linear alkylbenzene sulfonate) which is biodegradable  Pesticides: ▪ chemicals that kill organisms humans consider undesirable ▪ includes more specific categories of insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides, and fungicides. Main Groups of Organic Pesticides Organochlorines – chlorinated hydrocarbons; Organophosphates Carbamates DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) ✓persistent, they last long in the environment before being broken down into other substances), ✓quite soluble in lipids (meaning they easily accumulate in fatty tissue) ✓DDT biomagnify or bioconcentrate in fatty tissues ✓Half life = 10 – 15 years ✓DDT is the first pesticide manufactured by man ✓Used to kill insects (flies & mosquitoes) 8) Dissolved Oxygen a key test of water pollution The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality. actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending on pressure, temperature, and salinity of the water. Dissolved oxygen has no direct effect on public health, but drinking water with very little or no oxygen tastes unpalatable to some people. 9) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed (i.e., demanded) by aerobic biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water sample at certain temperature over a specific time period The more organic material there is in the water, the higher the BOD used by the microbes will be. BOD is used as a measure of the power of sewage; strong sewage has a high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD 10) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a parameter that measures all organics: the biodegradable and the non-biodegradable substances It is a chemical test using strong oxidizing chemicals (potassium dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat, and the result can be available in just 2h COD values are always higher than BOD values for the same sample 11) Radioactive Substances Potential sources of radioactive substances in water include wastes from nuclear power plants, industries, or medical research using radioactive chemicals and mining of uranium ores or other radioactive materials. When radioactive substances decay, they release beta, alpha, and gamma radiation. Exposure of humans and other living things to radiation can cause genetic and somatic damage to the living tissues. Radon gas is of a great health concern because it occurs naturally in groundwater and is a highly volatile gas, which can be inhaled during the showering process. For drinking water, there are established standards commonly used for alpha particles, beta particles, photons emitters, radium-226 and -228, and uranium.  BIOLOGICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS May cause: Water-borne diseases Water contact diseases Water hygiene problems ✓ Pathogens – biological organisms in water capable of infecting or of transmitting diseases to humans. They are not native to aquatic systems and usually require a HOST for growth and reproduction. Species of pathogens can survive in water and maintain infectious capabilities for significant periods of time. Water Borne – Pathogens Those acquired by ingestion of pathogens not only in drinking water but also from water that makes into a person’s mouth from washing food, utensils and hands. Water-Contact Diseases Do not require that individuals ingest the water. Example: Schistosomiasis (bilharzias) – common water- contact disease in the world, affecting approximately 200 M people. - Is spread by free-swimming larva in water called Cercaria - they attach themselves to human skin, penetrate it and enter the bloodstream.  Cercaria mature in the liver into worms that lay masses of eggs on the walls of the intestine. When excreted into water, they hatch & find snail hosts in w/c they develop into new Cercaria. From the snails, the Cercaria find human as another host and continue the cycle.  Although it has a low mortality rate, schistosomiasis often is a chronic illness that can damage internal organs Water Hygiene Water also plays an indirect role in other diseases common in developing countries. Insects that breed in water, or bite near water, are responsible for the spread of malaria, affecting some 160 million people killing 1 million each year. Yellow fever, sleeping sickness, & river blindness spread in the same way.  Sleeping sickness attacks the central nervous system and people present with changes in personality, alteration of the biological clock (the circadian rhythm), confusion, slurred speech, seizures and difficulty in walking and talking. These problems can develop over many years and if not treated, the person dies.  Dengue fever also known as breakbone fever, is an infectious tropical disease. Symptoms include fever, headache, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin rash that is similar to measles. In a small proportion of cases the disease develops into the life- threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever, resulting in bleeding, low levels of blood platelets and blood plasma leakage,  Classification of Pathogens (causing water-borne diseases) 1) Bacteria - single-celled microorganisms that can exist either as independent (free-living) organisms or as parasites (dependent on another organism for life) At low temperatures, bacteria grow and reproduce slowly As the temperature increases, the rate of growth and reproduction doubles in every additional 10°C (up to the optimum temperature for the species)  Cocci : Spherical bacteria are called cocci (singular coccus). The cells may occur in pairs (diplococci), in groups of four (tetracocci), in bunches (staphylococci), in a bead-like chain(streptococci)or in a cubical arrangement of eight or, more (sarcinae) Bacilli : Rod-like bacteria are called bacilli (singular bacillus). They generally occur singly, but may occasionally be found in pairs (diplobacilli) or chains (strepto bacilli). Spirilla : Spiral-shaped bacilli are called spirilla (singular, spirillum). Short incomplete spirals are called vibrios or comma bacteria.  There are several distinctions among the various species of bacteria. One distinction depends on how they metabolize their food. Aerobic bacteria – Bacteria that require oxygen for their metabolism Anaerobic bacteria – those live only in an oxygen-free environment Facultative bacteria – can live in either the absence or the presence of oxygen BACTERIA: 1.Escherichia coli (E. coli) (enteropathogenic) – Gastroenteritis, Diarrhea 2. Leptospira - Leptospirosis Jaundice, fever (Weil’s disease) 3. Salmonella typhi or Salmonella typhosa typhoid fever; High fever, diarrhea, ulceration of the intestine 4. Salmonella – Salmonellosis, Food poisoning 5. Vibrio cholerae or Vibrio comma - Cholera Extremely heavy diarrhea, dehydration 6. Shigella – Shigellosis, Bacillary dysentery 7. Legionella pneumophila – Legionellosis Acute, Respiratory illness 2) Virus – smallest biological structures which are known to contain all the genetic information necessary for their own reproduction. They can't multiply on their own, so they have to invade a 'host' cell and take over its machinery in order to be able to make more virus particles They can pass through filters that do not permit the passage of bacteria. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause infectious hepatitis and poliomyelitis 3) Protozoa – lowest form of animal life, they are complete and self contained organisms that can be free – living or parasitic, pathogenic or non – pathogenic. Most protozoa are microscopic in size, and can only be seen under a microscope. However, they do breathe, move and reproduce like multicelled animals PROTOZOA: 1. Giardia lamblia – Giardiasis Mild to severe diarrhea, nausea, indigestion Also called Beaver disease and backpacker’s disease Giardia lamblia can be carried by wild animals living in or near natural water systems. 2. Entamoeba histolytica – Amoebiasis Prolonged diarrhea w/ bleeding Epidemic in Chicago, drinking water was contaminated by sewage containing Entamoeba histolytica. over 1400 people were affected, 98 died. 3. Cryptosporidium parvum – Cryptosporidiosis debilitating w/ diarrhea, vomiting & abdominal pain lasting for several weeks. Cryptosporidium cannot be disinfected and it can be fatal Filtration provides the best barrier 4. Balantidium coli - Balantidiasis Diarrhea, Dysentery 4) Helminths – parasitic worms. The life cycles of helminths often involve 2 or more animal hosts, one of which can be human and contamination may result from human or animal waste that contain helminths. Contaminations could also be via other species such as snails or insects. HELMINTHS: 1. Ascaris lumbricoides Ascariasis - Roundworm infestation 2. Enterobius vericularis Enterobiasis - Pinworm 3. Taenia saginata Taeniasis - Beef tapeworm 4. Taenia solium Taeniasis - Pork tapeworm 5. Trichuris trichiura Trichuriasis - Whipworm  RADIOLOGICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS Excessive exposure to radioactive materials is harmful Unnecessary exposure should be avoided (including drinking water). Naturally occurring RA compounds include Radon & Radium 226 found in GW. Strontium – 90 and Tritium are also found in surface water resulting from atmospheric nuclear weapon testing fallout.  Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) For radium 226 + radium 228 = 5 pci/L For alpha particle activity including radium 226 but excluding radon & uranium = 15 pci/L for beta particles & photon activity = 4 mrem/yr (annual dose to the whole body or any particular organ) The most significant radionuclides associated with drinking water is dissolved radon gas. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified radon as the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United States.  The most significant radionuclides associated with drinking water is dissolved radon gas. Radon is colorless, odorless & tasteless gas occurring naturally in ground water.  Additional Terms: Endemic – refers to a disease prevalent in and confined to a particular population. Epidemic – is an outbreak of an infectious disease spreading widely in an area. Pandemic – if the outbreak of an infectious disease is widely spreading worldwide. Epidemiology – is the study of the causes of a disease spreading in a community. Microbiology – is the study of microorganisms and their activities. EPIDEMIC example Meningococcemia an acute contagious disease that is caused by Neisseria meningitides bacteria and spread through close contact. It is also known as meningococcal meningitis or cerebrospinal fever. In the Philippines, the disease became familiarly known as meningo after an outbreak in Baguio during the Christmas season of 2004.  The disease was spotlighted after some cases reported in Baguio and the Cordilleras from the end of 2004 to early 2005 resulting in more than 50 deaths. The crowds that flocked to the area during the Christmas season were considered a main contributing factor to the outbreak. Efforts to contain the spread of the disease included the distribution of antibiotics and the clean-up of the public marketplace. PANDEMIC example The Black Death one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, peaking in Europe between 1348 and 1350. carried by Oriental rat fleas living on the black rats that were regular passengers on merchant ships. It spread throughout the Mediterranean and Europe. The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30–60 percent of Europe's population and reduced the world population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century. PANDEMIC example Covid-19 HIV and AIDS HIV spread to the United States and much of the rest of the world beginning around 1969. HIV is transmitted primarily via sexual intercourse contaminated blood transfusions and hypodermic needles, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. Some bodily fluids, like saliva or tears, do not transmit HIV  Presidential Decree 1067 “The Water Code of the Philippines” “A Decree Instituting a Water Code, Thereby Revising and Consolidating the Laws Governing the Ownership, Appropriation, Utilization, Exploitation, Development, Conservation and Protection of Water Resources” ARTICLE 2. The objectives of this Code are: a. To establish the basic principles and framework relating to the appropriation, control and conservation of water resources to achieve the optimum development and rational utilization of these resources; b. To define the extent of the rights and obligations of water users and owners including the protection and regulation of such rights; c. To adopt a basic law governing the ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation, development, conservation and protection of water resources and rights to land related thereto; and; d. To identify the administrative agencies which will enforce this Code. ARTICLE 3. The underlying principles of this code are: a. All waters belong to the State. b. All waters that belong to the State can not be the subject to acquisitive prescription. c. The State may allow the use or development of waters by administrative concession. d. The utilization, exploitation, development, conservation and protection of water resources shall be subject to the control and regulation of the government through the National Water Resources Council, hereinafter referred to as the Council. e. Preference in the use and development of waters shall consider current usages and be responsive to the changing needs of the country. Natural Water Resources Board (NWRB) The National Water Resources Board (NWRB), entrusted with policy-making, regulatory, and quasi-judicial responsibilities, is the leading government agency in the Philippines’ water sector. In accordance with Integrated Water Resource Management principles, the NWRB ensures the best possible exploitation, utilization, development, conservation, and protection of the nation’s water resources. Importance of the Water Code of the Philippines on Territorial Claims The Water Code of the Philippines is created to ensure the security of Philippine waters and their maximum usage to benefit the Filipino people. Under the 1987 Constitution, the national territory is defined as “all the islands and waters embraced therein, and all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial and aerial domains, including its territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and other submarine areas. The waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal waters of the Philippines.” Salient Features of PD 1067 or The Water Code of the Philippines │ 1 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera  However, in international laws, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea only recognized sovereignty up to 12 nautical miles from the shore, meaning that there are still exceptions regarding the country’s sovereignty over bodies of water. Aside from territorial waters, ownership of bodies of