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Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 1 HERBAL MEDICINE AND PHYTOTHERAPY...

Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 1 HERBAL MEDICINE AND PHYTOTHERAPY (2 C) Lecture 5 Prof. Mubo A. SONIBARE DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY, FACULTY OF PHARMACY, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 2 Examples of Nigerian Medicinal Plants  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 3 Garlic Scientific name: Allium sativum L. Family name: Amaryllidaceae. Class of Compound: Thiosulfinate. Figure 9 Medicinal importance Source: Orogun, Ibadan Anticoagulant Anti-hypertensive effect. Antimicrobial Anticancer (Londhe et al, 2011). Allicin Source: https://www.wikipedia.com  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 4 Grapes Scientific name: Citrus × paradisi Family name: Rutaceae Class of Compound: Flavonoid Figure Source: https://www.pngtree.com 10 Medicinal importance: Anti-inflammatory Antioxidant inhibit cancer cell growth and proliferation (Gupta et al., 2011). Luteolin Source: https://www.wikipedia.com  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 5 Carrot Scientific name: Daucus carota subsp. Sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens Family name: Apiaceae Class of Compound: Carotene Medicinal importance Figure Antioxidant. 11 Source: Ojoo market, Ibadan It helps in prevention of heart diseases It also protects the skin against deleterious effects of sunlight (Heleno et al., 2015). β-carotene Source: https://www.wikipedia.com  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 6 Onion Scientific name: Allium cepa L. Family name: Amaryllidaceae Class of Compound: Flavonoid Figure Medicinal importance 12 Source: Ojoo market, Ibadan Promote good free radical scavenging activity. Prevents DNA damage (Singh et al., 2009). Quercetin 4'-glucoside Source: Rhodes and Price, 1996.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 7 Pepper Scientific name: Capsicum chinense Jacq. Family name: Solanaceae Class of Compound: Phenol Figure 13 Source: Ojoo market, Ibadan Medicinal importance Analgesic Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory properties. (Hiura & Jancsó, 2011). Capsaicin Source: Fattori et al., 2016.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 8 Ginger Scientific name: Zingiber officinale Roscoe Family name: Zingiberaceae Class of Compound: Phenol Figure 14 Source: Ojoo market, Ibadan Medicinal importance: Anticancer (Bode, 2003). Anti-inflammatory (Kiuchi et al, 1992). Gingerol Source: https://www.wikipedia.com  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 9 Cucumber Scientific name: Cucumis sativus L. Family name: Cucurbitaceae Class of Compound: Steroid Figure 16 Source: Ojoo market, Ibadan Medicinal importance: Laxative Anti-inflammatory (Sheila et al., 2016). Antimalarial(Miro, 1995). Cucurbitacin Source: https://www.acs.org  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 10 Thyme Scientific name: Thymus vulgaris L. Family name: Lamiaceae Class of Compound: Terpene Figure 18 Source: FSY supermarket, Ibadan Medicinal importance: Antioxidant, Antiulcer and Anticancer (Bonamin et al., 2014). Mycrene Source: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 11 Coconut Oil Scientific name: Cocos nucifera L. Family name: Palmae Class of Compound: Fatty acid Figure 19 Source: Ojoo market, Ibadan Medicinal importance: Weight loss Protect against Alzheimer’s disease. (Arlee et al., 2013). It lowers the risk of heart disease (Tholstrup et al., 1994). Lauric acid Source: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 12 Locust beans Scientific name: Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) G.Don Family name: Leguminosae Class of Compound: Fatty acid Figure 20 Medicinal importance: Source: Ojoo market, Ibadan Antihypertensive effect Antioxidant activity (Daramola and Osanyinlusi, 2013) Linoleic acid Source: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 13 Black pepper Scientific name: Piper guineense Schumach. Family name: Piperaceae Class of Compound: Alkaloid Figure 23 Medicinal importance: Source: Ojoo market, Ibadan Anti-Inflammatory Antioxidant Antibacteria (Besong et al., 2016). Piperine Source: Besong et al., 2016  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 14 Bay leaf Scientific name: Laurus nobilis L. Family name: Lauraceae Class of Compound: Phenol Figure 25 Medicinal importance: Source: Karu market, Abuja Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory Cardiovascular aiding properties (Pramod et al., 2010). Eugeno l Source: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 15 Moringa leaf Scientific name: Moringa oleifera Lam. Family name: Moringaceae Class of Compound: Alkaloid Figure 27 Source: Pharmacognosy Medicinal plant Garden Medicinal importance: Antiasthmatic Antioxidant activity (Agrawal and Mehta, 2008). Moringine Source: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 16 Alstonia boonei De Wild. Synonyms: Alstonia congensis Common names: Family: Apocynaceae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: It has antimalarial, aphrodisiac,  Kucera, et al (1972) antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and reported six alkaloids antipyretic activites (Adotey et out of which two are al., 2012). named as echitamine Major chemical constituents: B. amyrin acetate Bamyrenone and echitamidine. The lupeoI and sitosterol. two alkaloids have diuretic and hypotensive properties, respectively.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 17 Alstonia boonei (Source: Back of Central Animal house, UI, Ibadan, Oyo State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 18 Citrus x aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle *a hybrid of C. micrantha x C. medica Common names: Key lime Family: Rutaceae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: Treatment of gastrointestinal possesses anti-inflammatory potential for the digestive system. The peel disorders, insomnia, essential oil has shown anthelmintic, headaches, cardiovascular antimicrobial, anti-cholinesterase, radical diseases, cancer. Also used as scavenging, antispasmodic, an antiseptic, anti-oxidant, anticoagulant and anticancer activities. antispasmodic, astringent, Major chemical constituents: carminative, digestive, sedative, stimulant and tonic limonene, beta-pinene, gamma- (Suryawanshi, 2011). terpinene and citral  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 19 Citrus aurantifolia: (Source Botanical Garden, UI, Ibadan, Oyo State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 20 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Synonyms: Polynome bulbifera Common names: Air potato Family: Dioscoreaceae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: sores, haemorrhoids, Antidiarrheal, analgesic, diabetes (Komori et al., antidiabetic, emetic, 1997). anthelmintic, laxative Major chemical constituents: diosgenin, ß- sitosterol, sterols.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 21 Dioscorea bulbifera (Source: Alabata village, Moniya, Ibadan, Oyo State).  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 22 Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) Pax Synonyms: D. trphylla var. dumetorum Common names: bitter yam Family: Dioscoreaceae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: diabetes (Iwu et al., 1990). diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, colic, menstrual disorders and schistosomiasis. Diosgenin in yam is an important raw material for industrial production of steroidal drugs and can be obtained by acid hydrolysis of yam tubers. Major chemical constituents: dumetorine, dioscoretine, stigmasterol.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 23 Dioscorea dumetorum (Source: IITA Field, Moniya, Ibadan, Oyo State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 24 Euphorbia hirta L. Synonyms: E. pilulifera Common names: Asthma Herb, ege- Family: Euphorbiaceae ile, emi ile (Yoruba) Pharmaceutical uses: For treatment of acute enteritis and Folk Medicinal uses :For dysentery. treatment of conjuctivitis. The Major chemical constituents: plant is reputed as a remedy for Latex contains 1-inositol, bronchitis and asthma and it is pyrogallic and catechin, tannins, listed in the British Martindale and an alkaloid xantherhamnine. Taxerol Extra Pharmacopoeia for the friedelin, ß-sitosterol, Caeffeic treatment of coughs and asthma acids & flavonoids have also in the form of a liquid extract or been reported. tincture.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 25 Euphorbia hirta  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 26 Ficus exasperata Vahl Synonyms: F. asperrima Common names: Sand paper leaf Family: Moraceae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: Treatment of hypertension, Diuretic, antiarthritic, rheumatism, arthritis, febrifuge, analgesic intestinal pains and colics, epilepsy, abortifacient, bleeding and wounds (Irvine, 1961). Major chemical constituents: pheophytin/pheophorbide derivatives, pyrimidine derivatives and flavonoid derivatives.