ELT 2.pdf - Introduction to English Language Teaching

Zusammenfassung: Intoduction to English Language Teaching Session 1: Introduction and the Teacher 1. Richards (2012): Core Dimensions of Good Language Teaching Practice − language proficiency o providing good language models o maintaining use of the t...

Zusammenfassung: Intoduction to English Language Teaching Session 1: Introduction and the Teacher 1. Richards (2012): Core Dimensions of Good Language Teaching Practice − language proficiency o providing good language models o maintaining use of the target language in the classroom (giving explanations and instructions in target language) o providing examples of words and grammatical structures o giving correct feedback on learner language o providing input at an appropriate level of difficulty o providing language-enrichment experiences for learners − content knowledge o understanding learners’ needs o diagnosing leaners’ learning problems o planning suitable instructional goals for lessons o selecting and designing learning tasks o evaluating students’ learning o designing and adapting tests o evaluating and choosing materials o making appropriate use of technology o reflecting on one’s lessons − teaching skills o introducing and explaining tasks o setting up learning arrangements o checking students’ understanding o guiding student practice o monitoring students’ language use − contextual knowledge o understanding the values, norms of practice and patterns of social participation of a particular school o understanding the dynamics and relationships within the classroom − language teacher’s identity o being aware of one’s role as a teacher of English o enacting different social and cultural roles as a teacher of English  − learner-focused teaching o being familiar with typical student behaviour o adapting one’s lessons to the learners’ needs and preferences o maintaining active student involvement (also in processes of planning and/or decision making) o connecting with the learners’ life experiences − pedagogical reasoning skills o analysing potential lesson content o identifying ways in which it could be used as teaching resources o identifying linguistic goals that could be developed from the chosen content o anticipating problems that might occur and ways of resolving them o making appropriate decisions about time, sequencing, and grouping − theorising from practice o experiential knowledge o reflecting teaching experiences in order to explain, hypothesise about or generalise aspects of foreign language teaching o evaluating one’s teaching o developing principles and a personal teaching philosophy − membership of a community of practice o collaborating with fellow teachers, university colleagues or other school staff o exploring and resolving issues related to workplace practices o achieving shared goals − professionalism o becoming familiar with the standards of the profession o developing professional competence o attaining high standards o continuously and systematically reflecting one’s teaching practices 2. How Do People Learn to Teach? Different Models of Teacher Education − craft model o training on the job (observing and imitating a role model) o demonstration → practice → professional competence − applied science model o applying academic knowledge in teaching practice o knowledge transmitted by experts → application in practice → professional competence  − reflective model o reflecting on one’s own work helps to develop one’s teaching style o students’ experiences have impact on their own teaching style 3. Theorising from Practice: Building up Professional Competence through Reflective Teaching Wallace (1991): Reflective Practice Model of Professional Development trainee’s received existing knowledge PROFESSIONAL conceptual practice reflection COMPETENCE schemata or mental experiental constructs knowledge Stage 1 Stage 2 GOAL (Pre-Training) (Professional education/development) Session 2: History of TEFL and Frameworks 1. Development of ELT Why did people want to learn a foreign language? − marketplace tradition: comes from the need to communicate in everyday and professional life − monastery tradition: primary motivation is anchored in the academic field 2. The Historical Perspective − significance of foreign language teaching is dependent upon (have varied across history and there is no linear story of progress in language teaching and learning) o social interests o economic interests o political interests o cultural interests o academic interests − pertinent topics o the principles of language acquisition and teaching a foreign language o the political decision whether to develop practical language skills only or pursue further educational objectives (e.g. cultural contents) 2.1. The Roman Empire Latin as lingua franca (= a common language used among speakers not sharing a first language) 2.2. Middle Ages Latin: political and legal documents, formal education, central medium of religious service (Bible) 2.3. Renaissance (15th /16th century) Renaissance humanists favoured Greek over Latin 2.4. Early Modern Period (15th-17th century) Two models of FLT − FL as a system o Grammar-Translation Method (= GTM, sample sentences in Latin, teachers explained words and rules of grammar in detail to the students) o only marginally useful for preparing people to engage in trade and business deals − FL for communicative purposes o Comenius (edited the first textbook for Latin with pictures): slow progress is due to systematic approach and instructional material o rather: holistic style of learning (= from simple to more complex issues, from content to form) and the development of multilingual textbooks with pictures and stories o practical communication and knowledge of the language system and study abroad  o principles still valid today 2.5. Role of French (17th to late 19th century) − German upper class admired French aristocracy − French = language of diplomacy, refined culture − did not become lingua franca (too little speakers) 2.6. Spread of English (18th, 19th and 20th century) − English as world language o British Empire (18th/19th century) o global dominance of the US (20th century) − a blessing and a curse (speaking English as a question of power, who speaks and is taught English and who is not?) o key to empowerment (participation in certain discourses) o ‘killer language’: spread, relevance and value of other/indigenous languages) o linguistic and cultural imperialism 3. The International Perspective 3.1. Today − English as the lingua franca (dominates pop culture, the Internet and social media, trade, finance, politics and academia) − which Englishes are used around the world? o Kachru’s model ‘The Three Circles of English’ (1985) ▪ inner circle: US, UK, Canada, … ▪ outer circle: India, Singapore, … ▪ expanding circle: China, Russia, … − English as a life skill − mastering English forms cultural, social and economic capital 3.2. World English and Global English? − local appropriation of English by non-native speakers o problem: how to define common structural, sociolinguistic, and historical-political characteristics in the face of numerous varieties and differences − most important purpose of lingua franca-English: intelligibility − features of standard English often disregarded o pronunciation of the phoneme /th/: /dis/ o inflection of verb in 3rd person singular: he talk o ‘would’ in if-clauses: If she would go, I would go too 4. The National Perspective (Germany) 4.1. 18th Century − English gained some ground in German schools − ELT in schools of urban middle classes − reading English literature and works of philosophy (monastery tradition) − practicing oral communication in English (marketplace tradition) 4.2. 19th Century − three-tiered and class-based system o Volksschule for common people (grades 1-8) o Realschule (grades 5-10) o Gymnasium (grades 5-13) for middle and upper classes − majority of population was not taught any foreign language − English gradually became second modern foreign language o next to French in Realschule o third or fourth option next to Latin and Greek in Gymnasium − Grammar-Translation-Method o language was taught formally (according to the teaching of classical languages) o aims were accuracy (formal correctness) in understanding and profound knowledge of words and grammar o focus: written word and analytical language learning (precise translations) o students should be enabled to read literary and philosophical ‘classics’ o their general education should be supported − reform movement of the late 19th century o Wilhelm Viëtor: ‘Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren!‘ (1882/1905) ▪ against elitist form of higher education ▪ modern languages should be taught as living languages ▪ FL teaching should concentrate on functional skills and oral communication knowledge about the target country (‘Realienkunde’) ▪ grammar teaching: only supportive function ▪ the FL as medium of instruction, simple translations reduced ▪ focus on usability, practicality and functionality 4.3. After World War II − 1964: Hamburger Abkommen (agreement between the federal states, KMK): milestone in English language teaching  − English as a foreign language became a mandatory subject for all students in all secondary schools 5. The Communicative Turn (since 1970s) 5.1. