ELL PDF Past Paper Analysis

1) PACC 2) Theme and rheme (textual, 3) FTM Field: subject matter Tenor: nature of relationship between the speaker and the listener (analysed in terms of power, conflict, affective involvement) Mode: channel of communication 4) Formal vs informal (standard level of communication) Fo...

1) PACC 2) Theme and rheme (textual, 3) FTM Field: subject matter Tenor: nature of relationship between the speaker and the listener (analysed in terms of power, conflict, affective involvement) Mode: channel of communication 4) Formal vs informal (standard level of communication) Formal lexicon Colloquial jargon, 5) Modality Moderate obligation “can” Modal auxiliary of medium to low probability Unmodalised declaratives “is” use of present tense adds on to the certainty withholding fact.. 6) Conjunction Additive conjunction - draws on notion in positive, contrastive sense Comparative conjunctions– drawson notion of comparison to ___ 7) Speech Turning taking, TCU (turn construction unit) , TRP (transition relative places)…( latching without waiting for TCU→ signs of disregard dismissive?) Holding the turn vs yielding the turn Fillers Power play talk more doesn't mean more power tho Insert sequence Adjacency pair Mood type - Imperative - Declarative - Exclamative - Interrogative - Social class and social reality - Force, - Authority - expertise - Moral standing - Emotive language/Volume stress→ exert a point 8) Synthetic parallelism 9) Synthetic personalisation: increase familiarity  10) Exclusive “We” – distinct between company and reader draw a line… 11) Connotation and denotation- lexis with positive/ negative connotation 12) Snarl and purl – highly connotative snarl is favorable, purl is unfavorable 13) Affective involvement 14) Proper nouns– + in caps , displays professionalism, and greater knowledge, increases the trustworthiness of the entire essay to fulfill its purpose as the target audience is more inclined to believe. 15) Dexis personal, spatial, temporal (shows familiarity what does it say about the relationship?) 16) Simple sentences 17) nominalisation – increases formality 18) Euphemism (using pass away instead of die/ 19) Lexical density Proper noun 20) Lexical variety 21) Sentence structure wise Compound- complex -0 give more info then so what? Link to PACC of VTM Complex Simpe 22) Politeness theory 23) Asymmetrical VS symmetrical power ADAPTED TEXT - Style (complex, simpler)--> Interpersonal metafunction - Extent of shared knowledge→ Interpersonal metafunction - Lexical choice→ complexity? Accessibility? Connotated? - selection/ combination type of sentence→ perceived impacts - Passive construction - THINGS TO TAKE NOTE ANNOTATED TEXT: - Essay in A lvl must be point based rather than feature based - Start w analysis of the text first featured based (won't be marked down but categorizing it would be better) OR - go straight into ideational, interpersonal –power, social difference, affect–, textual comparing it across the rest of the other texts (changes/ difference) using FTM, range  - Must use all the texts! Doesn't matter if it's just one must use at least one feature from each text! THINGS TO DO - Underline the things we are referring to when quoting evidence - Count the number of instances to use as evidence ( the word “you” was used five times in the text→ synthetic personalisation) - Less formula → reduction of social distance is meant to encourage readers to have more trust in the company and to do as instructed/ advised, particularly given the complexities involved in making a successful complaint. THINGS TO INCLUDE IN THE ESSAY - Linguistic feature (right linguistic terminology) - Function of feature (typical/ atypical) - Example of feature (at least 2) - Contextual evidence (no need for every single example Plan - Analyze based on PACC - State purpose of both text then state the linguistic device used to emphasis - Morphology - Lexical words, content words: open class words (noun, verb, adjective, adverbs) - Grammatical words, function words: close class words (conjunction, preposition, articles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, determiners) - Nominalisation: an air of professionalism and expertise, more formal, harder to read - Plain language: straightforward - Compounding: attaching a stem to another, Headed vs Non-headed - Headed: second stem is the head which provides the broad meaning of the compound - Non headed: opaque in meaning , eg: pick pocket - Conversion: world class changed with no changes eg: take a left turn vs turn left - Acronym: common in the modern world for speed of communication - Clipping: longer words cut into shorter words , eg: teacher vs cher Helps to reduce social distance with readers  - Backformation: removal of supposed affix to form new word, may change meaning and word class - Blending: involves two words eg: brunch= breakfast+lunch Semantics - lexemes : words in their most basic form - Sense and reference Sense: ideas or concepts References: entities that actually exist in the real world - Deixis Personal: pronouns Spatial: demonstrative pronouns (this, that), spatial adverbs (Here, there) Temporal: location in time, temporal adverbs: yesterday, today, tomorrow - Denotation VS connotation denotation: refers to strict precise and literal definition of the word, devoid of emotion, attitude, colour Connotation: connected w psychology and culture - Polysemy and Homonym Polysemy: multiple relayed meanings Homonym: completely unrelated meanings - Literal to metaphorical meaning, idioms and idiomatic meaning - Semantic change - Broadening (more meaning than i had before) and narrowing (part of its original meaning) - Amelioration (positive connotations) and Pejoration (undergo downgrading) - HIGHLY CONNOTATIVE words: Snarl (unfavorable) and Purr (favorable)words, substitute for serious thought and well reasoned argument - Euphemism: Taboo, avoided in polite company (-ve) But when taken to the extreme can be seen as instances of double speak with the aim to be evasive and want to deceive or confuse. (+ve) It adds nuance and vagueness to conversation that is often welcomed. Civilised discourse may potentially harm listeners and hence euphemisms allow the avoidance of such offence by letting contentious and sensitive subjects to be discussed without being spelt out in full. Avoid having too many negative connotations. At best they have positive connotations. - Synonyms: same underlying meaning can be used interchangeably - Antonyms: contrasting meaning - Gradable: one end of the scale to another end (tiny vs huge) - complementary : mutually exclusive, no middle ground (dead vs alive) - Relational: relationship that exist (wife vs husband) - Hyponyms (general) vs hypernym (specific) - meronym (whole) vs Holonym (part)  - Collocations (words that co occur) - Lexical collocation (bright red lights (Xmouth) - Grammatical collocation (abide by) - Semantic field: grouping of lexemes that are inter-related as these words/lexmes are needed to define each other Affected by users background, age groups, nationalities, for people to think of words within the same semantic field, used to manipulate readers to get desired effects - Formality - Good impression on people in respected positions - (usually) Planned discourse, non-spontaneous: complete sentence structure Informal Formal Attitudinal lexis (purl/ snarl words) Neutral lexis Colloquial lexis (abbreviated forms and slang) Formal lexis and jargon (abbreviated words, slangs avoided) Swearing Politeness phenomenon (Ps and Qs) Interruptions and overlap in speech Careful turn taking (TCU) First name/nicknames Titles Typical mood choices Incongruent mood choices ( interrogative→ commands) Modalisation to express probability Modalisation to express deference (politeness) Modalisation to express opinions Modalisation to express suggestion - Lexical density: ratio of content words to grammatical words - Lexical words: give meaning and provide information regarding what the text is abt - Grammatical words: give little to no information about what a text is about Lexical density may measure complexity or readability of a text but more significantly, it measures the amount of information the text tries to convey. Expository text (news, journal, technical, and informative articles) tend to have higher lexical densities. - Lexical variations is when synonyms are used, more academic and formal - Lexical repetition reflects informal text, typically used for mnemonic and emphatic purposes Syntax (N,V,ADV,ADJ..) - Nouns - Criteria: Notional, Inflectional, Derivational, Distributional, Functional - Functions & Application: PROPER Nouns - Proper nouns help identify, unique, definite points of reference Extensive uses of proper names that are proper nouns often are in the domains of advertising, political speeches, etc. - Use of concrete/ abstract noun is often bound with subject matter/ genre Concrete nouns often are used to draw attention to physical objects and properties. Reflective subject matter tends to draw on a greater abstract nouns - Types of nouns: - Simple nouns (the soup), complex noun (the rich velvety soup) - Choice of nouns - proper (names of schools) VS common (schools) - Count VS non count (cannot stand alone: eg: flower pretty) - Concrete (can be observed: milk) VS abstract (ideas, concepts, eg: sound) - Gender Nouns (gender marked) - PreModifications and post modification of nouns - Nouns can be premodified and by adjectives and participles and other nouns - Any words after postdeterminer and before and the head of the noun phrase is said to premodify/ qualify the noun - Function application of nouns - pre/post- modification of nouns add descriptive detail to noun phrase - premodification : aim for a dramatic effect, more common in writing than speech - Premodification for more condensed style, indicate shared knowledge - Headlines less explicit to gain interest, put the burden on the listener or readers - most explicit→ postmodifiers which utilizes infinite clauses (the person who is wearing the blue shirt) - less explicit→ postmodifiers utilizing non infinite clause (the person wearing the blue shirt - least explicit→ postmodifier that utilizes the prepositional phrase (the person in blue) - Exra pre-/post- modifier can affect the interpretation, thus ordering of words is impt - Pronouns Use of pronouns in replacement of nouns is often strategic. Function words appear less important but they usually merit special attention in discourse analysis - Type of Pronouns - Personal pronouns: - 1st: I, we (inclusive vs exclusive) - 2nd: you - 3rd: he/she/it. PLURAL: they - Reflexive pronouns: reflect the meaning of noun elsewhere in the clause, indicated by -slef - Myself, ourselves, himself - Possessive pronouns (express ownership) - My, our, his, her - Reciprocal pronouns: to express two-way relationship - Each other, one another - Relative Pronouns: used to link a relative clause - Who, which, where, whoever, that - Interrogative: used to ask questions of personal and non personal nouns - what , which, whose, whom, who - Take notes: sex neutral eg: they - Function and Application: pronoun - Affect the degree of (social) distance and closeness between reader and writer - predominant use of personal pronouns–I, we, you– projects familiarity. It may indicate the writer is attempting to engage readers or invoke reader participation - Predominant use of pronouns, project familairy or distance be an indication of the writer’s stance on subject/issue. If proper names are used predominantly, mark of formality may indicate a context with high density of information - 1st person pronoun: assume readers agreement → inclusive we - Writer emphasizes he represents an institution the readers are not a member of → exclusive we - “You” - Make direct address to reader - Create context where reader wants to enter a position of ideal reader in the writer mind - Address a large audience as individuals, SYNTHETIC PARALLELISM - Verbs Describes an action, head of predicate (the girl LIKES MY FRIEND) - Types of verbs: - Transitive: need direct object (eg: carry, make, keep, etc) - Function: describe actions which have effects on object/ things and people - Intransitive: don't need object (eg: die, go, happen, etc) - Function: describe actions which happen by themselves - TAKE NOTE: some verbs can be both ditransitive and transitive (she's expecting a reply VS she's expecting) - Ditransitive: can take both direct and indirect objects (I gave a present to her. VS i I gave her a present) - Function: convey information/goods or service - Full lexical verbs (main verbs, e: run, jump, etc) - Modal auxiliary verb - Function: likelihood of events happening (will, would, shall, should, might, can, culd) - Marginal/ semi Modals (ought to, dare, used to, need) - Primary Verb (DO, BE, HAVE) - Regular (forms can be predicted by rules) and irregular verbs (forms cannot be predicted by rules) - Finite (signify contrast in tense, person and number–singular/plural) and Non Finite Verbs (form stays