water found on private land is also discussed in the Water Code, making it easier for property owners and developers to plan how they will use their property when there are bodies of water around or within the property. ARTICLE 4. Waters, as used in this Code, refers to water under the grounds, water above the ground, water in the atmosphere and the waters of the sea within the territorial jurisdiction of the Philippines. ▪ Regalian Doctrine ‒ is the doctrine recognized in our constitution whereby ownership of minerals and all forces of potential energy and other natural resources are reserved for the State (Article XII, Section 2 of the 1987 Constitution CHAPTER II Ownership of Waters Article 5. The following belong to the State: a. Rivers and their natural beds; b. Continuous or intermittent waters of springs and brooks running in their natural beds and the beds themselves; c. Natural lakes and lagoons; d. All other categories of surface waters such as water flowing over lands, water from rainfall whether natural or artificial, and water from agriculture runoff, seepage and drainage; e. Atmospheric water; f. Subterranean or ground waters; and g. Seawater. ARTICLE 6. The following waters found on private lands also belong to the State: a. Continuous or intermittent waters rising on such lands; b. Lakes and lagoons naturally occurring on such lands; c. Rain water falling on such lands; d. Subterranean or ground waters; and e. Water in swamps and marshes. ARTICLE 7. Subject to the provisions of this Code, any person who captures or collects water by means of cisterns, tanks, or pools shall have exclusive control over such water and the right to dispose of the same. ARTICLE 8. Water legally appropriated shall be subject to the control of the appropriator from the moment it reaches the appropriator’s canal or aqueduct leading to the place where the water will be used or stored and, thereafter, so long as it is being beneficially used for the purposes for which it was appropriated. Salient Features of PD 1067 or The Water Code of the Philippines │ 2 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera  Importance of the Water Code of the Philippines on Water Usage Water is an important part of the Philippine economy since the marine and agricultural sectors greatly contribute to stabilizing the country’s economic growth. As an archipelago, bodies of water form a large part of the country, which is why many citizens rely on marine life and aquaculture for livelihood. CHAPTER III Appropriation of Waters ARTICLE 9. Waters may be appropriated and used in accordance with the provisions of this Code. Appropriation of water, as used in this Code, is the acquisition of rights over the use of waters or the taking or diverting of waters from a natural source in the manner and for any purpose allowed by law. ARTICLE 10. Water may be appropriated for the following purposes: a. Domestic – is the utilization of water for drinking, washing, bathing, cooking or other household needs, home gardens, and watering of lawns or domestic animals b. Municipal – is the utilization of water for supplying the water requirements of the community c. Irrigation – is the utilization of water for producing agricultural crops. d. Power generation – is the utilization of water for producing electrical or mechanical power. e. Fisheries – is the utilization of water for the propagation and culture of fish as a commercial enterprise f. Livestock raising – is the utilization of water for large herds or flocks of animals raised as a commercial enterprise. g. Industrial purposes – is the utilization of water in factories, industrial plants and mines, including the use of water as an ingredient of a finished product h. Recreational purposes – is the utilization of water for swimming pools, bath houses, boating, water skiing, golf courses and other similar facilities in resorts and other places of recreation ARTICLE 11. The State, for reasons of public policy, may declare waters not previously appropriated, in whole or in part, exempt from appropriation for any or all purposes and, thereupon, such waters may not be appropriated for those purposes. ARTICLE 12. Waters appropriated for a particular purpose may be applied for another purpose only upon prior approval of the Council and on condition that the new use does not unduly prejudice the rights of other permittees or require an increase in the volume of water. ARTICLE 13. No person, including government instrumentalities or government-owned or controlled corporations, shall appropriate water without a water right, which shall be evidenced by a document known as a water permit. (General Rule) ▪ Water right – is the privilege granted by the government to appropriate and use water. Salient Features of PD 1067 or The Water Code of the Philippines │ 3 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera ARTICLE 14. Subject to the provisions of this Code concerning the control, protection, conservation, and regulation of the appropriation and use of waters, any person may appropriate or use natural bodies of water without securing a water permit for any of the following: (Exception) a. Appropriation of water by means of hand-carried receptacles; and b. Bathing or washing, watering or dipping of domestic or farm animals, and navigation of watercrafts or transportation of logs and other objects by flotation. ARTICLE 15. Only citizens of the Philippines, of legal age, as well as juridical persons, who are duly qualified by law to exploit and develop water resources, may apply for water permits. ARTICLE 19. Water rights may be leaded or transferred in whole or in part to another person with prior approval of the Council, after due notice and hearing. ARTICLE 20. The measure and limit of appropriation of water shall be beneficial use. ▪ Beneficial use of water – is the utilization of water in the right amount during the period that the water is needed for producing the benefits for which the water is appropriated. ARTICLE 31. Preference in the development of water resources shall consider security of the State, multiple use, beneficial effects, adverse effects and costs of development. CHAPTER IV Utilization of Waters ARTICLE 31. Preference in the development of water resources shall consider security of the State, multiple use, beneficial effects, adverse effects and costs of development. ARTICLE 33. Water contained in open canals, aqueducts or reservoirs of private persons may be used by any person for domestic purpose or for watering plants as long as the water is withdrawn by manual methods without checking the stream or damaging the canal, aqueduct or reservoir; Provided, That this right may be restricted by the owner should it result in loss or injury to him. ARTICLE 34. A water permittee or appropriator may use any watercourse to convey water to another point in the watercourse for the purpose stated in a permit and such water may be diverted or recaptured at that point by said permittee in the same amount less allowance for normal losses in transit. ARTICLE 36. When the reuse of wastewater is feasible, it shall be limited as much as possible, to such uses other than direct human consumption. No person or agency shall distribute such water for public consumption until it is demonstrated that such consumption will not adversely affect the health and safety of the public. ARTICLE 37. In the construction and operation of hydraulic works, due consideration shall be given to the