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT, Kommunikativer Fremdsprachenunterricht, 1970s) − Piepho: Kommunikative Kompetenz als übergeordnetes Lernziel im Englischunterricht (1974) − shifted priority from teaching knowledge about language (grammar and words) to performance in language (e.g. listening comprehension and speaking) − how to use words and grammar for different communicative purposes (making requests, giving advice, describing needs, etc.) 5.2. Communicative Competence Canale and Swain (1980): Communicative Competence − four components o grammatical competence (ability to use correct language) o sociolinguistic competence (ability to produce appropriate language) o discourse competence (ability to cohesive and coherent language) o strategic competence (ability to use language effectively) − focus on the learner − the communicative approach has dominated FL teaching ever since: understanding of language as a function rather than a form 6. Reasons for Studying ELT History − gives insight into the constants of FL learning and teaching − contributes to a deeper understanding of the present with its strengths and weaknesses − can sensitise towards new fashions and hypes − increases critical awareness 7. Current Educational Standards and Curricula 7.1. Historical Evolution of Educational Standards Since the mid-19th century − syllabi and guidelines for each school type o as the basis for teaching and learning in EFL classrooms in each of the German states o determined the learning objectives for each school year o listed topics and contents that had to be taught → input-oriented education − several large-scale assessments (PISA, TIMMS, IGLU) o students were lacking problem-solving competences, transfer skills and application knowledge o huge differences among students regarding their competences)  − the Standing Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the German Länder (Kultusministerkonferenz, KMK) developed national educational standards for the intermediate school graduation certificate in 2003 o standards do not specify content, but define competences which students are expected to have attained at certain stages of schooling → output-oriented education o standards are the basis for comparative tests across schools o primary reference resource: Common European Framework of References for Languages (CEFR) ▪ was designed to provide a transparent, coherent, and comprehensive basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses and curriculum guidelines, the design of teaching and learning materials and the assessment of foreign language proficiency 7.2. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) Main Principle promotion of the positive formulation of educational aims and outcome at all levels = can-do statements Aims − promote and facilitate co-operation among educational institutions in different countries − provide a sound basis for the mutual recognition of language qualifications − assist learners, teachers, course designers, examining bodies and educational administrators to situate and co-ordinate their efforts Structure − A1/A2: Basic User − B1/B2: Independent User − C1/C2: Proficient User Impact − shift from input of teaching to output of learning and testing of functional competence − enormous impact on o educational policy making (curricula) o test design (DESI, VERA) o teaching (educational objectives) o academic debates (teacher education) 7.3. Germany: National Education Standards Syllabi − learning objectives for each school year − topics and contents to be taught − input-oriented education Educational Standards − define competences students are expected to have attained at certain stages of schooling − output-oriented education  − backward planning Primary School − a lot of variation with regard to how the states organise early language instruction − consensus in terms of which competences the learners should have achieved at the end of primary education − core objectives: intercultural and communicative competences on an A1/A2 level − learners should be able to understand and produce short, simple spoken and written texts that include familiar words and very simple phrases connecting to students’ lives − learners are supposed to develop methodological competences, for example by observing, documenting, reflecting and assessing their own learning processes Secondary Level I (year 5-10) − students are supposed to build on the basic communicative, intercultural and methodological competences that they have acquired in primary school in order to develop more independent competences that allow them to talk and write about common topics − no matter which school type students choose for their education, they all need to learn English and at least reach the B1 level at the end of year 10 − core objectives: intercultural, communicative and methodological competences on the B1/B2 level Secondary Level II − current world issues and literature are discussed (development of students’ general knowledge) − increasingly complex texts and topics (discourse practices have changed: digitalisation) − core objectives o development of discourse competences = ability to actively, critically and adequately participate in oral and written communication o intercultural, communicative and methodological competences on the B2/C1 level are expected o text and media competences = critically analyse, evaluate and create messages in and with different media and text hypes o language awareness = awareness of power and control through language Lehrplan Plus − lesson needs to be planned accordingly to teaching objectives/learning goal and aims o Fachkompetenz o methodologische Kompetenz o interkulturelle Kompetenz o Text- und Medienkompetenz − cross-curricular educational objectives Criticism − the Bildungsstandards ignore Bildung in the sense of personal growth, orientation, and reflection − the narrow focus on functional communicative skills and testing is detrimental to intercultural and methodological goals − competence comes with little content as if content was less relevant − the descriptors and scales of language proficiency are not always clear and distinct − average standards (Regelstandards) should be changed to minimum standards (Mindeststandards) for weaker learners and maximum standards (Maximalstandards) encouraging best performance − standardisation VS. individualisation VS. differentiation − output standards encourage teaching to the test (backwash = effect of examinations on teaching methods) Session 3: The Learner and Principles 1. Learner Differences − features o age o socio-cultural background o economic capital o gender and sexual orientation o language repertoire o strategic repertoire o experiences o aptitude o affective stage (emotions in the course of acquiring a foreign language, influenced by features such as anxiety or uncertainty tolerance) o attitudes towards (learning) foreign languages o beliefs about language acquisition and favourable conditions of the language classroom o motivation o cognitive style, such as rather analytical or holistic way of approaching problems o special needs (in terms of physical, emotional, mental, or learning development) − note o all these features are complex in themselves o these features are not fixed but can be influenced by teaching o taking these features into account allows drawing practical conclusions with respect to managing specific classrooms − effect of these features on school achievements o hierarchies o unequal chances − implications for us as teachers o Pygmalion effect (self-fulfilling prophecy) o being aware of different backgrounds o diversity should not always be seen as a problem but rather as a challenge and a resource 2. How can we deal with and use diversity in class? − create a safe space (build trust) − give positive/appreciative feedback − cooperative learning (group work) or buddy system (pair work) − creative activities (topics students can relate to)  − project work (intercultural, multilingual, mediation tasks) − diversity as a topic (include different perspectives and sources) − experience-oriented learning − learner orientation (students should also bring their own materials/ideas) o learner orientation in FLT means making language teaching adaptive to the learners by taking into account their individual psychological dispositions (learning styles) and their individual constructions of identity o goal: to foster learner autonomy with respect to its functional and critical aspect − foster autonomous learning (teach learning strategies) 3. Education in the 21st Century: Paradigm Shift Before the 21st Century Since the 21st Century teacher-centred learner-centred product-oriented process-oriented focus on reproduction focus on application knowledge and comprehension analysis and synthesis textbook-driven project-driven receptive and isolated productive and collaborative fragmented curriculum interdisciplinary curriculum teacher assessment self- and peer-assessment homogenising diversifying fragmented literacies multiliteracies 4. Teaching and Learning Approaches and Methods Teacher Orientation Learner Orientation Grammar-Translation Method Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) − teaching the structures of the language − language learning with real-life alone interaction Direct Method Task-Based Language Learning (TBLL) − target language only − real-life and problem-solving tasks − lots of visuals, input by the teacher Audiolingual/Audiovisual Method Collaboratives and Participatory Methods − oral mastery of the language − use of one specific structure at a time − Behaviourism − pattern-drill, no interaction 4.1. Learner Orientation Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) − roots: 1970s (SLA) to 1980s (LL, LT) − paradigm shift in foreign language learning: learning a language by using it actively − highlights real-life interaction as the goal of language learning − input hypothesis: authentic, meaningful and age appropriate − output hypothesis: learners’ output and interaction matter as well (Canale/Swain (1985, 2000): corrective feedback by using and experimenting with language)  − basic principles of CLT o teaching should be oriented around authentic situations of language in use and functional contexts o creating opportunities for learners to interact with others, to focus on meaning and to negotiate meaning (among learners) Task-Based Language Learning (TBLL) − roots: since 1980s − action-oriented − avoid practice of specific forms or phrases, but instead focus on language as a means of communication to solve a problem or to work on a product − involvement (relevant content) − interaction (cooperative learning) − holistic tasks with focus on meaning − process- and product-oriented performances − form/structure is integrated through clarifying feedback or certain activities − scaffolding to help learners work on the task 5. Differentiation and Individualisation 5.1. Definition Differentiation is a pedagogic-didactic response to the heterogeneity of learners in classrooms (challenging the long-held belief that classes are homogenous). Differentiation means that decisions relating to teaching and learning are fine-tuned in such a way that all learners with their individual differences can learn, grow, and develop. Differentiation refers to the adaption of teaching objectives, contents, support, social forms and methods to individual learner needs. It also refers to an approach of teaching which makes use of language learning arrangements which allow students in a classroom to make the best possible progress in relation to their individual pre-knowledge and skills, their cognitive potential and interests. 