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 27 Ficus exasperata (Source Botanical Garden, UI, Ibadan, Oyo State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 28 Jatropha curcas L. Synonyms Common names: jatropha Family: Euphorbiaceae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: Applied to treat eczema An ingredient in the oily and skin diseases and extract is used as a to soothe rheumatic rubifacient for pain (Prasad et al., rheumatism and for 2012). parasitic skin conditions. Major chemical constituents: glycerides of stearic, palmitic, myristic, oleanolic and curcanoleic acids.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 29 Jatropha curcas (Source Botanical Garden, UI, Ibadan, Oyo State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 30 Morinda lucida Benth. Synonyms: M. citrifolia Common names: Brimstone tree, Family: Rubiaceae Oruwo (Yoruba) Pharmaceutical uses: All parts of Folk Medicinal uses :The leaves are the plant are used as laxative. used in the preparation of fever Major chemical constituents: teas, which are used not only for Tannins, methyl-anthraquinones. the treatment of malaria but as a general febrifuge and analgesic. All parts of the plants are used as laxative. jaundice, hypertension and its cerebral complications.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 31 Morinda lucida leaves (Source Pharmacology Department, UI, Ibadan, Oyo State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 32 Philenoptera cyanescens (Schum. & Thonn.) Roberty Synonyms: Lonchocarpus cyanescens Common names: African indigo Family: Leguminosae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: possesses Powdered leaves stem anti-inflammatory property and bark and roots are used ameliorates the to treat mental disorders symptoms associated with in Nigeria (Sonibare et al., adjuvant-induced polyarthritis 2008). The dye extracts of in rats Lonchocarpus Major chemical cyanescens was also constituents:alkaloids, used as a counterstain for anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, histomorphology (Bassey cyanogenetic glycosides, flavonoids, et al, 2012). saponins, steroids and tannins  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 33 Philenoptera cyanescens /Lonchocarpus cyanescens (Source: Sogbodile, Ifo, Ogun State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 34 Piper guineense Schumach & Thonn. Synonyms: P. clusii Common names: African black pepper Family: Piperaceae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: Treatment of respiratory bronchitis and rheumatism, infections, female infertility anti-malarial, and as a aphrodisiac (Noumi et al., 1998). The antihypertensive, leaves of P. guineense are antiarrhythmic and cooked alongside with anticancer Rauwolfia vomitora as soup for mentally derailed people Major chemical constituents: Also known to possess piperine, Myristicine, beta- anticonvulsant property carophyllene (Abila et al., 1993).  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 35 Piper guineense (Source: Botanical Garden, UI, Ibadan, Oyo State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 36 Psidium guajava L. Synonyms: Psidium guajava var. minor Common names: guava Family: Myrtaceae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: treatment of diarrhea, dysentery, Aqueous extract exhibits sedative menstrual disorders, ulcers, cold, activity. cough, jaundice, diabetes, malaria and rheumatism (Joseph and Priya, 2011).  Chemical Constituents: The fruits are rich in vitamins (A and C), iron, calcium and phosphorous. The essential oil from the leaves has been shown to contain carophyllene, nerolidiol, ß-bisabolene and ß-sitosterol, ursolic, oleanolic, crategolic and guayavolic acids. The root of the plant contains leukocyanidins, sterols and gallic acid.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 37 Psidium guajava (Source Botanical Garden, UI, Ibadan, Oyo State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 38 Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel. Synonyms: Hylacium owariense P.Beauv., Rauwolfia senegambia DC Hylacium owariense P.Beauv., Rauwolfia senegambia DC Common names: Asofeyeje (Yoruba), Family: Apocynaceae Akanta (Ibo) Pharmaceutical uses: The plant is a Folk Medicinal uses :One tablespoonful source of reserpine, used as of the root and stem bark infusion hypotensive and CNS sedatives mixed with Capsicum spp. taken 3 Major chemical constituents: times daily cures malaria fever. Three The yohimbine and its esters or four spoonful of the infusion (in hot including reserpine, the ajmalicine water) of two or three leaves of R. type, the ajmaline-sarpagine series, vomitoria will induce vomiting and the anhydronium bases and the violent purgation as a treatment for oxindoles and pseudoindoxyls. constipation or indigestion. Used for mental illness.