preservation of scenic places and historical relics and, in addition to the provisions Salient Features of PD 1067 or The Water Code of the Philippines │ 4 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera of existing laws, no works that would require the destruction or removal of such places or relics shall be undertaken without showing that the distribution or removal is necessary and unavoidable. ARTICLE 38. Authority for the construction of dams, bridges and other structures across of which may interfere with the flow of navigable or floatable waterways shall first be secured from the Department of Public Works, Transportation and Communications. ARTICLE 40. No excavation for the purpose of emission of a hot spring or for the enlargement of the existing opening thereof shall be made without prior permit. Any person or agency who intends to develop a hot spring for human consumption must first obtain a permit from the Department of Health. ARTICLE 41. No person shall develop a stream, lake, or spring for recreational purposes without first securing a permit from the Council. ARTICLE 42. Unless-otherwise ordered by the President of the Philippines and only in time of national calamity or emergency, no person shall induce or restrain rainfall by any method such as cloud seeding without a permit from the proper government emergency. ARTICLE 43. No person shall raise or lower the water level of a river stream, lake, lagoon, or marsh nor drain the same without a permit. ARTICLE 51. The banks of rivers and streams and the shores of the seas and lakes throughout their entire length and within a zone of three (3) meters in urban areas, twenty (20) meters in agricultural areas and forty (40) meters in forest areas, along their margins are subject to the easement of public use in the interest of recreation, navigation, floatage, fishing and salvage. No person shall be allowed to stay in this zone longer than what is necessary for recreation, navigation, floatage, fishing or salvage or to build structures of any kind. ARTICLE 52. The establishment, extent, form, and conditions of easements of water not expressly determined by the provisions of this Code shall be governed by the provisions of the Civil Code. Importance of the Water Code of the Philippines on Citizen’s Health and Wellness CHAPTER V Control of Waters Chapter five of the Water Code discusses the measures the assigned government agencies take to protect the citizens and their properties against water-related problems such as flooding, river encroachment, and change in a river or steam course. In such events, this code gives power to the Secretary of Public Works, Transportation, and Communications to proclaim flood control zones and enact regulations for managing floodplain management plans in these areas to further the best interests and coordinated protection of floodplain lands. Salient Features of PD 1067 or The Water Code of the Philippines │ 5 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera ARTICLE 53. To promote the best interest and the coordinated protection of flood plain lands, the Secretary of Public Works, Transportation and Communications may declare flood control areas and promulgate guidelines for governing flood plain management plans in these areas. ARTICLE 55. The government may construct necessary flood control structures in declared flood control areas, and for this purpose it shall have a legal easement as wide as may be needed along and adjacent to the riverbank and outside of the bed or channel of the river. ARTICLE 56. Riverbeds, sand bars and tidal flats may not be cultivated except upon prior permission from the Secretary of the Department of Public Works, Transportation and Communication and such permission shall not be granted where such cultivation obstructs the flow of water or increase flood levels so as to cause damage to other areas. ARTICLE 61. The impounding of water in ponds or reservoirs may be prohibited by the Council upon consultation with the Department of Health if it is dangerous to public health, or it may order that such pond or reservoir be drained if such is necessary for the protection of public health. ARTICLE 62. Waters of a stream may be stored in a reservoir by a permittee in such amount as will not prejudice the right of any permittee downstream. Whoever operates the reservoir shall, when required, release water for minimum stream flow. All reservoir operations shall be subject to rules and regulations issued by the Council or any proper government agency. ARTICLE 63. The operator of a dam for the storage of water may be required to employ an engineer possessing qualifications prescribed for the proper operations, maintenance and administration of the dam. ARTICLE 64. The Council shall approve the manner, location, depth, and spacing in which borings for subterranean or ground water may be made, determine the requirements for the registration of every boring or alteration to existing borings as well as other control measures for the exploitation of subterranean or ground water resources, and in coordination with the Professional Regulation Commission prescribe the qualifications of those who would drill such borings. No person shall drill a well without prior permission from the Council. Water and Related Land Resources Protection and Conservation CHAPTER VI Conservation and Protection of Waters and Watersheds and Related Land Resources The Department of Natural Resources has the authority to designate any watershed, area of land, or surface or subsurface body of water as a protected area. The Department may issue rules and regulations to prohibit or regulate activities by property owners or inhabitants inside a protected area that could harm or deteriorate surface water or groundwater or obstruct the study, use, control, protection, management, or administration of such waters. Salient Features of PD 1067 or The Water Code of the Philippines │ 6 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera  This code also emphasizes that without the National Pollution Control Commission’s prior approval, no one is allowed to construct structures that could release harmful or noxious substances or carry out any actions that could introduce sewage, industrial waste, or other pollutants into any source of water supply. This code defines water pollution as the degradation of water quality beyond a certain standard. This criterion, which the National Pollution Control Commission will establish, may change depending on how the water is used. Penalties for Violators of the Water Code of the Philippines According to Article 90 of this code, the following actions shall result in the suspension or cancellation of the violator’s water permit or other entitlement to the use of water, as well as a fine of not more than One Thousand Pesos (PHP 1,000.00): ▪ Failure to follow any guidelines for the wise use of water ▪ The taking of underground or groundwater for residential use by a landowner above without first registering with the council ▪ When needed, the appropriator fails to keep a record of water withdrawals ▪ Using water for a use for which it was not intended or for which permission or authorization was not issued ▪ Not adhering to any requirements outlined in a grant of water rights or a water permit ▪ Illegally leasing, selling, or transferring water or water rights ▪ Failure to install sufficient disease prevention or control measures when the council demands it during the