Environmental Toxicology PDF

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY Dr. Chetan Chinke Definition :- Environmental toxicology is a multidisciplinary field of science concerned with the study of the harmful effects of various chemical, biological and physical agents on living organisms. Rachel Carson is considered the mother of env...

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY Dr. Chetan Chinke Definition :- Environmental toxicology is a multidisciplinary field of science concerned with the study of the harmful effects of various chemical, biological and physical agents on living organisms. Rachel Carson is considered the mother of environmental toxicology, as she made it a distinct field within toxicology in 1962 with the publication of her book Silent Spring, which covered the effects of uncontrolled pesticide use. Carson's book was based extensively on a series of reports by Lucille Farrier Stickel on the ecological effects of the pesticide DDT(dichloro-diphenyl- trichloroethane). Environmental Pollution can be defined as any undesirable change in physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of any component of the environment i.e. air, water, soil which can cause harmful effects on various forms of life or property. Pollution: The term pollution can be defined as influence of any substance causing nuisance, harmful effects, and uneasiness to the organisms. Pollutant:- Any substance causing Nuisance or harmful effects or uneasiness to the organisms, then that particular substance may be called as the pollutant.  प्रदषू ित जल के लक्षण दष्ु टं जलं षिच्छिलमग्र ु गच्धि फेनाच्धितं राच्जभिराितृ ं च | मण्डूकमत्स्यं भियते षिहङ्गा मत्ताश्च सानूिचरा भ्रमच्धत ||७|| मज्जच्धत ये चात्र नराश्िनागा्ते िर्दि मोहज्िरदाहशोफान ् | ऋ(ग)छिच्धत तेिामिहृत्सय दोिान ् [१] दष्ु टं जलं शोिययतंु यतेत ||८|| सश्र ु त ु कल्पस्थान 3/7-8 प्रदषू ित जल के लक्षण- षिि से प्रदषू ित जल षिच्छिल, उग्र गधि से यक् ु त, फेयनल तथा रे खाओं से युक्त होता है । उस जल में रहनेिाले मेढक, मिभलयााँ आर्द मर जाती हैं। िक्षी उस जल को िीकर उधमत्त हो जाते हैं। मनष्ु य, घोडे, हाथी आर्द जो िी उसमें ्नान करते हैं अथिा उस जल का िान करते हैं िे िमन, अयतसार, मोह, ज्िर, दाह, शोफ आर्द से ग्र्त हो जाते हैं प्रदषू ित जल की चिकीत्सा : - ििाश्िकणािसनिाररिद्रान ् सिाटलान ् भसद्िकमोक्षकौ च | दग्ध्िा सराजद्रम ु सोमिलकां्तद्ि्म शीतं षितरे त ् सरःसु ||९|| ि्माञ्जभलं चाषि घटे यनिाय षिशोियेदीच्ससतमेिमम्िः |१०| िि (िाय), अश्िकणि, असन, िाररिद्र, िाटल, भसद्िक (यनगण् ुि डी), माक्षक (माखा), अमलतास और सोमिलक- इन सबको जलाकर ठण्डा कर लें। इस राख या ि्म को जल िर यिडकने से जल शद् ु ि हो जाता है । घडे में रखे िीने के िानी में एक अंजभल ि्म डाल दे ने से िह िी यनषिि हो जाता है । 4. Ground water pollution When humans apply pesticides and chemicals to soils, they are washed deep into the ground by rain water. This gets to underground water, causing pollution underground. This means when we dig wells and bore holes to get water from underground, it needs to be checked for ground water pollution. Different Causes of Water Pollution Marine Dumping Industrial Waste Sewage, mainly from households Nuclear waste Oil pollution Underground storage leaks Mining Activities How to prevent Water Pollution “Just because it disappears, doesn’t mean it goes away” 1. DO NOT pour fat from cooking or any other type of fat, oil, or grease down the sink. Keep a “fat jar” under the sink to collect the fat and discard in the solid waste when full. 2. DO NOT dispose of household chemicals or cleaning agents down the sink or toilet. 3. DO NOT flush pills, liquid or powder medications or drugs down the toilet. For recommendations on proper disposal for all types of medical wastes. 4. Avoid using the toilet as a wastebasket. Most tissues, wrappers, dust cloths, and other paper goods should be properly discarded in a wastebasket. 5. Install a water efficient toilet. In the meantime, put a brick or 1/2 gal container in the standard toilet tank to reduce water use per flush. 6. Use the minimum amount of detergent and/or bleach when you are washing clothes or dishes. 7. Minimize the use of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers. 8. DO NOT dispose of these chemicals, motor oil, or other automotive fluids into the sanitary sewer or storm sewer systems. Both of them end at the river.  