5.2. Types of Differentiation − external differentiation o differentiation in school types (MS, RS, GYM, Förderschule) o differentiation into courses o differentiation by school profile (sciences, languages, etc.) − internal differentiation o located on the level of didactic decisions made for the classroom (output-orientation: the competences students should develop are important, but how students get there is not prescribed) o teaching the same content/competences while taking individual factors into account → differentiation measures must be based on diagnosis o offers but also requires a high degree of flexibility and openness (autonomy) − individualisation 5.3. Which Elements of Teaching Can Be Differentiated and Individualised? − quantitative differentiation o reduction of activities and material o expansion of activities and material o example: more exercises or tasks for stronger students and less for weaker students − qualitative differentiation o makes the same task more accessible for weaker students o examples: less complex sentences, smaller range of vocabulary, more task and language support − other examples o themes and content o tasks o social arrangements o teaching methods o (amount of) material o media o procedures o learning objectives o product types (as the outcome of a task) o time given o scaffolding resources o level of guidance o assessment o learning strategies o setting and space 5.4. Scaffolding Scaffolding is the planned and intentional provision of linguistic resources. − scaffolding to structure learning opportunities − scaffolding based on text types/genre − mainly a qualitative differentiation measure (it becomes quantitative in view of the amount of scaffolding offered to learners) Session 4: How Languages Are Learned 1. Main Second Language Acquisition Theories 1.1. Behaviourism Definition Language is acquired through a process of imitation and reinforcement. Process − the environment gives the learner a stimulus − the learner responds to this stimulus − the environment then positively reinforces the response or gives negative feedback − this leads to a conditioned habit-formation (after repetition) Audio-Lingual Method (1950s-1970s) − teacher and instruction o teacher as the expert and model o direct instruction o teacher provides input and closely monitors acquisition process − learner o receives, imitates, reproduces input, forms habits o no to little creative language use o input = intake = output − characteristics o pattern drills (said to be effective for acquiring fluency and accuracy o no explicit grammar teaching (considered detrimental to fluency) o controlled practice o focus on accuracy − criticism: overgeneralisation of output 1.2. Innativism (Noam Chomsky) Ideas − languages are not learnt through imitation − input is o insufficiently rich (i.e. children produce more than what they have heard) o degenerate ▪ i.e. full of false starts, slips, fragments etc. so that the child would never be able to work out how the language operates ▪ i.e., does not contain negative evidence (what is not possible to say)  − input, imitation and reinforcement cannot explain why all children learn a complex grammar system → if we restrict research to observable phenomena, we will not understand how language acquisition works − languages are acquired by means of an innate device for language learning (‘nature’ → humans are born with an innate capacity for language acquisition) − Language Acquisition Device (LAD): humans are genetically programmed to use language − UG = Universal Grammar: fundamental set of principles that structures language in general Application to L1 VS. L2 Scenarios − thesis: innate capacity needs to be activated in a critical period until puberty in order to master the L1 well − critical learning period in L2 learning o older learners may advance faster in view of areas such as grammar because most of them have greater competences in abstract thinking and metalinguistic awareness o younger learners have motor organs that are still able to develop and learn new sounds (better pronunciation), may attain better levels of ultimate achievement and are less inhibited (mostly) Weaknesses − does not fully account for the influence of environmental factors on language acquisition − does not account for individual differences in language acquisition − does not explain how adult second language learners are able to acquire language 1.3. Constructivism Ideas − humans perceive and interpret the world in very different ways, i.e. humans construct their own realities − learning is o construction of knowledge o a highly subjective/individual process − knowledge structures differ significantly between individuals − learner is understood as a self-referential, autonomous system − learning means adapting actions, concepts, and language in order to make them viable − teachers cannot teach anybody anything in the sense of handing down knowledge but then can rather offer authentic material, tasks, and support o individual disruption and reflection o novice: aims at processing data (trial and error) o advanced learner: aims at interpretation (searches for strategies that work) − but: too much complexity and uncertainty may frustrate learners (resistance rather than personal interest and effort) Method − teacher and instruction o meaningful interaction between learners but not necessarily between learner and teacher o teacher provides rich learning environment, arrangement and authentic material  o teacher as a guide on the side and a moderator o interaction, cooperation and collaboration rather than instruction − learner o cognitive processor o actively involved in constructing knowledge o autonomous, self-referential individual − role of the L1: major but only if it has the potential to elicit meaningful interaction, provides background and general language skills Weaknesses − lack of structure − limited attention to form − lack of accountability: focus on the process and not on the final product 1.4. Input Hypothesis (Krashen) Ideas − input: the only thing that matters for successful learning → comprehensible input − i+1: input that is slightly beyond students’ current level of proficiency (some new forms without having students be lost/overwhelmed) − affective filter: the emotional factors that can affect language acquisition o if learners are anxious, stressed, or unmotivated, their affective filter may be high → can block the intake of comprehensible input and impede language acquisition o if learners are relaxed, engaged, and motivated, their affective filter may be low → can facilitate language acquisition Example: listening to a podcast slightly above your level of comprehension − you may not understand everything − but enough to progress − over time: gradual improvement 1.5. Output Hypothesis (Canal and Swain) Ideas − output is needed for hypothesis testing − importance of corrective feedback Example: practicing with a language partner by describing a picture − noticing knowledge gaps while producing (or failing to produce) language (e.g. past tense) − improvement through feedback and further active practice 1.6. Interaction Hypothesis (Long) Ideas − language acquisition through a combination of innate abilities and environmental influences  − children are born with a capacity for language, but this capacity must be activated and developed through social interaction with caregivers and other speakers of their language − importance of joint attention, turn-taking and feedback in language learning − opportunities for experimentation via face-to-face interaction − trial and error (am I being understood?) Weaknesses − does not fully account for the role of individual differences in language acquisition − can be difficult to apply in classroom settings with large groups of learners − may not be effective for learners who are not comfortable with social interaction 2. Errors and Rules in the Learner’s Developing Interlanguage Definition Overgeneralisation Overgeneralisation refers to the phenomenon that language learners who have applied a certain grammar rule ‘overuse’ it by applying it to all contexts even when there are exceptions from that rule. Example: overgeneralisation of the past-ed-morpheme also for irregular verbs Assumptions of Foreign Language Learning (FLL) − psycholinguists: language learning = gradual development within the mind of the learner (L1 and L2) − individual learners need to build up their own knowledge system and language awareness − learners have to be developmentally ready to notice and process new linguistic structures of the foreign language → developmental path − learners move from an initial state of (their version of) the target language to (ideally) a target-like use → interlanguage Interlanguage Development The learner moves along a continuum in a continual process of hypothesis formation and hypothesis testing while acquiring new elements of the target language and integrating them into the developing interlanguage (language- like state between native language and target language); non-target like elements of the interlanguage can only be corrected and improved if the learner is developmentally ready. The development of a learner’s interlanguage has been seen to follow a predictable path, whose stages cannot be skipped. 