building of any project involving the storage, diversion, distribution, or use of water ▪ Failure to install, where necessary, a regulating and measuring mechanism to control the authorized water volume ▪ Drilling a well without the council’s consent ▪ Any infraction or noncompliance with a Council order, rule, or regulation ▪ Using an existing well, ponding water, or distributing water without the council’s approval to recharge underground or groundwater resources ▪ Illegally stealing or diverting water from a reservoir, aqueduct, or open canal ▪ Maliciously destroying hydraulic works or important structures valued at P5,000 According to Article 91 of this code, any person who performs any of the following offenses shall be punished by a fine of not more than Three Thousand Pesos (PHP 3,000.00), a term of imprisonment of not more than three (3) years, or both such fine and imprisonment, as determined by the Court: ▪ Water appropriation without a permit, unless the provisions of this code expressly prevent that person from obtaining a permit ▪ Intentional destruction of hydraulic structures or works with a value of little more than USD 25,000 (PHP 25,000.00) ▪ Illegally cultivating a riverbed, sandbar, or tidal flat ▪ Illegally blocking an irrigation channel Salient Features of PD 1067 or The Water Code of the Philippines │ 7 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera  Republic Act No. 9275 “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” “An Act Providing for a Comprehensive Water Quality Management and For Other Purposes” DAO 2005-10: Implementing Rules and Regulations of the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 ▪ Provides for a comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory approach involving all the stakeholders. Milestone Dates for RA 9275 March 22, 2004 Clean Water Act was enacted April 21, 2004 Publication of CWA May 6, 2004 Effectivity of CWA May 16, 2005 IRR signed (DAO 2005-10) May 26, 2005 Publication of IRR Existing Water Resources in the Philippines Source: National Water Resources Board (NWRB) and DENR Water Quality Status Report A. Coastal and Marine Waters ‒ Cover an area of about 255,000 km2, including bays and gulfs ‒ Coastline stretches to about 17,460 km and coral reefs cover about 27,000 km2 ‒ 64 of 79 provinces are in coastal areas B. Inland Water ▪ Groundwater: aggregate area about 50 km2 ▪ Lakes: 79 ▪ Rivers: ‒ Major River Basins (drainage are not less than 1,4000 km2) - 18 ‒ Principal Rivers (with drainage area not less than 40 km2) - 421 Salient Features of RA 9275 or “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” │ 1 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera  SECTION 2 DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES “The State shall pursue a policy of economic growth in a manner consistent with the protection, preservation and revival of the quality of our fresh, brackish and marine waters. To achieve this end, the framework for sustainable development shall be pursued.” SECTION 3 COVERAGE OF THE ACT The Clean Water Act applies to: ▪ Water quality management in all water bodies ▪ Abatement and control of pollution from land-based sources ▪ Enforcement of water quality standards, regulations and penalties INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM Section 19. Lead Agency Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) ▪ Primary agency responsible in the implementation and enforcement ‒ Review and set effluent standards ‒ Review and enforce water quality guidelines ‒ Classify groundwater sources and prepare a national groundwater vulnerability map ‒ Establish internally accepted procedures for sampling and analysis ‒ Prepare an integrated water quality management framework and subsequently prepare 10-yr management plans for each water management area Section 20. Role of Local Government Units ▪ Local government units shall share the responsibility in the management and improvement of water quality within their territorial jurisdictions. ▪ LGUs shall prepare a compliance scheme of the Water Quality Management Area (WQMA) subject to review and approval of the Governing Board ▪ Thru their Environment and Natural Resources Office (ENRO) established in RA No. 7160, LGUs shall have the following powers and functions; a) Monitoring of water quality; b) Emergency response; c) Compliance with the framework of the Water Quality Management Action Plan; d) To take active participation in all efforts concerning water quality protection and rehabilitation; and e) To coordinate with other government agencies and civil society and the concerned sectors in the implementation of measures to prevent and control water pollution Section 21. Business and Industry Role in Environmental Management ▪ The Department and the LGUs, in coordination with the appropriate government agencies and in consultation with the business and industrial sectors including commerce, shall formulate appropriate incentives for the adoption procedures that will preserve and protect our water bodies through the introduction of innovative equipment and processes that reduce if totally eliminate discharge of pollutants into our water bodies. Salient Features of RA 9275 or “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” │ 2 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera Section 22. Linkage Mechanism Chapter 2 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Section 5. Water Quality Management Area The DENR, in coordination with NWRB, shall designate certain areas as WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AREAS (WQMAs) using appropriate physiographic units such as watershed, river basin or water resources region that has similar hydrological or geographic conditions which affect the physicochemical, biological and bacteriological reactions and diffusions of pollutants in the water bodies or otherwise share common interest or face similar development programs or problems. Section 5. Water Quality Management Area The Coverage of WQMA Designation includes a. Surface waters ‒ natural or man made ‒ streams (rivers and creeks) ‒ Lakes ‒ marine waters b. Land around the hydrologic unit ‒ residential, industrial, commercial, agricultural, tourism, forest and protection areas (Groundwater resource not included) Salient Features of RA 9275 or “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” │ 3 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera  Composition and Organizational Set-up of the WQMA Governing Board Chairman: Secretary of the Department of Environment & Natural Resources Members: ‒ Representatives of Mayors and Governors of member LGUs ‒ Representatives of relevant government agencies ‒ Duly registered NGOs ‒ Water Utility Sector ‒ Business Sector ‒ Academe WQMA is a significant tool in enforcing the CWA. It aims for the improvement of water quality to meet the guidelines under which they have been classified or to improve their classification so that it meets its projected or potential use. There are forty (40) officially- designated WQMAs managed by the Environmental Management Bureau Section 6. Management of Non-attainment Areas The Department shall designate water bodies, or portions thereof, where specific pollutants from either natural or man-made source have already exceeded water quality guidelines as non- attainment areas for the exceeded pollutants. It shall prepare and implement a program that will not allow new sources of exceeded water pollutant in