षििदषू ित भूमि के लक्षण क्षक्षयतप्रदे शं षििदषू ितं तु भशलातलं [१] तीथिमथेररणं िा ||१०|| ्िश ृ च्धत गात्रेण तु येन येन गोिाच्जनागोष्रखरा नरा िा | तछिूनतां यात्सयथ दह्यते च षिशीयिते रोमनखं तथैि ||११|| सश्र ु त ु कल्पस्थान 3/10-11 षििदषू ित िूभम के लक्षण और उसकी चचककत्ससा षिि से दषू ित हुए िूभमप्रदे श, भशलािष्ृ ठ, तीथि (घाट आर्द), ईररण (ऊसर िभू म का मैदान) का गाय, बैल, हाथी, घोडे, ऊाँट, गिे तथा मनुष्य शरीर के च्जस-च्जस अंग से ्िशि होता है िहााँ िह अंग शोथयुक्त हो जाता है , उस अंग में जलन होती है , िहााँ िर के रोम तथा नख चगर जाते हैं। षििदषू ित भमू ि की चिककत्सा तत्रासयनधतां सह सििगधिैः षिष््िा सुराभिषिियनयोज्य मागिम ् | भसञ्चेत ् ियोभिः सम ु द ृ धितै्तं षिडङ्गिाठाकटिीजलैिाि ||१२|| सुश्रुत कल्पस्थान 3/12 इसके प्रयतकार के भलए अनधता (साररिा) को एलार्दगण के साथ सुरा में िीस कर दि ू एिं काली भम्टी अथिा िालमीक मषृ त्तका भमलाकर इससे यिडकाि करे अथिा िायषिडङ्ग, िाठा, कटिी (अिराच्जता) आर्द द्रव्यों के किाय (काढे ) से िररिेक किया करे अथाित ् उन षिि्िभशित अंगों का उक्त क्िाथ से सीचता ि ्नान करता रहे ॥१२॥ Soil Pollution What is soil? Soil is defined as the top layer of the earth’s crust. It contains inorganic matter, organic matter, water, air and many living organisms. Soil provides support and nutrients for plant growth. The healthy soil has a valuable asset. It has been receiving more and more toxic substance. Soil pollution:- It is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease causing agents. It occurs due to rapid growth in industrial development, intensive agriculture and other anthropogenic activities. Soil pollution may change physical, chemical and biological nature of soil and make it unfit for plant growth, animals and human use. These pollutants decrease soil quality, disturb the soil's natural balance. Sources of soil pollution :- The major sources of soil pollution are: Pollutants like acids washed off from the atmosphere (acid rain). Pesticides and herbicides sprayed in fields. Excessive use of artificial fertilizers. Solid wastes like garbage, trash, ash, building material, plastic, bottles and cans. Storage and disposal radioactive waste from the power plant.  Seepage from a landfill. Discharge of industrial waste into the soil. Percolation of contaminated water into the soil. Rupture of underground storage tanks. Deforestation and soil erosion.  The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are: Petroleum hydrocarbons Heavy metals Pesticides Solvents Types of Soil Pollution Agricultural Soil Pollution. Industrial Soil Pollution. Urbanization Soil Pollution. Agricultural Soil Pollution Pesticides and herbicides are applied to agricultural land to control pests that disrupt crop production. Soil contamination can occur when pesticides persist and accumulate in soils. Effects of Soil Pollution Reduced soil fertility. Reduced nitrogen fixation. Larger loss of soil and nutrients. Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs. Reduced crop yield.  Industrial Soil Pollution Large quantity of solid wastes like unused and rejected chemicals (like sludge, press mud, saw dust, bottles, plastic materials etc.), unwanted industrial wastes generated during manufacturing processes are dumped over on the surface of soil. Normally, These materials have been dumped around the factory site or around the entire city. Effects Industrial Soil Pollution : - Dangerous chemicals entering underground water. Ecological imbalance. Release of pollutant gases. Increased salinity. Reduced vegetation. Urbanization Soil Pollution ▪ Urban activities generate large quantities of city wastes including several non- biodegradable materials (such as plastic bags, plastic bottles, plastic wastes, glass bottles, glass pieces, stone / cement pieces). ▪ If it uncollected , they cause soil pollution. ▪ The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the environment and causes serious effects on health of some people. ▪ The unpleasant smell causes inconvenience to other people. Effects of Soil Pollution : - Pollution of drinking water sources Inundation of areas Public health problems Foul smell and release of gases Clogging of drains Waste management problems Spread out diseases by pathogenic organisms. The major effect of soil pollution ▪ Salinization: is increase the soil content of soil. ▪ Salinization occurs due to Acid rain, Agricultural operation, and industrial activities. ▪ Due to salinization the soil becomes unsuitable for plant growth and human use. ▪ Ground water in saline soil have more salts than normal soil and make the water unsuitable for plant growth, for animals and for