3. Importance for Teachers − make adequate choices of methods based on the individuals in your class − adapt syllabi in a way that is conductive to language learning − understand the role of errors (what should the consequences be?) Session 5: Receptive Competences Reading, Listening and Viewing 1. Communication as a Process: The 4 Skills 1.1. Process of Reading Basic Information − while reading, we decode letters, words, sentences, and other language features in the text (bottom-up processing) − meaningful sentences → we can read them more quickly and we memorise them more easily than single letters or words − skilled readers can construct meaning without considering every single letter but rather the unit − context knowledge makes understanding a text easier − general world knowledge can be applied more easily − we combine information from the text and previous knowledge in order to understand the text (top-down processing) Different Types of Knowledge Working Together − linguistic/systemic knowledge: dealing with language itself o syntactic knowledge: the position of words within a sentence gives a hint as to what type of word it might be (e.g. verb or noun) o morphological knowledge: affixation (prefixation and suffixation) o semantic knowledge: knowledge of the co-text − schematic knowledge: enabling a reader to work with the language of the text in order to interpret its meaning o general world knowledge and/or sociocultural knowledge o topic knowledge o genre knowledge Common Ways of Reading and Reading Strategies silent reading to understand the meaning of the text most frequent way of reading in everyday life a student reading out an unknown text frequently done in FLC but often underestimated in its difficulties − focusing on the grapheme-phoneme relation the student may not get the meaning − it requires anticipatory decoding of meaning and text structure to adapt intonation and body language the teacher reading out a text good way of demonstrating how to read out in terms of pronunciation, fluency, nonverbal signs corresponding to what is read as well as the relevance of the structure of the text (dialogue, poetry, manual) for how it is read out a student reading out a familiar text − often used to prove the student’s reading skill − to promote the understanding of a text or as a way of pointing out text passages when discussing a text − depends on the context of the task if it can be considered didactically useful skimming going over a text, looking for its general meaning or central information scanning going over a text, looking for specific information holisitic reading − reading a text in its entirety, notwithstanding some unknown words or structures − should be trained in order to avoid the impression that texts are only read in order to introduce vocabulary or grammar, instead encouraging them to read despite words they do not know intensive reading reading very closely for every detail reading along − helps to get an impression of how you spell what is being read out − this way of reading is not much used in everyday life proof reading advanced way of reading as it requires a distanced review of your own writing error spotting reading for the mistakes of others fast reading useful way of reading, required and to be trained when, e.g., reading subtitles extensive reading to show how much the students can already read in a foreign language literary reading aesthetic reading, comprising more than just the lines of the text (the structure of the text, the readers, their interpretation, the author, the context of its production and reception…) 1.2. Process of Listening Real-Life Listening − conversations/discussions − instructions  − loudspeaker announcements − radio news/podcasts/audiobooks − music − telephone chat − voice messages − lesson/lecture − watching television/films/audiovisual texts − story-telling Listening Situations − listening to public announcements (information, instructions, warnings) − listening to media (radio, TV, internet/youtube, cinema, computer games) − listening as a member of a live audience (public meetings, public lectures, entertainments, concerts, theatre) − listening to other speakers in conversations and discussions Listening Goals − for main information (gist) − for specific information − for detailed understanding − for implications − for pleasure → learners need specific listening tasks → learners need to know about the purpose of their listening (focus on relevant content) → listening should be taught, not mainly tested How should we teach Reading and Listening in class? − make reading and listening a habit: encourage extensive reading and listening which will lead to recognising bigger chunks (also from the context) − give students reading time in class (to lower anxiety) − students should also be able to choose the text they would like to read or listen to (address their interests, give them a wider range of texts, including picture books/comics/podcasts…) − teach linguistic aspects (syntax, grammar, vocabulary) − teach genre knowledge and provide your learners with different texts − select texts suitable for the learners, linguistically and in terms of topic and world knowledge so they can relate to the topic − provide background knowledge and activate schematic knowledge (see above) that is already there (pre- reading/listening activities) − develop strategies (to infer meaning from context, to use helps such as dictionaries or keeping a vocab book) and reading/listening strategies specifically  − promote positive reading − link literature with audio books and movies − post-reading/listening activities (process-oriented way of teaching) → personal reactions to a text, critical reading/listening − different interpretations should be possible 1.3. Reading and Listening as Interactive Processes Bottom-Up Processing − data-driven − process of decoding letters, words and other language features in a text Top-Down Processing − knowledge-driven − application of prior knowledge when trying to understand a text o cognitive schemata: knowledge about how things normally are, e.g. school life, families, hobbies o social scripts: mental structures about conventionalised routine situations and the associated forms of behaviour they require 1.4. Designing Reading and Listening Tasks Strategy − first: aim o What do I want my students to do? o Which aims do I want them to achieve? o Which aspects of reading do I want to foster? − then: select a reading strategy − also important o pre-reading tasks: preparing the reading process o while-reading tasks: accompanying the reading process o post-reading tasks: evaluating the reading process Structuring and Planning Reading How can we support students? − teach and develop strategies o to prepare reception (reading instructions carefully) o to facilitate reception process (asking questions to the text) o to process what was received (taking notes in view of guiding questions) o to compensate lack of understanding (eliciting meaning from context)  o to improve memory (processing notes to cluster) o to prepare language production/speaking (developing a structure) Bottom-Up Processing Tasks − tasks for extracting general, specific or detailed information − employing reading strategies explicitly o deciphering the meaning of unknown words from context o focus on individual lexical items to reconstruct a text, e.g. for its sequence of events − visually capturing text elements, e.g. the time and place − encouraging word recognition through ‘flash exercises’ − segmenting a sentence into units of meaning − examples o task ideas for skimming ▪ based on a quick look at the text, decide on the text genre ▪ make a list of keywords that reappear in the text without reading the text in detail ▪ after skimming the text, students choose an option out of four that summarises the text best o task ideas for scanning ▪ letter box: find as many words as you can that are related to the topic summer ▪ read a text about last weekend’s soccer games and find the result of Tottenham Hotspur against Manchester United ▪ read the text about the latest blizzard in Canada and find out whether Winnipeg was hit as well ▪ read a number of recipes and find the one that uses beef and eggplants Top-Down Processing Tasks − activating prior knowledge (world/situation/genre/topic) before reading/listening to a text − formulate one’s own questions about a text based on title, topic, images, headlines or captions (staged process: image first → speculating on the title, title → speculating on key topics…) − reconstructing what a text could be about by giving key terms or expressions from the text − silent viewing of a film clip (sound off): speculate on the mood, emotions and setting Interactive Processing: Reciprocal Reading − questioning: read the passage aloud to the members of your group, ask questions about unclear parts, puzzling information or anything that could be misunderstood − summarising: briefly summarise the content of the passage which has just been read aloud, try using your own words − clarifying: ask the members of your group to explain what certain words/chunks mean or how they are pronounced correctly − predicting: make predictions, imagine how the story could continue − the process is repeated with each following paragraph and the next person Session 6: Productive Competences – Speaking 1. Communication Problems − lack of knowledge of pronunciation (I love you is pronounced I laugh you) − lack of knowledge of language (grammar, vocabulary, set phrases) − lack of knowledge of the functions of language, discourse patterns, register (informal language when it should be formal) − lack of knowledge of cultural and social rules and norms, speech situation knowledge (answer to the question how are you: good, fine) 2. How Does Speaking Work? 3. Challenges and Solutions when Teaching Speaking 3.1. Challenges − lack of vocabulary − problems with pronunciation − inhibition (learners are often worried about making mistakes, afraid of criticism, shy of other’s attention)  − lack of time − lack of practice − lack of creativity − low or uneven participation − different levels of speaking competence 3.2. Solutions − teaching speaking strategies: paraphrasing, using body language, intonation, code-switching (games like Activity/Taboo can help) − creating a positive atmosphere: welcoming mistakes, building trust − planning phrases with tolerance of mistakes (not too many interruptions, focus on fluency, not always accuracy) − giving time to conceptualise (Think, Pair, Share) − using a variety of speaking activities − using a model text/doing a brainstorming − pair or group work/activities like the round robin − learner orientation (language level, topic) − creating meaningful tasks (simulations, project work) − providing learners with language support (empowering students) − developing the willingness to speak and the ability to speak 