the same regardless of grammatical variation) - Function: non finite terms increases ambiguity in text, elicits questions for readers - Multi-word Verb: phrasal/ prepositional verbs - Verb Tense: time an action takes place. Present tense vs past tense - Function: - Simple present tense: factual orientation, impression of universal truths, undeniable fact , no specific time reference - Past tense: narratives in stores and reports to reiterate actions that have been completed - Verb aspect: how time of action or state is regarded/ viewed w respect to time - Function : - Progressive tense: ongoing event, taking place over a limited period and not necessarily completed, shrinks time frame  - Active and Passive voice - Passive: depersonalizes texts, highlight institutional procedures rather than individual concerns, hallmark of scientific discourse as the agent is ‘less’ impt to the ‘more’ impt procedural task, give option of mission of agent involved, obscuring responsibility - Adjective Describing word - Function: pre-modify a noun, premodified by intensifying adverb, stand alone, express degree of comparison, qualitative attributes, express writer's feelings and attitudes towards a certain object or issue. Result in descriptive richness or sparseness of a text→ suggest feature of genre, useful in time and space constrained writing - Adverb Describe manner of action, time, place, Indicate the circumstance, give descriptive details to a text, signal degrees of probably, frequency, obligation and intensity, (MODALITY→ expression of the writers attitude/ comments towards proposition, can vary the forcefulness of a demand or th assertiveness of a statement to a different degrees and hence determine the diff kind of interpersonal relationship with the readers! High assertiveness= higher authority) - Things to assess in modality (high medium or low) Probability, usuality intensity/degree, obligation/inclination - Functions: - Attitude of writer - Heighten appeal in advertising copies - Process adverbs in instructional writings - More use of comparatives than superlatives, more sophisticated use of conjunction, in scientific writing - Adverbials in the front express general viewpoint or add contextualizing info (assumed shared info) - If at the end of the sentence, tend to offer raw information to be noted by the listener - Use of may adverbials many descriptive content shows area of knowledge and expertise→ more inclined to belief Syntax (Phrasal constituents) - 2 METHODS to identify phrasal constituents - answer target questions - replaced by a single wod, forms a constituent  - Moved around - Phrase structure rules - Sentence→ noun phrase + verb phrase - Noun phrase→ determinant + noun - Noun phrase→ determinant + adjective + noun - Noun phrase→ Noun phrase + preposition phrase - Verb phrase→ V (NP) (pp) - Preposition Phrase→ P + Noun phrase - Sentence Clauses - Minor Sentence: incomplete sentences, formed in an irregular way cannot be clearly analyzed into a sequence of clause elements - Types - Formula - Interjections - Proverbs - Abbreviated Forms - Exclamations - Major Sentence: Complete, broken down to specific elements (SVOCA +complement), examined by clauses. - Constituents - Main clause (MUST BE finite) + subordinate clause (CAN BE infinite) Syntax (Sentence Types) - Simple: one independent clause (subject + predicate), one complete thought - Compound Subject: two or more subjects - Compound predicate: two or more verb phrase joined by coordinating conjunction but same subject - Not determined by length of the sentence - Compound: at least two independent clause joined by coordinating conjunction, more than one complete thought - Complex: one independent clause + one dependent clause - Dependent clause : finite/ infinite clauses joined by subordinating conjunction or relative pronouns, cannot stand alone, dependent on main clause - Compound-Complex - At least 2 independent clause and 1 dependent clause - Coordination Of Clauses  - Coordinating conjunction: FANBOYS - Correlative conjunctions - Coordination is explicit: synthetic coordination: - Coordination is implicit: synthetic coordination: rhetoric/ stylistic effect - Subordination of clause (dependent and independent) - Semantic inequality - Info in subordinating clause = Background info - Synthetic parallelism: use of similar patterns f words, phrases or clauses to express similar views/ related ideas of equal impt, same referent - Function: rhythm, balance to present ideas clearly and concisely, help writer highlight or emphasize info. With parallelism reading and listening is easier, easier to process, - Nominalisation: turn verb/ adjective into nouns - With nominalisation, action/ events not emphasized but the things/ concepts/ ideas - Tone of writing more abstract/ formal - More formal - Academic writing - MOODS: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamative - power/status (deference vs impersonality) , contact (familiarity vs solidarity), emotion/ affect (intensity of like and dislike, denotes +ve/-ve) - Declarative: clause w subject followed by verb - But in convos, subject often omitted - Typically a statement - Basic purpose of conveying information - writer/ speaker as provider of info, claiming higher status or expertise than readers - Interrogative Clasual Mood SPOKEN - Typically a question w basic purpose of seeking info - Position writer/speaker as requester for information= demanding information - Reflect right of writer to demand information from the reader (assuming authority/regulating verbal behavior) - Listener possesses knowledge which speaker dont (listener→ expert) - Interrogatives to take control the direction of the discourse WRITTEN - No opportunity to reply - Expository question: stimulate interest is an issue or discourse topic  - Rhetorical question: the answer to be common knowledge, or the question to make on indirect statement - Tag questions: combines both declarative and with interrogative tag Eg: this is good, isnt it? - Imperative Clasual Mood - Verb in base form + no subject - Directive w basic purpose of instructing someone to do smth - Physical - Indicates that the writer/speaker is in a position of greater power than the reader/ listener - power → authority - Expertise - Exclamative Clasual Mood - Single word/ short phrase - what/ how followed by subject and verb - Reduced elliptical form w’out subject and verb - Casual everyday convo, reflect close socia relationship between interlockers (shared knowledge) Discourse - Lexical