Introduction To SFL PDF

140 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics understand how the lexico-grammar is structured, is an essential skill you must possess if you want to be able to describe, discuss, compate and understand how people use language to do social life. The following chapter begins our excursion...

140 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics understand how the lexico-grammar is structured, is an essential skill you must possess if you want to be able to describe, discuss, compate and understand how people use language to do social life. The following chapter begins our excursion into the grammatical description of English Chapter 6 in use by looking at the grammatical realization of interpersonal meaning through the Mood structure of the clause. The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD Note 141 Introduction 1. Note that only phrases/groups operating at clause rank (i.e. non-embedded) are shown in this Interpersonal meaning and the structure of dialogue 141 example, and discontinuous groups/phrases are not indicated. Exchanging information: the grammatical structure of 149 PROPOSITIONS Exchanging goods and services: the grammar of proposals 176 183 Summary Introduction In the previous chapter we identified the two significant roles played by the lexico- gramrnar: to allow us to mean anything we like, and to allow us to make more than one meaning at a time. Since the constituents of each clause can be demonstrated to be playing more than one functional role at a time, it is necessary to develop three sets of function^ labels to describe how the clauses in a text realize interpersonal, ideational and textual meanings simultaneously. This chapter explores how the clause is structured to enable us to express interpersonal meanings We will first establish a relationship between the semantic organization of inter- action and grammatical differences in the Mood structure of clauses. We will then identify the functional constituents and their configurations in clauses of different Mood types, and look at the role of modality (modalization and modulation) in interaction1. Interpersonal meaning and the structure of dialogue The following authentic text can be used to inttoduce and exemplify many of the issues to be covered in this chapter. As you read the text through, consider whether you are able to specify the relationships between the interactants and how you are able to tell. Text 6.1: Henry James 1 Simon The whole point - it's like grammar, right, it's out the window, right, the whole thing is just up the shoot, right, it's just gone, really... some part of me. Everything you got taught, you know. It's hard to get 2 Sue AH those values you gtew up with. They don't have them any more, do they, these young people? 142 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 143 Simon I don't know. I don't know, like. There's so many - I have so 40 George He was trying to make me read it. much respect for the guys that could write. Like just Henry 41 Simon So I gave I bought George the book. James, right. You read Henry James. This isaguy that can write. 42 Sue (surprised) Buddhism and quantum physics? 4 Diana Oh now he's talking about Henry James! 43 Simon Yes. No it's really quite a nice analogy. He's really he's very lucid 5 Simon No? in explaining quantum physics, right, so that the layman can 6 Diana What is this about Henry James? actually understand the Buddhist you know what Einstein 7 Sue It's so tortured. I think he had so much trouble coming to the 44 George He was not point. 45 Simon The whole tel - he explains relativity in Diana Henry James would do one sentence and it would go for a page 46 George He wasn't a physicist, though, this guy. and a half! 47 Simon I think in fact he was. 9 Sue Page after page! 48 George No. 10 Simon I loved him. I don't - I learnt the English language from this 49 Simon What was he then? guy. He was — oh he was absolutely amazing. 50 Geotge He was nothing! 11 Diana Of course he's amazing, but he's not of this world. He's not con- 51 Simon Who says? Well the book was great. temporary, You can't do that these days. 52 George I didn't read it. 12 Simon Can't they? 53 Sue What do you read apart from bridge books, George? 13 Diana Sometimes you get something to read and it's like Henry James. 54 George I don't like books like that. I like adventure stories, you know, The sentence goes on for a page and a half. like I like - I've read a few of that guy um what's his name 14 George Simon, what were those books you gave me to read? Wilbut Smich. I like his books. I think they're good fun to tead. 15 Simon So there they are. So poor old Henry's out the shoot too. And I like some othet science fiction stories. Oh it just depends, 16 Diana Well you know tike, none of this bloody heavy literature and stuff, 17 Simon (to Geotge) Ever read a novel called 'The Bostonians? It's boring. You read stuff to enjoy it, not to read it after and say 18 George No. You know I haven't. 'Oh yea that was deep and meaningful' you know like 19 Simon I will buy you a copy of this novel. 55 Simon It's like it's like going to a movie. You want to see something 20 George You know I won't read it. that's 21 Diana Oh dear! What you should do is 56 George Yea I mean I want to enjoy it. I don't want to find out the 22 George Well what was that book that you gave me to read rhat I nevet meaning of life or something like that from it. read? It was some goddamn book. 57 Simon Well god who wants to find out the meaning of life? 23 Simon Oh that was called the 'Wu Li Masters' or something. 