3.3. Problems in the Classroom − the speaking process is complex o speaking involves encoding (conceptualising and formulating), verbalising (articulation), monitoring o speaking needs a context, a cause and occasion, an intention, meaningful content, emotions, gestures, body language, etc. − up to 30% of students do not speak in class − average amount of speaking: less than a minute (one-word-answers, fragments) 3.4. Teaching Speaking − teachers have to prepare the students for different kinds of oral production o producing an oral text for one or more listeners: speaking from notes, acting out a rehearsed scene o spoken interaction: conversation, debate, interview o oral mediation: summarising and paraphrasing texts, informal interpreting for visitors − purposes of speaking o interactional: engaging in direct social interaction with a strong focus on building a relationship (small talk, conversations) o transactional: conveying and receiving information, e.g. in a speech or when ordering in a restaurant − dual status of the target language in class: learning object and main medium of communication  − form-focused interaction in class vs. spontaneous interaction outside of school − highly conventionalised and routinised communicative units (IRF = teacher initiation, learner response, teacher follow-up/feedback VS. confrontation with less predictable communicative settings) 4. Speaking as a Negotiation of Meaning − when interacting with one another, meaning is not simply transferred, but it is negotiated − in this process of negotiation of meaning (is at the heart of language development), speakers try to reach a clear understanding of each other 5. Parameters of a Genuine Speaking Situation − persons: who is talking to whom − relationship of the interlocutors − knowledge the interlocutors have of one another (common experiences) − the interlocutors’ common knowledge of the topic − topic: complexity, familiarity − communication motive − emotions: individual involvement − urgency of the message − place: where does the conversation take place − speaker’s intent: discourse strategy − time: when does the conversation take place − level of language skills − non-verbal signals: facial expressions, gestures, body language − action continuum: actions during the conversation − presence of certain objects − medium: phone, face-to-face, interactive − degree of privacy: intimate, group, media − degree of obligation 6. Teaching Speaking to Different Learner Groups Young Learners − playful, often using songs, games, and role-play − varied practice with a strong element of repetition − offer opportunity to experiment with language: input that focuses on verbs and structure words, not just on nouns − strong focus on pronunciation is important, as errors in pronunciation are prone to fossilisation − principles for developing speaking skills in the primary classroom o find a balance between listening and speaking  o use English as a means of communication in the classroom o present new language using gestures, mime and action o encourage learners to interact spontaneously and give them support to get their message across Advanced Learners: use real-life type of speaking − telling a joke − greeting a passing colleague − making a phone enquiry − chatting with a friend − explaining medical problems to a doctor − negotiating a sale − giving street directions − making a presentation − communicating live online during an Internet game − explaining a grammatical point Speaking Activities for Different Stages − awareness-raising activities: listening to scripted, semi-scripted or authentic recordings while focussing on features of spoken language (e.g. organisation, socio-cultural aspects, topic, performance effects, communication strategies, speech acts, discourse markers, features of spoken grammar and vocabulary, stress and intonation) − appropriation activities: practice with less and less control by the teacher and peers (e.g. starting with chants, writing as preparation for speaking, reading aloud, flow-diagram conversations and dialogues with assisted performance and scaffolding) − fostering automaticity and autonomy: tasks with minimal teacher assistance under real operating conditions (e.g. academic presentations, drama, role-plays and simulations, discussions and debates outside of class speaking) Methods to Increase the Individual Speaking Time of Students − coherent speaking o dramatic reading o talking about pictures, drawings and other creatives o story-telling o 1-minute or book and movie presentations (group and partner work) o other cooperative methods: TPS, round robin, 4 corners, … − participating in conversations o dialogues: dialogues with a framework (model dialogues) o talking while walking o interviews: tandem work, information-gaps, job interviews o class surveys o cooperative methods: TPS, round robin, 4 corners, discussions, role play Session 7: Productive Competences – Writing and Mediating 1. Different Kinds of Writing 1.1. Real-Life − writing to others/social writing (emails, letters, invitation cards, text messages) − personal writing (shopping lists, reminders, recipes, diaries, blogs, …) − official/public writing (enquiries, complaints, forms, applications, exams) − study writing (essays, term papers) − institutional writing (agendas, minutes, CVs) − creative writing (stories, poems, songs) 1.2. English Classes − copying − playful writing (hangman) − filling in blanks − personal writing (portfolio) − social writing (letter) − official writing (complaint, CV) − creative writing (speech bubbles, jokes, stories) − dictations − summaries − interpretations → discrepancy: writing to communicate with others vs. writing to or for the teacher 2. Implications for Teaching Writing − bring in motivation and feelings − consider pragmatic aspects: orientation towards everyday writing, real audiences, actual communication, use of technology − use different forms of writing: informative, emotive, argumentative, describing, reporting, justifying, taking a stand, creative writing, … 2.1. Teaching Writing as a Competence − competences needed o textual competence: knowledge of text types and genres, their inner structure, typical words and phrases (chunks) you can find in these genres and the context they are used in (+ cultural knowledge) o linguistic competence: vocabulary, semantics, syntax o rhetorical competence: style, metaphors, structure o writing strategies: brainstorming, drafting, organising thoughts, editing, … o motivation  − focus not only on product, but on the process of writing o planning (collecting ideas) o drafting (focus on fluency, organising ideas) o (1st) writing (attention to text genre, restructuring) o revising and editing (re-examining whole texts or parts of it, checking on language, including responses of peers and teacher) o (2nd) writing (final version) − types of writing o written interaction: email, letter of complaint, … o written production: essay, analysis, story, … o written mediation: written transfer of a particular source text into a shared language 2.2. Approaches to Develop Writing Competence Process-based Approach − focus on the steps of writing − writing as a process − acknowledges that texts are created gradually, form brainstorming ideas to final editing − key concern o how do writers create good texts? o procedural aspect of writing − method o planning or pre-writing ▪ generating ideas: mind maps, think pair share, sample texts, … ▪ getting into the mood or habit of writing ▪ ideas and phrases are structured and selected, focus on topic or task ▪ wh-questions o drafting ▪ get ideas into a linear order, consider the implied reader or audience ▪ overall composition of the texts and arrangement of single phrases and ideas ▪ text genre ▪ encourage students to experiment with different drafts and versions o revising and editing ▪ usually builds on responses or assessments by peers or the teacher ▪ consider content ▪ consider style, grammar, lexis, spelling, punctuation, diction, sentence structure, development of argument ▪ re-examine parts of the text or the whole text Genre/Text-based Approach − focus on the product of writing by examining the formal surface elements and discourse structure of sample texts, and putting them into practice when writing a genre − particularly effective when working with standardised texts (applications, newspaper articles, postcards) − highly explicit (the end product is the primary focus) − key concern o what makes a good text? o declarative knowledge − method o helping students to identify their writing needs o building awareness of discourse organisation o helping students to develop crafting skills o enabling students to apply criteria of an effective text Creative Approach − moves beyond purely utilitarian objectives of language use − stresses creativity, expressive writing, aesthetics, feeling for language, imagination, experimentation − important for learners to express personally relevant meanings − often genre as a starting point − method o improvisation o feeling for language o fantasy o open tasks o unconventional products 3. Mediation − makes communication possible between persons who are unable to communicate with each other directly − transferring information between individuals with no common language (different mediums possible) − interpreting and communicating by paraphrasing the most relevant information for a particular audience (not word by word, only information that is relevant for the addressee and in the situation) − usually speakers of different languages − potentially adding (cultural) information that not all participants in the conversation have Session 8: Vocabulary and Grammar 1. Teaching Words 1.1. Building Lexical Knowledge: Knowing a Word dimension types of example difficulty comment example knowledge involved meaning knowing the core read = lesen synonyms, semantic handy, to meaning and (entnehmen, antonyms, interference become additional wahrnehmen), false friends because of meanings interpretieren, phonological deuten, Lesart similarities form knowing about read / read, to be spelling, one sound in be, bee, spelling, reading word stress English can meat, pronunciation, have many police, key, word stress, different quay, morphology, spellings Phoenix colligations use collocations, proofread, to have collocation, knowing to watch register, semantic a read of sth., to degree of collocations is (not see) range, context be a good read, to formality very complex TV read sb.’s palm 1.2. Criteria for knowing a word 1. Do I recognise a word when it is spoken and written, incl. derivations? 