human use. Methods to control Soil Pollution ▪ Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use. ▪ Recycling Recycling paper, plastics and other materials reduces the volume of refuse in landfills. ▪ Reusing of materials such as plastic bottles, glass, etc ▪ Re-forestation, Planting trees or re-forestation helps prevent soil erosion and pollution. ▪ Use traditional method to reduce growing of pests and weeds. ▪ Designated pits should be used for the dumping of soil wastes. These wastes should be treated chemically and biologically to make them less toxic and hazardous. ▪ Minimizing Air Pollution (to control acid rain). Air pollution षिि से दषू ित िम ू तथा िायु के लक्षण : - िम ू ेऽयनले िा षििसंप्रयक् ु ते खगाः श्रमातािः प्रितच्धत िम ू ौ। कासप्रयतश्यायभशरोरुजश्च ििच्धत तीव्रा नयनामयाश्च ।। १६ ।। सुश्रत ु कल्पस्थान 3/16 षिि से दषू ित िूम तथा िायु के लक्षण और चचककत्ससा (इसी प्रकार) िुआाँ अथिा िायु के षििाक्त होने िर िक्षी श्रम से थक कर िभू म िर चगर जाते हैं और कास, बास, प्रयतश्याय, भशरोरोग तथा नेत्ररोग से ग्रभसत हो जाते हैं। षिि से दषू ित िम ू तथा िायु के लक्षण : - लाक्षाहररद्रायतषििाियाब्दहरे णक ु ै लादलििकुष्ठम ् षप्रयङ्गक ु ां चासयनले यनिाय िूमायनलौ चाषि षिशोियेत ् ।।१७।। सुश्रुत कल्पस्थान 3/17 इसके प्रयतकार के भलए लाख, हलदी, तमालित्र, तगर, कूठ, षप्रयङ्गु आर्द को अच्ग्धन (आग) में डाल कर इनके िूम (िूए)ाँ से षििाक्त िूम और िायु का शोिन करें Normal components of our atmosphere : - ❑Nitrogen - 78.1% ❑ Oxygen - 20.9% ❑ Carbon dioxide - 0.03% ❑ Everything else - 0.07% ▪noble gases (krypton, xenon, argon, helium) ▪methane ▪sulfur dioxide What is air Pollution? Definition: - Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. The main sources of air pollution are: (a)AUTOMOBILES: Motor vehicles are a major source of air pollution throughout the urban areas. (b) INDUSTRIES: Combustion of fuel to generate heat and power produces smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and fly ash. (c)DOMESTIC SOURCES : Domestic combustion of coal, wood or oil is a major source of smoke, dust, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. (d) tobacco smoke: The most direct and important source of air pollution affecting the health of many people. (e) MISCELLANEOUS: These comprise burning refuse, incinerators, pesticide spraying, natural sources (e.g., wind borne dust, fungi, molds, bacteria) and nuclear energy programmes. (1)Carbon monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide diffuses across the lung tissues and into the bloodstream, making it difficult for the body’s cells to bind to oxygen. This lack of oxygen damages tissues and cells. Exposure to carbon monoxide can cause difficulties breathing, exhaustion, dizziness, and other flu-like symptoms. Exposure to high levels of carbon monoxide can be deadly. (2) Sulphur dioxide Sulphur dioxide results from the combustion of sulphur containing fossil fuel, and when coal and fuel oil are burned. Domestic fires can also produce emissions containing sulphur dioxide. Exposure to SO2 is associated with asthma hospital admissions and emergency room visits. (3) Lead (Pb) and lead particulate These compounds can be found in the home in contaminated dust from products such as paints, ceramics, pipes and plumbing materials, solders, gasoline, batteries, ammunition, and cosmetics. The health impacts for children exposed to lead include behaviour and learning problems, lower IQ and hyperactivity, slowed growth, hearing problems, and anemia. In rare cases, ingestion of lead can cause seizures, coma and even death. For pregnant women, health risks include reduced growth of the fetus and premature birth. Adults exposed to lead also have a higher risk of cardiovascular effects increased blood pressure, the incidence of hypertension, decreased kidney function and risk of reproductive problems in both men and women. (4) Particulate Matter Particulate matter (PM) refers to inhalable particles, composed of sulphate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust or water. PM can be of different size and is generally defined by their aerodynamic diameter, with PM2.5 and PM10 the most common in the regulatory framework and relevant for health. Sources of the largest particles called coarse particles (particles with diameter between 2.5 µm and 10 µm) will mainly consist of pollen, sea spray and wind-blown dust from erosion, agricultural spaces, roadways and mining operations. The finer particles (i.e., PM2.5) can be derived from primary sources (e.g., combustion of fuels in power generation facilities, industries or vehicles) and secondary sources (e.g., chemical reactions between gases). The greatest source of particulate matter around the home is generally the combustion of polluting fuels in open hearths or poorly vented, inefficient stoves or space heaters.  