cohesion refers to the relationship among lexical items in a text among content words - Repetition - Synonym - Antonym - Hyponymy: general- specific relationship - Meronym: part-whole relationship - Collocation: associations between words that tend to co-occur - Grammatical cohesion: linguistic structure of the text - reference : identity of the item (within or outside the text) - Anaphoric (earlier in text) - Cataphoric (later in text) - Exophoric ( outside the text) - Homophoric ( shared cultural knowledge) - Conjunctions: - Additive (notion of addition in positive/ contrasting sense - Comparative  - Temporal (time) - Consequential - Internal (staging of text) - External (connects clauses) - Paratactic (coordinating relationship ) - Hypotactic ( uneven or subordinating relationship) - Substitution - Sub NP/ VP or clause - Eg: the book and paper on the table is hers. VS These on the table are hers - Ellipsis - Referring to preceding element in text which sometimes is omitted - Speech VS Written (refer to work sheet) Typical feature Spoken Written Dependence on context Use of spatial deixis Context Agnostic Predictability Impossible Signposting Eg: this essay will now…/ Furthermore…/ In contrast.. Non fluency features Pauses/ fillers/ MetaFunction Textual: Organize the presentation of our message - FTM: used for analyzing context Field: subject matter/ topic / text being analyzed Tenor: nature of relationship between audience and speaker/ producer Mode: channel of communication/ how language is expressed/ graphics - Clausal Analysis Clause must have a verb that's finite/ infinite (main/independent and dependent clause) - Clausual moods - Declarative - Imperative - Interrogative - Theme and Rheme Eg: The compelling sound of the infants cry (THEME) makes it an effective distress signal (RHEME) Theme: sets the context of the message - STAGES of theme (TOPICAL theme is necessary) - Textual: elements that relate the clause to the context Eg: structural conjunction (but, when, and, or, such as, on the other), WH- relatives (which, who, etc), Conjunctive adjuncts (however, therefore, because, although, etc.), Continuatives (ummm, yeah, etc) - Interpersonal: elements that can assign a mood label Finite elements (can/should)--> response expected, ensure interaction, Wh- question, Vocatives (identify addressee), Mental clause (you know…., i don't suppose you..), modal adjuncts (Unfortunately…, Usually…)-->provide a producer's comment, assessment or attitude towards the message, YES or NO - Topical: “representational” meaning Participants, WH- relatives, circumstance, process (said, screamed..) - Themeless clause and not to confuse it with ellipsis - Marked and Unmarked theme - For declaratives, if do not begin with subject, definitely marked - Less typical sentence structure (basically passive voice) - Does not depend on the mood Rheme: clause without the theme - Effects of theme and Rheme - Theme→ prominent, communicative effect of the message, can be highlighted to be persuasive/ manipulative, reflects purpose, TA of the text - Thematic development of the text→ link to PACC (look at example of this in the notes, pg 12-14) Interpersonal - Power: unequal (hirechial→ equal, peers) - Not static can be dynamic in a conversation - Mood choice/ modality (can–permission, might– suggestion, need to–stronger, necessity, will/ are to– requirement/ obligation) - strongest of model construction will less forceful/ demand than unmodulated imperative - Usually writer/ speaker have more power than reader/listener - Power can come from authority, status/ physical strength/ expertise - Bare imperatives or high level of obligation used when there is high degree of contact/ people whom we have little contact with - Polite imperatives (please/ kindly before verb) reserved for when there is medium contact - Expository questions: writer goes on to answer - introducing/ stimulating interest in an issue or discourse topic - Rhetorical question: do not demand an answer, left unanswered - Build excitement/ anticipation - Indirect statement - Modality - Using declarative clausual mood - Writer claims higher status or expertise than readers in terms of knowledge or rationality - Statements made more or less assertive, use modal structure, different degree of certainty/ probability/ frequency/ universality/ subjectivity - Assertiveness through modality High Medium low Obligation Must, ought to, need, Will, would, shall, May, might, can, has to, is to should, could Probability Certain, certainty probable , probably Possibly, possible Frequency Always Usually Sometimes Universality all Some A few/ no Expression (personal/ I believe/ i think I presume/ suspect/ impersonal) In my opinion expect Its obvious/ clear/ It seems that/ it looks/ evident/apparent that she sounds - Contact: refers to degree of familiarity and solidarity between interactants (frequent and intimate to occasional and distance) --> impacts formality and register of language used  - Pronouns used: engage participants/ project closeness - “One” creates more distance - Personal pronoun: project familairy/ distance - Passivation→ avoid mentioning one of the participants - nominalisation → avoid mentioning either - Limitation of speech: minor sentences may not have a main verb but a complete unit. Missing info is applied by the reader, suggesting high level of contact between two parties - Contractions - Clippings - Repetition - Capitalisation of words - Three part list (stimulate rhythm in speech) - Simple present tense→ underscores faculty of statement being made - Explicit noun phrase vs Pronoun 1 st I We - Inclusive Context that readers agree with writers - Exclusive Grp which reader does not belong 2 nd You: synthetic you/ you all personalisation Direct address to reader, reader may enter the position of being an ideal reader constructed in the minds of the writer Opens up the way for high contact literary devices like rhetorical questions 3 rd He, she, they it, one They - Limitation of speech (minor/incomplete sentences) - Lexical choice: formality of vocab - Emotion/ Affect: degree and intensity of liking/ disliking (the interactants and/or regard with the topic being discussed) → reveals +ve and -ve attitude/ judgment of the writer - Lexical choice - Reducing length of words → less formal - Dialectical feature: singlish/ slangs - Euphemism: avoid being impolite/ taboo words (-ve/+ve spin) - Eg: nigger, sex slave - Affective words: increase or decrease encoding of emotions in one’s text - (bloody) hell, (mad) skills, terribly (misguided) - Reporting verbs - Reflect +ve/-ve/neutral attitude to findings in research article - Showed, found, obtained, revealed, proved (+ve) - Intimidated, conflicted with (-ve) - Indicated (neutral) Ideational - Transitivity: the processes of happening, doing, sensing, meaning, being, becoming Element Lexical category Process (what) Verb phrase Paricipant (who/whom) Noun phrase Circumstance (how, where, when, etc) Adverb/ prepositioal phrase - Extent: duration, distance - Location: place, time - Manner: means, quality, comparison - Cause: reason, purpose, behalf - Accompaniment: together with/without/ whom/ what? - Role: as what - Cotingency: under what circumstance - Types of process (MMVERB) - Material process: doing / happening - To identify, ask yourself: what happened? - KEY WORDS: - Actor - Goal - Beneficiary - Range - Differentiating goal and range: -  Object affected Goal Object unaffected Range Accompanied by results of Goal impact - Mental process: person involved conscious processing - Key words - Sensor: doing the mental process - Phenomenon: being processed - Have two participants - Relational process: being, possessing, becoming - Key words: - Attributive relational clause: class membership - Carrier vs Attributive - (TO IDENTIFY: reversible→one to one relation OR non passivisable) - Identifying relational clause: symbolism - Token vs Value - (TO IDENTIFY: non reversible OR passivisable) - Verbal process: saying something, both verbal and non verbal - Key words - Sayer (the one saying) - Receiver (target audience of verbal clause) - verbiage/ projected clause (what was said) → comes after word mental verbs - Behavioral process: active version of verbal + mental process (inclu: physiological processes, eg: twitching and social processes eg: kissing) - TO IDENTIFY: - representation of time is present continuous, progressive - intransitive verb (don't need direct object) - Existential process: process of being - KEY WORDS - Existent - TO IDENTIFY: - Only one participant - Clause includes: there - No location, present because all english clause require a subject - Examples of verb: be, synonyms: exit, arise, occur  - Intentions and choice of processes - How participants/ events are being processed - Eg: material processes→ suggest hi/ her power as an agent, mental processes→ give impression of emotive/ emotional person/ event - Passivization: - Affects our pov by foregrounding and backgrounding information - Invisibly actor/ agent→ non agentive passivization - “…by___” → agentive passvisation - Nominalisation: - Noun phrase generated from another word class, usually a verb - Compresses information - things / entities being foregrounded instead of actions - Eg: he arrives→ his arrival - Affects theme and rheme! Instead of theme being participant (he/she/they), theme becomes a thing (departure, arrival, accusations) Multimodality - Multimodality - Use of diff modes of comm in a single text to construct meaning for diff purposes - Analyzing print based multimodal text - Visual elements: graphics and images - Graphics: paragraphing, use of bullets, choice of font, ways of imposing or highlighting organization of text, determine reading path, sectionalise the text (text read selectively) - According to goatly (2000), they “give an extra layer of textual meaning”. - Minimal use of graphics→ text is one large unit , read progressively, in its entirety - Images: photographs (color/ black and white), sketch drawing, caricatures→ convey a particular meaning), make a claim to truthfulness/ reality represented to varying degrees/ purpose - “They help to represent events or things as if they were true or real, and persuade us to accept their authenticity.” - Diagrams Simplify complicated info  Line drawing To give a rough outline Caricatures To present a whimsical version of a familiar ppl/ obj/ act. Color photographs Appeal, higher degree of certainty/ credibility and truth Bright Colour Photographs Highlight pleasure or sensory aspect - Angles (frontal, profile, eelevel, from above or below eye level), - Distance (close-up, medium shot, long shot) - Each choice when combined in one image adds an element of meaning. - Interpreting visual elements - Haliday, 1978, “ language is what it is because of what it has to do.” - Eg: diff ways of addressing ppl, diff ways of describing events - Gombich, 1959, “ the form of representation cannot be divorces from its purpose and the requirements of the society in which the given visual language gains currency.” - Ideational/ experiential - Action– what kind is taking place? - Ppl, animal, obj participating in circumstance/ setting - Suggested through lines that lead the eye Who is doing what to whom, who is acting, who is being acted upon, etc. - Vectors– lines that lead the eye - obj/ part of obj - Invisible lines (eg: the direction of gaze from a person’s eye or animal’s) - Help construct the actions that are taking place , play impt role in transitivity in image (who doing what actions that are to whom, who acting, who is being acted upon) - Concept - Images do not have obv actions, images may use symbols or icons to convey a certain concert or idea - Image can combine concept and action, objects symbolic of concept - Interpersonal meaning - Angles: diff relationship between ppl and between ppl and obj (power relations) - Looking down→ sense of power or control - Looking up→ (from below) sense of vulnerability  - Framing: amt of information given to the viewer→ social distance - Close up→ (head/shoulder of person) → close intimate social relation - Medium shot→ (upper part of person’s body) → social type of distance (more private. personal/ social) than public - Long shot → long distance or depth) → realizes a more public type of distance - color: - Convey moods and feelings - type / purpose of the image - Described in term of tone/ saturation - Creation of cerain feelings in a viewer - Symbolic meaning associated with certain colors → culture-specific - Demand or offer - Eyes looking directly at viewer, diff social relations - Demand: eyes of image looking at viewer, demand attention - Offer: eyes do not look at viewer, no ppl/ creatures in the image, look at other elements in the picture - Textual meaning - Composition and balance of elements of an image → creates meaning - Prominence or dramatic effect created by placing person/obj in the center towards the top/bottom or left/right and how particular reading paths are suggested - Lay out - Top half→ more prominent part - Bottom half→ real, more down to earth, everyday position - left / right→ progression of idea, left (given/ alr understood info), right (new info) - Reading path - Guide the eye in a certain direction around an image - One element→ most salient or obv because of size, angle, color or its position - Images shaped according to purpose/ affect their creators wish to achieve - image disrupt the norm to engage more viewers effectively - Putting language and visual element tgt - “... if one of the modes was removed from a multimodal text, it would somehow diminish the communicative power of the text” royce, 1998 - Symmetrical: words/ image repeat/ reinforce the same info - Enhancing: images amplify more fully the meaning of the words - Contradictory: words images opposition to each other Adaptive writing - Primary target audience for press release→ press - GERS (grammer, expression, punctuation , spelling/ handwritten) - Transform the way - texts presents ideas - Text engages with its audience - Text organizes itself HOW IT'S TESTED - Given 1-3 supplies text of diff genre/ text types - Craft text based o scenario provided - Explain changes made, how certain features in supplied texts are not suitable or appropriate in the adapted text due to difference in PACC - DO NOTs: - describe/ summarize/ lift - Must show and explain the adaptation and transformation Text types/ Genres (supplied text) Genres defined through their social purpose and stages necessary to fulfil that purpose, describe language use in the context of that culture. Field (what language is used to talk abt) Tenor (the role of relationship between interactants) Mode (the role the language plays in the interaction) Brochures - Salient linguistic feature - Ideational metafunction - Transitivity: buyer being talked about as sensor in mental process, seller being talked about as actor **travel brochures talk about location in terms of material rather than relational (eg: the building stands/ overlooks…) - Interpersonal metafunction - Use of imperatives (mild commands) eg: join us! Be there! - Can be encoded as non-directed intransitive clause (without cause and effect, foregrounding shared info, - No mention of actor but meant to be the reader, make use of empty slot in transitivity roles (to imply for reader to fill the role, eg: ellipted actor in material process - **nominalisation with the frequent use of long noun phrases, pre-post modifiers for descriptions→ great impact on reader add on to the effects of repeated linguistic choices - **Resonance cumulative repetition and reinforcement (same meaning but in diff parts of the text), achieved through repetition, synonym, lexical collocation, cadence, rhetorical device etc. - Textual metafunction - Typically→ unmarked (marked if brochure wants to deviate from norm) - LIMITATIONS of prosodic features: Rhythm, stress, intonation of speech to make it informal hints at text producer independent of grammar and vocab Advertisement If traditional features are not used to attract, inform and persuade, may be described to be in contrast. Modern advertisement appear to to dissuading consumers from their product but this is a technique used as a determined way of not conforming to traditions - Synthetic personalisation  - Actor meant to be you - Transvity (same as brochure) - Use of second personal pronoun - Reduce social distance - Suggest friendly attitue→ ads more appealing - Makes readers feel cared for advertisers are eager to help - “We”: readers can just buy the product and leave work to the advertisers - Prodcuts and service they offer are out of one’s particular needs and benefits hence persuade readers to make the purchase - Morphology - Lexical choice - Simple core vocab: most common with exception of technical vocab to emphasise the scientific aspects of a product which often comes as a complex noun phrase - Purr words - LEXIS with positive connotation, emotive adjectives, evaluative adjective, favourable adjective (confirm the desirable qualities product has, reestablish affirmative attitude) - Comparative and Superlative degree - Indicate excellent quality of their product or service - Illegal for advertisers to discredit their competition so don't make specific comparisons Eg: X washes whiter. (instead of X washes whiter than Y) - Show distinctive qualities, uniqueness - Repetition - (of brand name and slogan) - Alliteration, assonance, rhythm, rhyme (alliteration eg: the best by four by far) - Compounding – common and extensive - Eg:you can lose twice the weight with the slim fast plan, slim fast used to modify the word, “plan” slim-fast --> which makes u slim fast - Valued for its expressiveness and brevity - Frequent use of adjectives and adverbs - Hyperbole (exaggeration) - Ambiguity is common - Phase becomes memorable and readable (syntactic: grammatical structure or semantic: puns) - Euphemism - Avoid comments on unpleasant things - Avoidance of negatives - Simple and colloquial language - Appeal to ordinary people  - Use of neologisms - Anagrammatic spelling (word phrase sentence formed from another by rearranging its letters) - Coinage of new words - Affixion of prefix and suffix Eg: super—, ex—-, ultra—-, auto—-, - Anagrammatic spelling - Make ad look unusual and memorable - Use unexpected letter like “x” “y” “z” Eg: Beanz Meanz Heinz - Syntax - Choice of tenses - Present tense commonly used, nostalgia summoned by the simple past - Mood choice - Type of sentence - Declarative sentences - Convey info and ultimate aim of advertising - Quality of a certain product - Profit it may bring - Catch reader’s attention - Add variety to the writing - imperative sentence - Prompt action from readers - Imperative may be preferred because can seem persuassive and appeal readers to act - Interrogative - Rhetorical questions, no ans expected or advertisers answer themselves - Use of simple sentence - Add to reability of advertisemnt - Esp clear at the beginning of the text, often using bold or large type of headlines, slogan to capture attention of readers - Syntactic parallism - Add resonance of a text - Modality - Can be high - Low deliberately Blogs - Most popular form of user’s contributions to the web’s content, for bloggers to express feelings, creativity, communicate with other people faster than the emails or any other media  - Style of writing: less focused, and directed than other forms of media, contains thoughts everyday stories and experiments, feelings, emotions and opinions Take note: - no predetermined subject or criteria