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 39 Rauvolfia vomitoria (Source Botanical Garden, UI, Ibadan, Oyo State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 40 Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum. & Thonn.) Taub. Common names: Aidan Family: Leguminosae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: Management of convulsions, Molluscicidal activity, leprosy, inflammation, cardio-vascular, neuromuscular, hypoglycemia, rheumatism, hypotensive, anti- flatulence, jaundice and fevers convulsant, anti-inflammatory, (Ojewole and Adewumi, 2004; hypoglycaemic Odesanmi et al., 2009). Infusion of the whole fruit is Major chemical constituents: taken as a recuperative tonic Triterpenoids (Ojewole and Adesina 1983).  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 41 Tetrapleura tetraptera (Source: Wasinmi, Osun State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 42 Vernonia amygdalina Del Synonyms: Cacalia amygdalina Common names: bitter leaf Family: Compositae Folk Medicinal uses : Pharmaceutical uses: Treatment of wound, malaria, The leaves are reputed worm infestation, appetite to be effective remedies stimulant, cough, post-partum haemorrhage and as a laxative for gastrointestinal (Iwu, 1986) disorders, and as a general tonic.  Major Chemical Constituents: vernonin, the sesquiterpenes, vernolepin and vernodalin and flavonoid kaempferol.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 43 Vernonia amygdalina (Source: Medicinal plant garden, Faculty of Pharmacy building, UI, Ibadan, Oyo State)  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 44 Geographic Source and Toxicity of Medicinal plants S/No. Plant Geographic Toxicity Source 1. Garlic Central Asia Garlic oil fed at a dose of 100 mg/kg after 24 hour fasting has Allium sativum also been found to be lethal. The cause of death appears to be acute pulmonary edema with severe congestion. Garlic oil and Diallyl-disulfide (200 mg/kg b.w.) significantly reduced body weight gain of rats. Ajoene, a´garlic derived natural compound, present in other types of garlic oil, is an inhibitor as well as a substrate of human glutathione reductase and expected to increase the oxidative stress of the respective cell. The sulphoxides present in the garlic extract can undergo exchange reaction with the tri-table SH-groups of enzymes and other proteins in the body spontaneously at physiological pH and temperature, inhibiting their activity. 2. Ginger Southeast Asia Consumption of ginger more than recommended (5 grams per Zingiber day) can cause serious side effects.... officinale Excessive Bleeding.... Diarrhea.... Heart Problems.... Skin and Eye Allergies.... Unsafe During Pregnancy.... Sore Throat Problem.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 45 Geographic Source and Toxicity of Medicinal plants contd. S/No. Plant Geographic Toxicity Source 3. Cucumber India The presence of the toxins, such as cucurbitacins and tetracyclic Cucumis sativus triterpenoids in cucumber is a thing to worry about (3). Studies have proven that these elements trigger the bitter taste in these wonderful veggies. Researchers point out that consuming cucumber beyond moderation could even be life-threatening. Cucumber is relatively high in vitamin K. Eating too much cucumber could affect how a person's blood clots. People who use warfarin (Coumadin) or similar blood-thinning drugs should not increase their intake of cucumber dramatically or suddenly without consulting a doctor. 4. Thyme European part of Thyme is safe, in general, when used according to Thymus vulgaris the Mediterranean recommendations. However, essential oil of thyme can be toxic (from Portugal to orally, classified into, photo-toxic, irritant and narcotic oils Greece) However, because it acts as a diuretic, taking too much can cause dehydration which can lead to headaches and dizziness. It is also important to note that thyme tea should not be given to children under the age of 12 or women who are pregnant or breastfeeding.