58 George Oh you know what I mean. 24 George I started reading that and it was 25 Simon That was about quantum physics. There is little doubt that you would have decided that the five people interacting in this 26 George Yea, There was just no way that I could read conversation were all 'friends'2. This is not, for example, the record of a first conversation that book, Simon. among strangers, ot the transcript of a staff meeting in the School of English. Among the 27 Simon It was quantum physics, Geotge. That was Einstein. clues you may have noted as indicating that between these people contact is probably very 28 George Yea but high, affective involvement is strong, and equal power operates might be that: the speak- 29 Simon I was trying to appeal to you. ers interrupt each other freely, without the use of politeness formulae; thete is frequent 30 George This guy, this guy was a big wanker, though, this guy that wrote swearing and unselfconscious use of colloquial lexis and slang; strong attitudes are that. expressed very openly; speakers use each other's first names, etc. In other words, this text 31 Simon You read two sentences in the book and gave it up, illusttates many of the characteristics of an informal tenor, as noted in Chapter Four, Again, 32 George Because he wasn't — he didn't know anything about physics. we see evidence that the context (in this case, the social role relations or tenor) have been 33 Simon Oh he knew heaps about physics! realized in the language of the text. 34 George He did not. One major clue to the fact that this is a bunch of friends talking, rather than strangers, 35 Marg Who? comes from the kind of dialogic exchanges that the speakers are engaging in. These people 36 Simon It wasn't are not just talking, they are arguing with each other. Strong opinions are freely stated (This 37 Marg Did you do physics, George? is a guy that can write), and equally directly shot down {It's so tortured I think he had so much 38 George I did a bit. trouble coming to the point); claims are made (Because he wasn't - he didn't know anything about 39 Simon 'The Wu Li Masters'. Its just - it's about Buddhism and physics) only to be contradicted (Oh he knew heaps about physics); offers (2 will buy you a copy of quantum physics and Einstein. this novel) a.ie abruptly rejected (You know I won't read it); and explanations (I don't want to find  144 An Introduction to Systemic Functionai Linguistics The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 145 out the meaning of life or something like thatfrom it) are challenged (Well god who wants tofindeat Who wrote 'The Bostonians'? the meaning of life?). It may seem contradictory to you to note that although these people are friends, what 'The Bostonians' is a novel by Henry James. they are doing is arguing. We tend to think that 'friends' are people who will agree with each other, but in fact recordings of casual conversations suggest that Text 6.1 is a fairly typical example of how friends interact. So, why should friends want to argue? or exchanging goods and services: The answer is that it is through engaging in sustained dialogue that we can establish and develop the social roles we are playing with other people. Establishing social identi- Can I borrow your copy of'The Bostonians? ties such as 'friends', 'strangers', 'male', 'female', 'bossy', 'effusive* is not done by holding up a sign with a role label on it. Instead, it is done through talk. Being male and being Would you like to borrow my copy of 'The Bosronians? friends, for example, means being able to dominate the talk, being able to argue in the By cross-classifying these two dimensions of'speech role' and 'commodity', we can come direct and confrontational way of George and. Simon. Being female and being friends means up with the four basic 'moves' we can make to get a dialogue going. These are set out in being willing and able to keep the conversation going, by making suggestions but giving Table 6.1. up the floor without a fight (Oh dear.' What you should do is.. ,), by clarifying (Did you do These four basic move types of statement, question, offer and command- are what Halliday physics, George?), and by finding out about people, especially males (What do you read apart refers to as speech functions. So we say that every statting move in dialogue must be one from bridge books, George?). or other of these speech functions, and each speech function involves both a speech role and The way that engaging in argument allows the participants in Text 6.1 to clarify their a commodity choice. relationships with each other is just one specific demonstration of the general function of But, as Text 6.1 clearly illustrates, dialogue is inherently interactive: typically it does dialogue: that dialogue is the means language gives us for expressing interpersonal mean- not involve simply one move from one speaker. We need also to recognize that after one ings about roles and attitudes. Being able to take part in dialogue, then, means being able speaker has initiated an exchange, another speaker is very likely to respond. Thus we need to negotiate the exchange of interpersonal meanings, being able to realize social relation- also to see that there is a choice between initiating and responding moves: ships with other language users. The purpose of this chapter is to explore how dialogue is possible. Just how are clauses responding structured so that we can use them to challenge, assert, agree, contradicr, offer, refuse, etc. ? initiating Who wrote 'The Bosronians? -Henry James. When we can describe rhe structure of clauses to enable dialogue we can uncover and — Yea, I know. explain how interpersonal meanings are being realized in interactive texts. 'The Bostonians' is a novel by Henry James. Can I borrow your copy of'The Bostonians? — Sure. Would you like to borrow my copy of "The Bostonians? -OK. Semantics of interaction Our choice of responding moves is constrained by the initiating move that has just been Halliday (1984, Halliday and Matthiessen 2004: 106-111) approaches the grammar of made. Every time I take on a role I assign to you a role as well. Every time I initiate an interaction from a semantic perspective. He points out that whenever we use language to interaction I put you into a role of Responding if you want to interact with me. interact, one of the things we are doing with it is establishing a relationship between us: The alternatives we face in responding can be broadly differentiated into two types: a between the person speaking now and the person who will probably speak next. To estab- supporting type of responding move, versus a confronting type: lish this relationship we take turns at speaking. As we take turns, we take on different speech roles in the exchange. The basic speech roles we can take on are: giving: initiating supporting response confronting response Who wrore -Henry James. - How would I know? Would you like to borrow my copy of'The Bostonians? "The Bostonians? 