PM is capable of penetrating deep into the lung and enter the bloodstream causing cardiovascular (ischaemic heart disease), cerebrovascular (stroke) and respiratory impacts. Both long-term and short-term exposure to particulate matter is associated with morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Long-term exposure has been further linked to adverse perinatal outcomes and lung cancer. (5) Ozone Ground-level ozone (O3) is a major component of smog. It is formed from photochemical reactions with pollutants such volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted from vehicles, and industry. Due to the photochemical nature, the highest levels of ozone are seen during periods of sunny weather. It is worth mentioning that ozone can also be generated by household equipment, such as portable air cleaners. Exposure to excessive ozone can cause problems breathing, trigger asthma, reduce lung function and lead to lung disease. These 5 together form.... SMOG  Monitoring of air pollution The best indicators of air pollution are : (1)sulphur dioxide. (2)smoke and suspended particles: A known volume of air is filtered through a white filter paper under specified conditions and the stain is measured by photoelectric meter. Smoke concentration is estimated and expressed as micrograms/cubic metre of air as an average level over a period of time. (c) Grit and dust measurement : Deposit gauges collect grit, dust and other solids. There are analyzed monthly. (d) Coefficient of haze: A factor used, particularly in the USA in assessing the amount of smoke or other aerosol in air. (e)AQI: Air Quality Index Indicates whether pollutant levels in air may cause health concerns or not. Control of outdoor air pollution 1. Eliminate or control the sources of pollution: Improved stoves Clean fuels (kerosene, gas) Venting stoves for cooking and heating Regular maintenance of cooking, heating and cooling systems 2. Ventilation – building design Dilute and remove pollutants through ventilation with outdoor air 3. Air cleaning – NOT air fresheners! Air filters and ionizers may remove some airborne particles Gas adsorbing material is used to remove gaseous contaminants (A) Containment: That is, prevention of escape of toxic substances into the ambient air. Containment can be achieved by a variety of engineering methods such as enclosure, ventilation and air cleaning. A major contribution in this field is the development of "arresters" for the removal of contaminants. (B) Dilution: Dilution is valid so long as it is within the self-cleaning capacity of the environment. some air pollutants are readily removed by vegetation. The establishment of "green belts“ between industrial and residential areas is an attempt at dilution. (C) Legislation: e.g., Clean Air Acts, legislation covers such matters as: height of chimneys. powers to local authorities to carry out investigations, research and education concerning air pollution (D) Use of Public Transport in Urban Areas Effect of Biological Warfare :- Biological agents like anthrax, botulinum toxin and plague can pose a difficult public health challenge causing large numbers of deaths in a short amount of time. Biological agents which are capable of secondary transmission can lead to epidemics.  Exp. –VX GAS , Sarin VX GAS KIND: Nerve agents ANTIDOTE: atropin It works as a nerve agent by blocking the function of the enzym acetylcholinesterase VX is deadliest of all nerve agents, VX kills in less than a minute unless its antidote, atropine, is administered directly into the heart. Exp. Phosgene, Hydrogen Cyanide Effects of Chemical warefare:- The most critical effects are paralysis of the respiratory muscles and inhibition of the respiratory center. Ultimately, death results due to respiratory paralysis. If the concentration of the nerve agent is high, death is immediate. Toxicovigilance Definition:- Toxicovigilance is the active process of identifying and evaluating the toxic risks existing in a community, and evaluating the measures taken to reduce or eliminate them.