2. Do I know the grammatical features of the word? (occur, occurring, occurred etc.) 3. Do I know the syntactic characteristics of the word? 4. Am I able to use the word spontaneously? 5. Am I able to pronounce the word so that my partner understands it? 6. Do I know the differences to words with a similar meaning? (first aid vs. *first help) 7. Am I aware of the connotation or emotional meaning of the word? 8. Do I know the semantic field of a word or at least highly frequent meanings? 9. Am I able to spell the word? 10. Do I know the register of the word? 1.3. Types of Knowledge Declarative Knowledge − the what: know how words are used and how they relate to other words − syntagmatic relations: collocations, … − paradigmatic relations: synonyms, antonyms, super-/subordinate terms, … Procedural Knowledge − the how: application process − memorisation  − lexical gap: inferencing, consult dictionary or expert, ignore, … − retrieval 1.4. What Lexis Is Worth Learning? − frequency of use − coverage − range − availability − learnability − opportunism or usefulness − learners’ interests 1.5. Strategies of Explaining Unknown Words − background knowledge/socio-cultural knowledge/topic knowledge (contextualisation) − functions, situations (description of usage) − characteristics of a word/linguistic knowledge (grammar, word class, how to use the word) − from general knowledge to specific knowledge − importance of waiting time (process) 1.6. Word Storage − words are stored systematically in our minds o phonologically o semantically o conceptually by association − the mental lexicon is part of the long-term memory (linguistic knowledge and culturally influenced world knowledge) − different kinds of association between words are established o clang/sound associations: words are stored closely together because of their phonological similarity (example: reflect/effect) o paradigmatic associations: words are grouped in the same word classes, e.g. synonyms, antonyms, derivations, compounds (examples: pass away/die, hot/cold, im/possible, whiteboard) o syntagmatic associations: words of different word classes are linked syntactically in collocations or lexical chunks, e.g. adjective-noun pairs, verb-noun pairs, collocations, idioms (examples: heavy traffic, ride a bicycle, the line is busy, to kick the bucket) − multiple encodings of a word (example: summer) o abstract: the opposite of winter o visual: mental images of beach life o auditory: a summer song o tactile: applying sunscreen  o affective: what we like to do in summer o extended according to personal experience: summer in a specific country o further information: noun o referring to a word field, word family of words with a similar meaning: summertime, summer breeze − how to teach new words o teach words in semantic context: words should be embedded in a meaningful context (do not just provide single word input) o teach chunks: support learners in developing fluency, learners should produce language without having to focus on grammar (lexico-grammatical approach) o employ different explanation (see encodings) and learning techniques: movement, pictures, sounds, etc. (multimodal representation) o help students to establish connections between words (e.g. mindmaps) o what to teach when teaching a new word ▪ meaning: core meaning and additional meanings ▪ form: pronunciation, spelling, grammar ▪ use: context, register, semantic range, constraints of use 1.7. Different Phases for Teaching and Learning Vocabulary Input − new words should be presented by pointing out and using different language properties (sounds, orthography, grammar) in a way that different learners with different preferences are able to take in the new lexis − methods: different verbal and non-verbal explanation techniques o definition/explanation o subordination o antonym/synonym o derivation o compound o equation o part-of the-whole o pictures o pointing o realia (everyday items that are used to teach the new lexis) o facial expression o gestures/pantomime o translation o graphic/phonic o similarity to first language Storage/Consolidation − help students structure and store language material: the better words are organised in the learners’ mental lexicon, the easier it will be for them to access and retrieve the words − strategies: teach strategies and different ways of learning vocabulary o mnemonics (visualisation, rhymes, storytelling) o different kinds of vocabulary work (grouping lexical items, word webs, word grids, vocabulary books, index cards, vocab app, etc.) o encourage the storage in chucks (when learning about pets, learners do not just learn the discrete items – dog, rabbit –, instead they also learn them in larger chunks and phrases to be able to use them in a meaningful context, e.g. ‘I like/don’t like dogs because…’; ‘My pet has got black/… eyes’; ‘Her favourite food is grass/…’; ‘My dog is bigger/… than yours.’) o train lexical inferencing (finding out words through context) o teach the effective use of dictionaries Retrieval − repeat vocabulary, design tasks that allow intensive language use and the restructuring of words − lexical items need to be embedded and used in meaningful communication (CLT) − methods o games o tell or write stories o dialogues o poems o role plays 1.8. Assessment: Testing Correct Use − gap texts (practicing syntagmatic connections) − don’t ask for translations, but definitions, paraphrases, drawings, etc. − have students write a free short story with the new lexis 1.9. A New Approach: Lexico-Grammar − breaking down the split between vocabulary teaching on the one hand and grammar teaching on the other hand − recognising that each word has its own grammatical profile and is embedded in a network of grammatical patterns and relations (example: good) o good – better – the best o to be good at + noun / to be good at + V-ing − conclusion: lexis and grammar must not always be separated (learners must become familiar with specific grammatical patterning of individual words and how they combine with other words (lexical chunks)) 2. Teaching Grammar 2.1. Definitions and Roles of Grammar − words in discourse are held together by grammar, which in turn largely depends on sets or words or phrases that are frequently used with them − grammar and vocabulary are intrinsically linked − grammar can be conceptualised as patterns of language through which meaning is created and shared → form-function relationships of grammar 2.2. Teaching and Learning Grammar: Key Terms of Different Kinds of Instruction non-interventionist position on grammar teaching interventionist position on grammar teaching (implicit) (explicit) − comprehensible input − explicit focus on discrete grammatical − learners form hypotheses (similar to L1) features (e.g. tenses, conditionals, …) − strong version of CLT (immersion − PPP (presentation, practice, production) programmes) − focus on form  reactive proactive − grammatical structure comes into focus − teachers prepare instructional materials only if the need arises that facilitate the elicitation of a grammatical structure − planned instruction of specific grammatical phenomena − often associated with PPP paradigm (presentation, practice, production) inductive deductive − teacher presents language examples first − teacher presents grammar rule first and and learners are supposed to discover the learners form examples of the new grammar rules grammar rule to practice its application − example → rule − rule → example − function → form − form → function − discovery learning − rule-driven learning − example: TBLT − example: PPP 2.3. The PPP Model stage explanation examples presentation − learners are exposed to a a text or dialogue is presented new language item (e.g. which contains numerous the simple past) examples of the simple past − the new item is explained and the rules are presented practice learners are provided with drills or gap-filling exercises, opportunities to practice the where learners are asked to fill in selected grammatical items in the correct simple past forms controlled ways production learners use the form more or learners are supposed to talk or less freely in communicative write about an event where they activities are required to use the simple past 2.4. Focus on Form in TBLL/TBLT − activities and lessons that are mainly based on meaning and communication (‘real-world tasks’) − draws students’ attention to linguistic structures that arise incidentally or that are needed to solve the task (several grammatical patterns can appear at once – no linear and isolated progression) − teacher helps students to notice the grammatical feature(s) and engages them in constructing language with the feature(s) − planned FonF (meaning-centred with a pre-determined focus) vs. incidental FonF (‘learning-by-opportunity’) 2.5. Conclusion: Principles of Modern Lexico-Grammar Teaching − teaching grammar and lexis together − working from lexis to grammar − inductive and explorative approaches to create language awareness through noticing new grammatical features  − formalising and contextualising new grammatical features: formal and functional focus/form-function relationships − examples of authentic language use − combine form/accuracy-focused with meaning/fluency-focused activities (deductive and inductive, no either-or-approach) − providing in-depth processing of grammatical and lexical features 2.6. Conclusion: Principles of Communicative Grammar Teaching − fostering communicative competences: command of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and orthography of a language − fostering language awareness: explicit knowledge of the structures and functions of a language − pupils must learn grammar rules but as a primary goal the must be able to use grammar for communication − communicative grammar teaching aims at both − overall aim: understanding and mastering communication (not understanding and mastering grammar as such) Session 9: Teaching Culture 1. Concepts of Culture − culture as an iceberg: a model of intercultural