non-attainment areas without a corresponding reduction in discharges from existing sources. The Department shall, in coordination with NWRB, Department of Health (DOH), Department of Agriculture (DA), governing board and other concerned government agencies and private sectors shall take such measures as may be necessary to upgrade the quality of such water in non-attainment areas to meet the standards under which it has been classified. The LGUs shall prepare and implement contingency plans and other measures including relocation, whenever necessary, for the protection of health and welfare of the residents within potentially affected areas. Section 7. National Sewerage and Septage Management Program The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), through its relevant attached agencies, in coordination with the Department, local government units (LGUs) and other concerned agencies, shall, as soon as possible, but in no case exceeding a period of twelve (12) months from the affectivity of this Act, prepare a national program on sewerage and septage management. ▪ A priority listing of sewerage, septage and combined sewerage-septage projects for LGUs based on relevant considerations for the protection of water quality ▪ LGUs may enter into Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) or joint venture agreement with private sector for constructing, rehabilitating and/or operation of such facilities ▪ Each LGU shall appropriate the necessary land, including the required rights-of-way/road access to the land for the construction of the sewage and/or septage treatment facilities Salient Features of RA 9275 or “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” │ 4 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera Section 8. Domestic Sewage Collection, Treatment and Disposal ▪ All subdivisions, condominiums, commercial centers, hotels, sports and recreational facilities, hospitals, market places, public buildings, industrial complex and other similar establishments including households shall be required to connect their sewage lines or utilized their own sewerage system. ▪ In areas not considered as HUCs, the DPWH in coordination with the Department, DOH and other concerned agencies, shall employ septage or combined sewerage-septage management system. ▪ The DOH, in coordination with other government agencies, shall formulate guidelines and standards for the collection, treatment and disposal of sewage including guidelines for the establishment and operation of centralized sewage treatment system. DOH AO 2019-0047: National Standard on the Design, Construction, Operation and Maintenance of Septic Tank Systems Objectives: to set a national standard on the design, construction/installation, operation and maintenance of septic tank as the major component of basic sanitation facilities and other alternative sanitation technology design DILG MC 2019-62 dated April 22, 2019: Policy and Guidelines on Sewage Treatment and Sewage Management System Purpose: to reiterate the roles of LGUs in the delivery of basic services relative to the implementation of sewage treatment and septage management system within their respective territorial jurisdiction How do we classify and determine quality of our waterbodies? ▪ DAO 2016-08: Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent Standards of 2016 (May 24, 2016) ‒ (repealed 1987 NPCC Rules and Regulations, Effluent Regulations of 1982, DAO 1990-34, and modified DAO 1990-35) ▪ DAO 2021-19: Updated Water Quality Guidelines (WQG) and General Effluent Standards (GES) for Selected Parameters (June 30, 2021) DAO 2016-08: Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent Standards of 2016 Section 2: Objectives ✓ For the CLASSIFICATION of water bodies in the country; ✓ Determination of TIME TRENDS and evaluation of stages of deterioration/enhancement in water quality; ✓ Evaluation of the need for taking actions in preventing, controlling or abating water pollution; ✓ Designation of WQMA ✓ Set the General Effluent Standards (GES) Salient Features of RA 9275 or “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” │ 5 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera Section 3: Scope and Coverage Section 5: Classification of Waterbodies Water Body ‒ means both natural and man-made bodies of fresh, brackish, and saline waters, and includes but not limited to, aquifers, groundwater, springs, creeks, streams, rivers, ponds, lagoons, water reservoirs, lakes, bays, estuarine, coastal and marine waters ‒ Do not refer to those constructed, developed and used purposely as water treatment facilities and/or water storage for recycling and re-use, which are integral to process industry and manufacturing. Salient Features of RA 9275 or “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” │ 6 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera Section 6: Water Quality Guidelines This Rules and Regulations was established to maintain and preserve the quality of all bodies of water based on their intended beneficial usage to prevent and abate pollution to protect public health, aquatic resources, and other living organisms. ▪ Primary Parameters – required minimum water quality parameters to be monitored for each water body. ▪ Secondary Parameters – other water quality parameters that shall be used in baseline assessments as part of the Environmental Impact Assessment and other water quality monitoring purposes. **Refer to DAO 2016-08: WQG of different water quality parameters, Section 6.2, Section 6.3, Section 7 (GES), Section 7.1, Section 7.3, and Section 8. Strong Wastewater ‒ refers to wastewater whose initial Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) value before treatment is equal to or greater than 3,000 mg/L DAO 2021-19: Updated Water Quality Guidelines (WQG) and General Effluent Standards (GES) for Selected Parameters (June 30, 2021) **For the discussion, Refer to the copy of this DAO Salient Features of RA 9275 or “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” │ 7 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera Section 14. Discharge Permits The Department shall require owners or operators of facilities that discharge regulated effluents pursuant to this Act to secure a permit to discharge. ▪ Discharge permit ‒ legal authorization granted by the Department to discharge wastewater ‒ shall specify among others, the quantity and quality of effluent that said facilities are allowed to discharge into a particular water body, compliance schedule and monitoring requirement. As part of the permitting procedure, the Department shall encourage the adoption of waste minimization and waste treatment technologies when such technologies are deemed cost effective. Examples of Water Pollution Control Structures and Facilities 1. Sewage Treatment Facilities 2. Septic tanks 3. Industrial Wastewater Treatment Facilities 4. Tailings Disposal Facilities 5. Oil Water Separator Systems 6. Grease/Oil Traps 7. Tail Race Waters 8. Siltation Ponds Section 14.1 Who may apply for a Wastewater Discharge Permit ✓ Any person that shall discharge, in any manner, wastewater into Philippine waters and/or land shall secure a wastewater discharge permit from the EMB Regional Office. ✓ Industries without permit, have 12 months after IRR effectivity to secure permit. Section 14.9 Effectivity of the Discharge Permit ✓ The Discharge Permit shall be valid for a maximum period of five (5) years from the date of its issuance, renewable