for specific readers as in news text, use words to express their feelings, mood, opinions, emotions and from their pov their writing style, use everday language, less formal - Primarily texutual in nature (can contain image and links) - Interconnected commuity where readers or other bloggers can interact - Fall in diff subject categories - Take a personal (include hobbies, views, personal experience) or professional approach (informative information, products and services) - Business can use blogs to accompish their companies interests both internally and publically → comm platform to interact with (prospective) clients - Blogs sydicate content to RSS (safari, google, etc) a popular content distribution tool read by an aggrevator - Can subscribe to keep up Press Release - Aimed at 2 diff aud at the same time (journalist + journalist own audience) - Communicated to some audience member directly - Consider PACC (corporate release? Govt? police?) - Provided by media→ but not always picked up by news media - Main purpose: promote something specific (event, accomplishment, or significant changes happening) - Three marketing and promotional purpose 1) Let media know about an event 2) Let media know about your business in hopes that a reporter will see ur story i press release and write an article 3) Promote business appearance on the internet - NOT written as a news article or feature, NOT a guaranteed marketing tool - Third person - Journalist no need to make changes in terms of referencing pov - Meet formal requirements for reporting - Objectivity: - Neutral detachment - Degrees of authority and reliability - Makes it look disinterested and neutral rather than self interested and promotional - Past tense - Actions which have been undertaken  - Events which have taken place - Modality, facts and Info - Non modalised categorical assertions - Not to emphasis on High or low confidence in what is being said - Use categorical assertions (you are right, opposed to you must be right, or you could be right) → expressing highest degree of certainty in the truth of the propositions expressed - Passivation - Length and complexity of noun phrase - Noteworthy - Use of proper noun - Use of positive connotation - Press release Evaluate companies and activities of departments - Evaluation is almost entirely positive→ interpretation of analysis of facts and developments - “We are delighted…” , “we are pleased that..” - Graphical device Structure - Timing of release (date + time)-- for immediate release or embargo? Indicate at the top - Give the press release a title Grab attention and encourage journalist to read on - End ENDs For further information please contact – (give mobile number) ( if got more info write, “notes to editors” under contact info like bg info or a note sayng pictures are avaliable) - Spoken text: everyday convo, news broadcasts, political speeches, radio interviews, comedy interviews, music lyrics, podcasts - Written texts (tabloid, journalism , magazines, print advertisement, publicity material, music/ film reviews. Leaflets, non fiction books, press release, biography, diaries, letters, emails, blogs, SMS/texts/ messaging - Multimodal text (supplied text–documentaires, blogs, vodcast, websites, picture books, TV presentation, films, music videos, cartons, comics, computer games, articles, publicity material, nonfiction books, writing for children )  - Adapted text (info brochure, pamphlet, publicity– email, blog, advertisement, press release– gov/ corporate, article for a magazine/ newsletter) Planning stage: - consider demands, - PACC+ genre (will be specified in questions), - Read and annotate (features of language connected with genre– can be atypical ) - length (300-400 words→ too short cannot otherwise nothing to say or lack of pattern) - Features of language to be addressed/ adapted/ compared - Mode of address to reader - Lexical choice - Grammatical features, syntactic features (Synthetic parallelism, Synthetic personalisation, etc.) - Morphological, phonological features - Active vs passive voice - Normalisation - Mood choice (MUST cover a whole range to get high score) - Structural/ visual element to be included in adapted text - Headlines - Body paragraphing - slogan - Conclusion - Layout - Refer to any other unique characteristics eg: quotations, testimonials, electronic links, animation, video chips (refer to multimodality for more) - Commentary - Re read the supplied texts - ANNOTATE YOUR OWN text - Not just labeling - Only annotate they features - High frequency lexis why? Target audience??? - must be meaningful - Justify explicitly the choice of language features - Why adaptation works (Or did not work→ Dont cancel if u think it doesn't work just address in commentary)  - Focus on adaptation/ specific features and examples, - Reference to all supplied text needed (within one paragraph, there is no limit to the number of reference made to different supplied text) - Contrast with at least one of the supplied test - Assessed based on: - Meet demands and keep in mind the purpose and audience of the text - Demonstrate awareness of features of diff genres - Comment on linguistic choice and their effects on the audience - Consistency in message tone and register (pri TA and sec TA?) - Coherence - Salience which should be discussed first? - Grammar and syntax - Graphology? - Morphology and lexical choice - Semantics and lexical choice - Adaptations that reconstruct? On the way an event idea/ institute is represented? The way the text is organized? - Power relations between text producer and TA? - Social distance? (skill) Transforming text for different PA - Selections and combination - Ways to change the subject: marked vs unmarked, topical, theme, non gender common noun vs gender common noun, hypernym vs hyponym, euphemism, common proper noun → (possible reasons: more specific, show gender, highlight diff connotations, analysis of TA) - Transformation in 3 diff ways - Ideational: Ideas and info - Interpersonal: The way the text engage its audience - Textual: the way the text is organised - Transform the text: - access text type (typical? atypical?), - checklist of features to transform in supplied text - Explaining - Clear comparison of field (changes in purpose of communication) Producer takes on ___ persona, synthetic personalisation, indefinite pronouns, modal construct– use of modality, construction of medium obligation, formality, synonyms, nominalisation, anaphoric reference, repeated use of nouns, longer more complex nun