didactics − three dimensions of culture (Roland Posner) o mental culture: codes (ideas, values, conventions) o social culture: code users (individuals, society, social groups, institutions) o material culture: texts (texts and other artefacts) 2. What is Culture? − then o culture as a trait (unchangeable) o culture as a nation (Germans, Americans, etc.) o culture with a ‘C’ (‘high culture’, products → shaped by education, academic positions, taste, etc.) o culture can be studied (recipes for dealing with people from certain cultures → people seen as a pars pro toto) − now o culture as a state (open, dynamic, fluid, hybrid) o culture is not bound to arbitrary national borders o culture with a ‘c’ (subcultures, youth culture, pop culture, values, symbol systems, perceptions, social institutions, etc.) o culture can be observed (people are still individuals → collective cultural identity and individual identity) − classroom importance: make cultures accessible to the students and make them understand that cultures are complex and heterogeneous 3. From Landeskunde to ICC 3.1. Discontent between the 1960s and 1970s − Culture: elitist and normative understanding of culture, the works of high art, music, literature − culture: daily life (culture as ‘signifying practices’), pop culture 3.2. Landeskunde/Regional Studies (late 19th Century) − nationalistic − cognitive, knowledge oriented − teaching ‘useful facts’ − knowledge about English-speaking countries (history, politics, geography, institutions, food, etc.) − studying a foreign culture from the point of ‘us’ and our culture (separation of us and them) 3.3. Shift from Landeskunde to Intercultural Learning (1980s) − communicative competence must be included as well → intercultural communicative competence − ability to communicate and interact with people who speak a different language and come from a different cultural background − Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICCC): intercultural competence and communicative competence o intercultural learning: the process towards mastering ICC o aim: the intercultural speaker (instead of a near-native speaker) 3.4. Intercultural Communicative Competence − prefix ‘inter’: between (separate) cultures − sharing information and negotiating meaning across different cultural and social groups − awareness of our own cultural imprint and of the foreign cultural imprint (dialectic between ‘self’ and ‘other’) − ability to interpret and understand other cultures in a process that is called de-centring (Byram) − engaging with ‘other cultures’ in respectful and empathetic ways (without fully abandoning or losing one’s own cultural imprint) 4. Intercultural Learning − understanding another culture involves understanding another belief system (not just another language) − Byram’s influential five-dimensional model of ICC o knowledge dimension ▪ knowledge about social groups and their cultures in one’s own country, and similar knowledge of the interlocutor’s country ▪ knowledge of the processes of interaction at individual and societal level ▪ conscious and emblematic knowledge (e.g. overt meanings such as dress or modes of greeting) ▪ factual knowledge of facts and figures (previously Landeskunde)  ▪ relativity of cultural knowledge: the same cultural event may be known differently in C1 and in C2 o skill dimensions ▪ interpreting and relating applied to documents in the widest possible sense: all sorts of text types, but also (in principle) to other signifying practices or events that can be ‘read’ and ‘interpreted’ relating a document from the target culture to a similar document from the source culture ▪ discovering and interacting involves concrete social interaction or staying or living in a foreign cultural context the skill of discovery is the ability to recognise significant phenomena in a foreign environment and to elicit their meanings and connotations establishing relationships, being a mediator between people of different origins and identities drawing on existing cultural and linguistic competences to keep a communicative interaction alive o attitudinal dimension ▪ attitudes of curiosity and openness, of readiness to suspend disbelief and judgement with respect to others’ meanings, beliefs and behaviours ▪ a willingness to suspend belief in one’s own meanings and behaviours, and to analyse them from the viewpoint of the others with whom one is engaging ▪ complex interplay: the ability to decentre, i.e. to challenge and relativise the norms one has been socialised into, and to open up to new cultural norms one encounters o culminating dimension: critical cultural awareness ▪ the sum of the other four dimensions ▪ to evaluate critically cultural products and practices ▪ the ability to stand back from our own cultural imprint and become aware of our own cultural values, beliefs and perceptions as culture-specific (rather than universally true) in view of ‘other’ cultural imprints and other cultural values, beliefs and perceptions ▪ requires to coordinate and change perspectives ▪ to overcome ethnocentrism (belief that the own cultural position is always considered superior, the other cultural position inferior) ▪ to be critical of cultural relativism (to not unconditionally accept the alleged righteousness of foreign cultural practices (e.g. unethical practices)  − aim: intercultural speaker o has acquired the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes which allow him or her to manage intercultural encounters or solve intercultural conflicts o has acquired ‘critical cultural awareness’ (generally aware of how an intercultural situation and the way participants communicate may be influenced by their cultural identities and backgrounds) 5. Methods of Teaching and Developing ICC − cultural readings of literature, film, images and non-fictional texts as carrier of cultural content or information − critical incidents o a critical incident is a presentation of a typical situation where representatives of different cultures interact with each other and misunderstandings, confusions or conflicts occur o aims: theoretical knowledge about different cultures, dismantling of stereotypes, cultural sensibility − role plays − simulation games − face-to-face or virtual/online encounters 6. Criticism of ICC − frame of reference/cultures and self are diverse, heteronomous, dynamic, fluid, etc. due to migration, cultural (ex)change, global exchange of information and goods, international cooperation − focus on ‘self’ and ‘other’ can lead to stereotypes − tension/discrepancy between individual and collective identities − intersectionality of markers of identity 7. Transculturality and Hybridity − transculturality describes cultural complexity, the dynamics of cultural change, internal differentiation and interconnectedness of cultures − cultures are heterogeneous and multicultural − cultures share certain characteristics (e.g. music, fashion, etc.) − multiplicity and diversity of lifestyles in a society lead to multiple identifications of individuals = transcultural identities (individual can identify with multiple cultural and collective groups that cut through traditional cultural boundaries), relevance of sub-cultures 8. Global Issues, Global Learning, Global Education − aims to promote students’ knowledge and awareness of world peoples, countries, cultures and issues − enabling young people to become responsible global citizens − actively take part in shaping a better future in the world − intercultural learning, peace studies, environmental education, human rights education − focus on international themes and global issues − examples o Where do my sneakers come from? o Where does the food in our supermarkets come from? o How are my decisions connected to mechanisms of global economy, working conditions (of textile workers in Asia), and environmental issues? 8.1. Global Education: Five-Dimensional Model of ICC Knowledge − world people, countries, cultures − world problems, causes, solutions Attitudes − worldmindedness − curiosity − cultural respect − empathy Skills − communication − critical thinking − problem solving − multiple perspectives Action − personal involvement for a better world 8.2. Education for Sustainable Development − knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that empower students o to contribute to sustainable development o to reflect on their own actions, considering their current and future social, cultural, economic and environmental impacts, from a local and a global perspective 9. 9 Principles of Cultural Learning 1. from knowledge transfer to acquiring cultural competence 2. from canonical knowledge to exemplary knowledge 3. from outside perspective to multi-perspectival approach 4. from culture to cultures 5. toward a holistic approach: integrating culture and language learning 6. representing cultures via various texts and media 7. considering balanced representations 8. from teacher orientation to student orientation: focus learning on learners as cultural agents who bring their voices to discourse and always co-create culture 9. from transmitting cultural knowledge to discovering, understanding, sharing culture Session 10: Literature and Film 1. Why should we use Literature in ELT? Primary School − knowledge of different genres − new words in short texts − reading competence (comprehension) − fostering creativity − motivation − build self-confidence − listening to stories − speaking Secondary School (Mittel- und Realschule) − improve critical thinking − communicative competences − authentic language input − getting to know diverse perspectives (insights into different cultures) − develop empathy − fostering creativity − expressing thoughts and feelings Secondary School (Gymnasium) − cultural knowledge − exposition to non-standard forms of English − fostering analytical skills 2. Why do we teach Literature? − motivation − reading skills as discussed in the reading session − functional communicative competences: reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing − authentic communication: encouraging questions, reactions, statements − literary/visual competence: how different texts function, genre- and media-specific knowledge which can also be fostered by letting students produce their own texts − affective/emotional learning − critical thinking − social competence when negotiating meaning − intercultural understanding (change of perspective, empathy, tolerance)  − no curriculum that restricts teachers in their choice of texts − chance: rethink canon and explore different genres and media (graphic narratives, audiobooks…) and literature by women, teens/young adult writers, earlier writers, writers from other national or ethnic literatures,... 