for 5-years period ✓ The Department may, however, renew the discharge permit valid for a longer period if the applicants has adopted waste minimization and waste treatment technologies, consistent with incentives currently provided has been paying the permit fees on time. Section 14.11 Grounds for Suspension or Revocation of Permits The Bureau may suspend or revoke any existing and valid permit on any of the following grounds: a. Non-compliance with or gross violation of any provision of the Act, these rules and regulations and/or permit conditions b. Deliberate or negligent submission of false information in the application for permit that lead to the issuance of the permit. c. Deliberate or negligent of false monitoring data or report required in the discharge permit d. Refusal to allow lawful inspection conducted by the Department through the Bureau of duly authorized personnel e. Non-payment of appropriate wastewater discharge fees within a 30-day cure period from the date of such payment is due f. Other grounds provided by law. Salient Features of RA 9275 or “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” │ 8 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera Section 14.19 Pollution Sources Connected to a Sewerage Systems Pollution sources currently discharging to existing sewerage systems with operational wastewater treatment facilities shall be exempt from the permit requirement. Provided that, in the absence of, or pending the establishment of a sewerage system, pollution sources shall be covered by the permit requirement. CIVIL LIABILITY AND PENAL PROVISIONS DAO 2016-08: Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent Standards of 2016 Salient Features of RA 9275 or “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” │ 9 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera  Prohibited Acts in RA 9275 (Section 27 of RA 9275 and its IRR) 1. Discharging, depositing or causing to be deposited material of any kind directly or indirectly into the water bodies or along the margins of any surface water, where, the same shall be liable to be washed into such surface water, either by tide action or by storm, floods or otherwise, which could cause water pollution or impede natural flow in the water body. 2. Disposal of potentially infectious medical waste into sea water by vessels; 3. Unauthorized transport or dumping into sea waters of sewage sludge or solid waste; 4. Transport, dumping or discharge of prohibited chemicals or pollutants; 5. Operate facilities that discharge or allow to seep willfully prohibited chemicals, substance or pollutants listed under RA 6969 into water bodies; 6. Undertaking activities or development and expansion of projects, or operating ww/sewerage facilities in violation of PD 1586; 7. Discharging regulated water pollutants without the valid DP; 8. Non-compliance of the LGU with the WQ Framework and WQMA Action Plan; 9. Refusal to allow access by the DENR to relevant reports and records; 10. Refusal or failure to submit reports whenever required by the DENR; 11. Refusal or failure to designate PCO whenever required by the DENR; and 12. Direct use of booster pumps in the distribution system or tampering with the water supply Salient Features of RA 9275 or “The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” │ 10 Prepared by: Engr. MAAbellera  WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS  Natural forms of pollutants have always been present in surface waters. Many of the impurities were washed from the air, eroded from land surfaces or leached from the soil and found their way into surface water. Natural purification processes were able to remove or otherwise render these materials harmless. Human activity increased the amount and changed the nature of pollutants entering watercourses Settlements → Villages → Towns → Cities  Quantity of waste products increased until the self – purification capacity of local bodies of water was exceeded. Smaller streams were first affected then larger streams and lakes ultimately becoming polluted.  Only in recent decades have POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAMS been initiated in an attempt to reduce contaminants discharged to bodies of water to the level that the natural purification processes can once again assimilate them. Self –purification mechanisms of natural water systems include: physical, chemical, and biological processes. ▪ Speed and completeness with which these processes occur depend on many variables that are system specific. ▪ System variables that have an influence on the natural purification process are: a. hydraulic characteristics b. physical characteristics of bottom and bank material c. variations in sunlight d. Temperature e. chemical nature of the natural water ▪ The same physical, chemical and biological processes that serve to purify natural water systems also work in engineered systems. In water and wastewater treatment plants, the rate and extent of these processes are managed by controlling the system variables. ▪ A thorough knowledge of the natural purification processes is essential to the understanding of 1) the assimilative capacity of surface waters ‒ refers to the amount of contaminant load that can be discharged to a specific water body without exceeding the water quality guidelines 2) the operations of engineered systems PHYSICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE SELF - PURIFICATION OF WATERCOURSES 1) Dilution ▪ Wastewater disposal practices were based on the premise that “the solution to pollution is dilution” ▪ It was considered the most economical means of wastewater disposal and was considered good engineering practice ▪ Although a powerful adjunct to self – cleaning mechanisms of surface water, its success depends upon discharging relatively small quantities of waste into large bodies of water ▪ Growth in population and industrial activity, with increasing water demand and wastewater quantities precludes the use of many streams for dilution of raw or poorly treated wastewaters ▪ Under present regulations, maximum allowable loads are set independently of dilution capacity – only when the standard maximum load is violated then dilution capacity is considered. ▪ The dilution capacity of a stream can be calculated using the principles of mass balance. If the volumetric flowrate and the concentration of a given material are known in both the stream and waste discharge, the concentration after mixing can be calculated as: CsQs + CwQw = CmQm where: C – the concentration of selected material (in mass/volume) Q – the volumetric flowrate (volume/time) s,w and m – means stream, waste and mixture conditions  SAMPLE PROBLEMS 1. A treated wastewater enters a stream as shown. The concentration of sodium in the stream at point A is 10 mg/L and the flowrate is 20 m3/s. The concentration of sodium in the waste stream is 250 mg/L and the flowrate is 1.5 m3/s. Determine the concentration of sodium at point B assuming complete mixing has occurred. 2. Clean Creek is flowing at an average rate of 0.5 m3/s. Dirty Corps is importing 30% of the creek water to be used as wash water which is then discharge again to the creek. The upstream of Clean Creek has 20 mg/L of Ca2+ and Dirty Corps discharge has seven times as much. Calculate the concentration of calcium ion after the mixing point. 