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 46 Geographic Source and Toxicity of Medicinal plants contd. S/No. Plant Geographic Toxicity Source 5. Coconut Philippines Allergy to coconut oil or related plants: Coconut might cause Cocos nucifera serious allergic reactions in people who are allergic to coconut oil, coconut palm pollen, components of coconut, or other members of the Arecaceae plant family. High cholesterol: People who eat large amounts of coconut have higher cholesterol than those who eat less. But eating foods with coconut flour might actually decrease cholesterol levels. This might be due to the type of coconut product used. Whole coconut contains coconut oil, which is made up of saturated fat. But coconut flour is processed to remove fats. Use whole coconut cautiously if you have high cholesterol. 6 Black pepper West Africa Consuming excess black pepper may cause gastric mucosal Piper guineense injury and accumulation of harmful toxins in the body. Inhaling black pepper may trigger sneezing, coughing, and skin redness. Too much black pepper can cause diarrhea and stomach irritation.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 47 Geographic Source and Toxicity of Medicinal plants contd. S/No. Plant Geographic Toxicity Source 7 Moringa Northern India It is possibly safe to use moringa leaves in pregnancy during the Moringa oleifera and Pakistan second or third trimester. But it's possibly unsafe to use the root, bark, or flowers of moringa when pregnant. Chemicals in the root, bark, and flowers might make the uterus contract. In traditional medicine, the root and bark were used to cause miscarriages. 8. Stool wood West Africa In spite of the numerous benefits, chronic consumption of Alstonia boonei Alstonia boonei has been shown to be capable of causing nephrotoxicity 9. Asthma herb tropical regions of Multiple cases of keratoconjunctivitis and uveitis after accidental Euphorbia hirta the Americas. ocular exposure to the latex of different Euphorbia species have been reported worldwide. Most patients recovered uneventfully, but blindness could occur. 10. Sand paper leaf Native to tropical high doses of the ethanolic leaf extract could lead to toxic injury Ficus exasperata Africa (an area in the kidneys from Senegal east to Ethiopia and south to Angola and Mozambique) and southern Asia (India, S  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 48 Geographic Source and Toxicity of Medicinal plants contd. S/No. Plant Geographic Toxicity Source 11. Jatropha native to the Though all parts of the plant are poisonous, seeds have Jatropha American the highest concentration of ricin and thus highly curcas tropics, most poisonous. The adverse effects following consumption likely Mexico of seeds include vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain and and Central burning sensation in the throat. Within fifteen minutes of America consumption vomiting and diarrhea set in. 12. Morinda Senegal to While parts of Morinda lucida showed no visible Morinda Sudan and toxicity even at very high doses, they proved to be lucida southward to genotoxic to pUC18 plasmid DNA at higher Angola and concentrations. Zambia 13 Guava southern There are no serious side effects of guava fruits and Psidium Mexico into or leaves for those who take it in moderate amounts. guajava through Central However, eating too much can lead to digestive issues America like constipation. Though the chances are low, studies show that it's also possible to develop an allergy to some of the chemicals in guava.  Prof. Mubo A. Sonibare, Dept. ofPharmacognosy, University 7/19/2024 of Ibadan, Nigeria 49 Geographic Source and Toxicity of Medicinal plants contd. S/No. Plant Geographic Toxicity Source 14 Indigo leaf West Africa - Philenoptera cyanescens 15 Devil’s claw Senegal east to When taken by mouth: Rauvolfia vomitoria is possibly unsafe. Rauvolfia Sudan and Rauvolfia vomitoria dried root powder can cause shakiness, vomitoria Tanzania, south to jerky movements, or slower movements in some people. Angola Rauvolfia vomitoria also contains chemicals that can cause serious side effects, including low or high blood pressure, irregular heartbeat, heart attack, and seizures. 16 Bitter leaf Occurs wild in Even though there was dose dependant increases in some of the Vernonia most countries of blood parameters, they were not significant to show the toxicity amygdalina tropical Africa, of this plant. Therefore, it is safe to use this plant but safe dosage from Guinea east is mandatory especially for pregnant women. to Somalia and south to north- eastern South Africa, and in Yemen.