phrase, - Tenor (age/gender of participants) - Mode (genre) Structure, format, salutation, closing signature, reading path salutations reinforce format, no abbreviations, use of spelling, contractions, clipping, spelling errors?, idiosyncratic spelling, atypical feature, addressee (names) General pointers - Features of the supplied texts changed/ adapted→ Discuss why changes were made - HIGHLIGHT linguistic differences - Similarities of Features between texts→ discuss why these features were kept (note: features may be the same but used for diff reasons) Narrative structure - examine different functions, - the cultural context of the narrator will affect certain linguistic features seen in narratives→ use of labels, use of rhythm, semantic fields in association with a particular culture. - Interactional level: range of function - Hold attention - Explain problematic states - Make evaluations - Increase solidarity of speakers - Provide info Identifying a narrative - Begin - Signal intention to start - Announcement  - Question - Extended turn (for speech) - Within the story - Shift in tenses (recounting incident, marked by transitions in tenses - Direct citaions and reenacemtns - Increases credibiltyod the haring - Eg: “she was shouting like, “help!” - Sociologist William Labov (1972) found that narratives follows a certain structure categories Narrative form Linguistic feature Abstract (optional) Signal start of story Short summarized What is this ab? statement before narrative commences. Orientation Identify 5W 1H Past continuous verbs, circumstantial adjuncts of time, manner, place Complicating action Action in story as event Temporally ordered Then what happened? unfolds narrative clauses with verb in simple past or present Resolution Recapitulates the final Last of narrative clause What finally happened? key event of story from compelling action Evaluation Author's attitude towards Intensifiers, modal So what? the story suggest why its verbs, negatives, worth being told evaluative text, embedded speech, comparison, ordering of text and paralinguistic features (tine, volume Coda (optional) Sealing off narrative, A generalised statement How does it all end? signal end of narrative does not further the plot and back to present time of the story, marked sometimes by change from past to present tense - Pragmatics - Study of pragmatics: meaning and language use that is dependent on the situational context - Include: setting (time and place), purpose (genre and activity), social roles and relation or participants involved in communication which are affected by (nature of exchange– formal/ informal, nature of participants– intimate/ distant, difference in social status– high, low, equal) - Overly polite and formal may mean asymmetrical power relations and distance - Use of informal language may mean symmetrical power and close contact - Grice’s Cooperative Principle Grice (1975) “ make your contributions such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” Thomas (1995) “genuine desire to pleasant (or polite) to others” Gricean Principles (NOT RULES) can be flouted and conversation will still be successful - Rules are all or nothing, principles are more or less - Rules are exclusive, while principles can co-occur - Rules are definite while principles are probabilistic (though this subjective in interpretation) - Rules are mottled by conventional while principles are motivated - Gricean Maxims (4) - Maxim of quantity - Make contributions as informative as required (for current purposes of exchange) - Maxim of quality - Dictate that you should no say what u believe to be false or things that lack adequate evidence - Maxim of relation - Dictates that you should be relevant to the topic at hand, should not change the subject, nor should you fail to address the goals of the conversation - Maxim of manner - Dictates the way that you express yourself, avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity, should be brief and orderly - Hedges When maxims are violated in a co-operative fashion, signalled to listeners using phrases like, serve to pre-empt confusion, shows the speaker’s attitude - To cut the story short– maxim of quantity - As far as i know– maxim of quality  - By the way, anyway, well– maxim of relation - Im not sure if this makes sense, but– maxim of manner - Non observance of maxims - Flouting - Speaker bluntly ignores/ disregards the observance of maxims - Done on purpose, force listeners to read between the lines for conversation implicatures - Speaker has no intention of lying/ misleading the listeners - Opting out - Speaker expresses unwillingness to cooperate, (for legal or ethical reasons) - Infringing - Speaker with no intention of generating implicature and no intention of deceiving, due to imperfect linguistic performance, imperfect command o the language, speaker’s performance is impaired. Speaker Listener Flouting Intentional Detectable Opting out Intentional Detectable Infringing Unintentional May or may not be - Violating - Suspending - Conversational implicatures - Additional meaning is generated when maxims are not observed - Explicit semantic meaning of utterances by the speaker does not make sense - Look beyond to deduce conversational implicatures - In no adherence to Cooperative principle, - Communicative meaning→ sum total of what is explicitly said and the conversational implicatures - Problems - More than one implicature may be intended or drawn - Lead to misunderstanding/ conflict - Implicature drawn from semantic content and worldview, types of implicature vary from speaker to speaker - Distinguishing between diff types of non observance can be challenging  - Listeners may not know if non observance in intentional, not possible to distinguish flout from infringement - Diff nature of maxims→ cause problems, maxims may overlap, difficult to distinguish from one another - The principles are not all in the same order - Maxim of quantity is the most straightforward but maxims of quality and manner can have greater/ lesser degree - Maxim of relation is observed before anything else→ considered more highly with more weightage than other maxims - More than one maxim flouted in a single discourse - Gricean Maxims and Leech’s Maxim - If maxim flouted→ utterance acquire new meaning =, listener must infer from context knowledge - How meaning of words in utterances are integrated with the context, and how participants in an interaction ensure successful communication - Socially accepted to flout maxim for politeness