3. What texts should we teach? Literature for All Ages − beginners o rhymes o songs o picture books o fairy tales − intermediate classes o short stories o poems o comics − advanced students o short stories o novels o plays o poems o graphic narratives Literature Everywhere − in the classroom o reading corner o classroom/school library o internet/mobile reading − outside of the classroom o independent study at home o public places o internet/mobile reading 4. Criteria for Text Selection − texts and films should be o manageable in length and difficulty o interesting, engaging, motivating and appealing to students o authentic and ideally also representative (with regard to the depiction of cultural phenomena)  o adequate in terms of topic and age group − texts should o be thought-provoking o add to a representation of diverse voices o enable active, creative and critical reflections o allow students to develop literary competences 4.1. Primary School − pleasure in rhythm, rhyming, harmony, (nonsense) stories, physical activity and singing − interest in unusual and exciting stories o playful repetition and performance o vivid story-telling with the help of Big Books o holistic response o lexical, narrative, and visual understanding o describing and talking about pictures and stories, reenacting scenes 4.2. Intermediate Learners − life-long readers − various topics and genres − original texts − graded readers, simplified versions (adaptations of original texts and classics) − meaningful communication and interaction 4.3. Advanced Learners − media literacy − inter-, trans- and intracultural similarities and differences − critical reflection on values and actions − modern adaptations of classics in comparison to selected scenes from the original 5. Inter- and Transcultural Competences − literary texts as authentic cultural products provide insights into foreign cultures and contexts − fictional characters and settings can help o develop an understanding for other norms, values and world views o change and coordinate different perspectives o develop empathy and sensitivity − literary texts do not automatically lead to cultural learning, but they can support reflection processes about the literary and medial presentation of cultural contexts 6. Approaches to Teaching Literature in EFL Classrooms 6.1. Analytical Approach (Analytical Tasks) − close readings to experience form as meaning-producing itself − typical task: identify the rhyme scheme and the rhetorical features of the poem − content and context → interpretation − make students aware of how the text works and how it influences the reader in their reception 6.2. Reader Response (Creative Tasks) − text as a source to be discovered and engaged with − responsive reading (dynamic interaction) o between reader and text o sociocultural schemata of text stimulate reader’s associations and ideas o reader infuses text with subjective mental images and interpretations o sharing and coordinating perspectives o recognition or critical resistance − reader as involved participant, detached spectator, literary critic − subjective response − open dialogue (negotiating meanings) − aesthetic appreciation and criticism − appeal to the students’ own experiences with a literary text − provoke individual interpretations 6.3. (Text) Production-Oriented Activities − aims o generating new texts o rewriting a text o creatively expanding a text o alienating the original − examples o personal response in a reading or viewing diary or log, email or blog o transformation of a film scene into a poem, a poem into a newspaper article, a film clip into a vlog o poster, a character profile of a protagonist, digital collage o book or film reviews edited digitally in teams and published online o alternative endings and various forms of rewriting from different perspectives or in different genres 6.4. Action-Oriented Activities − aim: acting out or transposing a text into a different medium  − examples o reconstructions of a text or film script from jumbled fragments o scenic re-enactments of a film scene or a dialogue, freeze frames and spatial arrangements of certain scenes or conflicts o fake interviews with the film director or author o transformations into a different type of medium, for example text into film, an image, a pantomime, music or radio play 6.5. Classroom Approaches and Teaching Methods − pre-reading example o bottom-up, analytical approach (decoding and analysing the work) ▪ from the title and the first sentence, students can speculate or already make out setting, plotline, main event, characters discourse, narrative situation, time structure o creative task ▪ students write their own story after hearing just the title and the first sentence − while-reading example o note down your impressions while reading the story ▪ mood ▪ spontaneous feelings concerning the characters and places − post-reading example o action-oriented work ▪ create a mind map about the characters and their constellations  ▪ think of questions that the characters would ask each other if they could o production-oriented work ▪ give the characters a voice through taking on their perspectives ▪ write an email about the short story Session 11: Media and the Classroom 1. How to Categorise Media Offline − visual o black/white board o worksheets o books o pictures − auditory o music o podcasts o audiobooks o radio − audio-visual o feature films o youtube clips o TV shows o documentaries Online − interactive formats on the internet o (hyper)texts o email o social media o films o clips 1.1. Three Dimensions of Media (Schmidt/Strasser 2018) − the technological medium in-use: book, DVD, smartphone − the coding forms for information in different symbol systems o mono-codal (only text) o multi-codal (text combined with pics, audio files) − the required sensory modalities o mono-codal (only visual or auditory) o multi-codal (audio-visual) 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Media Use in ELT 2.1. Pros − internet as an extensive data base for teachers − authentic texts and many perspectives − cultural learning can be included − brings variety to the classroom − media use can be motivating − students can be activated (visual and audio material) − explanations via pictures/videos − schools might be better equipped now due to the Covid-19 crisis 2.2. Cons − students work under different conditions (inequality; no or restricted access to digital media or the internet) − digital competences of the teachers − equipment of schools − technical difficulties (very time-consuming) − when students use their own devices, they might get distracted − no use of media for their own sake (we need learning objectives while viewing/listening/reading-tasks) 3. Aims 3.1. Media Didactics − media as tools for the purpose of FLT − is concerned with the functions, effects and forms of utilising media in teaching and learning scenarios 3.2. Media Education − use of media to educate the students to consume media in a competent and critical manner − is concerned with ways of using media sensibly − it is centred on enabling individuals to reflect critically on their use of media 3.3. Media Literacy (Medienkompetenz) − to perceive, recognise, analyse and reflect on media − to use and produce media − to be motivated and emotionally involved in perception and production processes − refers not only to digital media (whereas here you come across the term digital literacy) 4. Reasons for Media in FLT: The SAMR Model Enhancement − Substitution o technology acts as a direct tool substitute o with no functional change o example: students write a text on a computer instead of paper o tools: Youtube, mind mapping applications, etc. − Augmentation o technology acts as a direct tool substitute o with functional improvement o example: students write a text on a computer instead of paper, but they use spelling checks and can easily rearrange a text after they’ve got feedback → the use of technology improves the writing process o tools: bit.do, tiny.url Transformation − Modification o technology allows for a significant task redesign o example: students write a text together in a programme where each student can edit the text from anywhere and anytime o tools: wikispaces.com, moodle.org − Redefinition o technology allows for the creation of new tasks previously inconceivable o example: students write blog posts and can interact with each other and others on the internet via comments and blog posts o tools: makebeliefcomix.com, animoto.com Teaching Objectives − reasons for media in FLT o media as teaching/learning tools o media as communication tool o media as subjects of reflection − working with media in class does not mean that students can use tools competently 5. Settings 5.1. Definition − setting refers to the overall context and framework of foreign language learning and teaching − similar terms: background, environment, classroom, Lernumgebung, Lernort 5.2. Four Dimensions − the political framework: school system, curricula, educational reforms − the approach to teaching foreign languages: communicative, task-based or structure-based teaching (focusing on grammar and vocabulary teaching) − the English language classroom o the classroom as a physical space ▪ in order to learn most successfully, humans need to feel safe and comfortable reduce noise levels quiet corners personal decoration (maps, film posters, portraits of authors, creative products → sense of ownership) ▪ body movement and physical activity are significant for successful learning → activity songs, games, role plays, rotation learning, project work, drama methods health and motivational reasons a means of processing new information activates different parts of the brain → classrooms need to provide enough space and affordances (non-linguistic and linguistic input) = rich learning environment o as an interpersonal meeting place ▪ a classroom is always a place