3. Fifty cubic meters of water containing 28 mg/L solids passes the Gallo River in one minute. There is a city ordinance limiting the solids content of the river to 40 mg/L. If the Olio Corps will be discharging water with 86mg/L solids to the river, determine the maximum rate that the company can discharge without being penalized. 4. Effluent from a wastewater treatment is discharged to a surface stream. The characteristics of the effluent and stream are as follows: FLOW BOD5 AMMONIA NITRATE CHLORIDE EFFLUENT 8640 m3/d 25 mg/L 7 mg/L 10 mg/L 15 mg/L STREAM 1.2 m3/s 2.1 mg/L 0 mg/L 3.0 mg/L 5.0 mg/L Determine the stream characteristics after mixing with the waste has occurred.  ASSIGNMENT 1. After the rain, Muddy Creek became muddy flowing with 136 mg/L of solids at 5.1 m3/s. The creek is connected to Unyielding River which has 27 mg/L of solids after that rain and is flowing at 52 m3/s. What is the solids concentration a kilometer downstream their mixing point assuming 10% of solids settled in the process? 2) Sedimentation and Re – suspension ▪ Suspended solids are one of the most common water pollutants and in suspension, solids increase turbidity and reduce light penetration may restrict the photosynthetic activity of plants, inhibit vision of aquatic animals, interfere with feeding of aquatic animals that obtain food from filtration and be abrasive to respiratory structures such as gills of fish. Sedimentation ‒ nature’s method of removing suspended particles from a watercourse and most large solids will settle out readily in quiescent water ‒ Particles in the colloidal size range can stay in suspension for long periods of time though eventually most of these will also settle out. ‒ This natural sedimentation is not without drawbacks. Anaerobic conditions are likely to develop in sediments and any organics trapped in them will decompose, releasing soluble compounds into the stream above. ‒ Sediments deposit can also alter streambed by filling up the pore space and creating unsuitable conditions for the reproduction of many aquatic organisms. ‒ It can also alter its course or hamper navigation activities and it reduce reservoir storage capacities and silt in harbors and increase flooding due to channel fill – in.  Resuspension of solids is common in times of flooding or heavy runoff. Increased turbulence may resuspend solids formerly deposited along normally quiescent areas of stream and carry them for considerable distances downstream and eventually they will settle again. 3) Filtration ‒ Large bits of debris lodge on reeds or stones as they move along streambeds, and they remain caught until high waters wash them into mainstream again. ‒ Small bits of organic matters and inorganic clays and other sediments may be filtered out by pebbles or rocks along the streambed. ‒ A water percolates from the surface downward into groundwater aquifers, filtration of much more sophisticated type occurs. ‒ If the soil layers are deep and fine enough, removal of suspended material is essentially complete by the time waters enters the aquifer. 4) Gas Transfer ‒ The transfer of gases into and out of water is an important part of the natural purification process. ‒ The replenishment of oxygen lost to bacteria degradation of organic waste is accomplished by the transfer of oxygen from the air into the water. ‒ Conversely, gases evolved in the water by chemical and biological processes may be transferred from the water to the atmosphere. ‒ Gas transfer is affected by solubility (extent to which gas is soluble in water) and transfer rate (rate at which dissolution or release occurs) 5) Heat Transfer ‒ Bodies of water lose and gain heat much more slowly than do land or air masses and under most circumstances, water temperature is fairly constant and changes gradually with the seasons. ‒ Meteorological variables and other factors such as channel characteristics (depth, width, surface area), channel volume etc. affect the rate of heat transfer in bodies of water. ‒ For streams heated by solar radiation over several miles of heat. ‒ Aquatic plants and animals have not developed sufficient adaptability to deal with abrupt changes in temperature and only the most hardy species survive such changes. CHEMICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE SELF - PURIFICATION OF WATERCOURSES ▪ Natural watercourses contain many dissolved minerals and gases that interact chemically with one another. ▪ Redox (reduction – oxidation), dissolution – precipitation and other chemical conversions may alternately aid or obstruct natural purification processes in natural water systems Chemical Conversions: 1. Oxidation – reduction conversion – biochemically mediated 2. Dissolution – precipitation – solid dissolve in water are essential to the metabolic and reproductive activities of microorganisms that degrade and stabilize organic waste – this is directly or indirectly influenced by dissolution – precipitation 3) Natural chemical conversions that take place in water can change materials into a form that is soluble and therefore usable by various aquatic organisms. Example: N and P – most essential nutrients for the growth of microorganisms and plankton. 4) Chemical conversions can help stabilize pH of water bodies. Example: HCO3- acts as a buffer to protect a stream from pH fluctuations harmful to aquatic systems. BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE SELF - PURIFICATION OF WATERCOURSES ▪ Chemical reactions are biologically mediated – these reactions are not spontaneous and require external sources of energy for initiation. ▪ Metabolism – sum total of the processes by which living organisms assimilate and use food for subsistence, growth and reproduction. Metabolic processes and the organisms involved are a vital part in self – purification of natural water system. Types of Metabolic Processes: 1) Catabolism ‒ provides the energy for the synthesis of new cells, as well as for the maintenance of other cell functions 2) Anabolism ‒ provides the material necessary for cell growth ‒ When external food source is interrupted, organisms will use stored food for maintenance energy – a process called Endogenous catabolism. MICROORGANISMS THAT PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN NATURAL WATER SYSTEMS 1) Bacteria – the primary decomposers of organic material. They are classified according to the energy and material sources that they require: a. Autotrophs – organisms that derive both energy and material from inorganic sources. Their major function is to convert N and S compounds into stable end – products b. Heterotrophs – bacteria that obtain both energy and material from organic sources. Most important bacteria in the degradation of organic material. They are further classified into: ▪ aerobic heterotrophs – require O2 in their metabolic process ▪ anaerobic heterotrophs – utilize organics in the absence of O2 ▪ facultative heterotrophs – functions as aerobes when O2 is present and anaerobic in the absence of O2 ▪ Phototrophs – utilize sunlight for energy and inorganic substances for material source 2) Algae – these are autotrophic, photosynthetic organisms which metabolize the waste product of heterotrophic bacteria while obtaining energy from sunlight. 3) Protozoa – single – cell organisms that reproduce by binary fission. Protozoa are voracious consumers of organic material and are important members of the aquatic community. Other organisms: Rotifers and crustacea, sludge worms, etc,  ENGINEERED SYSTEMS for WATER PURIFICATION  Many aquifers and isolated waters are of high water quality and may be pumped from the supply and transm