'The Bostonians' is a novel by Henry James. 'The Bostonians' is - Yea, I know. - I think you're wrong a novel by there. demanding: Henry James. Can 1 borrow — Sure. - Sorry, I don't lend Can I borrow your copy of'The Bostonians? your copy of my books. Who wrote 'The Bostonians? 'The Bostonians? At the same time as choosing either to give or demand in an exchange, we also choose Would you like -OK. - W h a t for? rhe kind of commodity that we are exchanging. The choice here is between exchanging to borrow rny copy information: of'The Bostonians?  146 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 147 Table 6.1 Speech roles and commodities in interaction (based on Halliday 1994: 69) and the grammatical structure typically chosen to encode it. If, for example, you wish to make a statement, you will typically useaciauseofaparricuiarsrructure.-adeclarative clause: COMMODITY EXCHANGED SPEECH ROLE Information Goods and Services A It's by Henty James. statement Giving statement offer Demanding question command If, on the other hand you wish to make a command, you will use an imperative: C Here, take it! command In some registers, the expected response is a supporting move, but as Text 6.1 illustrates in other registers (such as casual conversation), the confronting tesponses are more If you wish to offer something, you are likely to use a 'would like' interrogative (what we common. Incorporating this intetactive dimension, we can now summarize our picture of call a m o d u l a t e d interrogative): the semantics of dialogue as in Table 6.2, This now gives us a list of eight speech function classes, which we can use to describe the C Would you like to borrow my copy? offer move sequences in a simple dialogue involving three speakers, A, B and C: And finally if you wish to ask a question, you will of course use the kind of clause we call an interrogative: A Have you ever read 'The B ostonians'? question B I really wouldn't know. disclaimer A Have you ever read 'The Bostonians'? question C Yes, I have. answet A It's by Henry James. statement There is also a correlation between the different structure of an initiating move and the C Yea. acknowledgement structure of a responding move. You can see from the examples given above that most ini- B No it's not! contradiction tiating moves are long, while most responding moves are short. Responding moves are short C Would you like to borrow my copy? offer because they typically involve some kind of abbreviation or ellipsis or are what we call B Well, OK. accept m i n o r clauses (these terms will be explained below): A You'll enjoy it. statement C Yea. acknowledgement answer Yes, I have instead of Yes I have read it. C Here, take it! command acknowledgement Yea. instead of Yea I know it's by Henry James. B [takes book] Thanks. compliance accept Well, OK. instead of Wei! OK, I will borrow it. compliance Thanks. instead of Thanks, I'm taking the book. Having established a basic picture of how dialogue works, we need to ask how this relates to the clauses we produce as we interact. In other words, what grammatical structure realizes The kind of differences we are uncovering here are not random. They have to do with what these meanings? What is particularly interesting to us about these different speech function is called the Mood structure of the clause. The Mood structure of the clause refers to the classes is that we can recognize a correlation between the semantic choice of speech function organization of a set of functional constituents including the constituent Subject. The basic Mood types have already been mentioned. We can summarize these findings in Table 6.3. Of course the examples of clauses presented above are not the only possibilities. These Table 6.2 Speech function paits (adapted from Halliday 1994: 69) are only the typical correlarions. Not all demands for goods and services have to be SPEECH F U N C T I O N PAIRS (Initiations and Responses) Table 6.3 Speech functions and typical mood of clause initiating speech responding speech function SPEECH FUNCTION TYPICAL MOOD IN CLAUSE function statement declarative Mood SUPPORTING CONFRONTING question intetrogative Mood offer acceptance rejection command imperative Mood (may be non-verbal) offer modulated interrogative Mood command compliance refusal answer elliptical declarative Mood (may be non-verbal) acknowledgement elliptical declarative Mood statement acknowledgement contradiction accept minot clause question answer disclaimer compliance minor clause 148 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 149 imperatives. We need to consider the possibilities for both marked and unmarked correla- grammar of propositions. Later we will examine how the clause is structured to enable the tions. Thus, while commands are typically expressed by imperative clauses (Read Henry exchange of goods and services when we look at the grammar of proposals. James), they can also be expressed by declaratives (I'm hoping yon'11 read some HenryJames), or modulated interrogatives (Would you mind reading Henry James, please?). While offers are typically expressed by modulated interrogatives (Wouldyou like to borrow Exchanging information: the grammatical structure of PROPOSITIONS 'The Bostonians'?), they can also be expressed by imperatives (Take my copy of'The Bostonians') j or declaratives (There's a copy of'The Bostonians' here). One of the commonest situations in which we exchange information is, as exemplified in While questions are usually expressed by interrogatives (Is 'The Bostonians' by Henry Text 6.1, when we argue. By looking at an argument we can begin to wotk out the func- James?), they can also be exptessed by modulated declaratives (/ was wondering whether 'The tional constituents we need to recognize in the grammar of the clause as exchange. Consider Bostonians' might be by Henry James). And while statements are usually expressed by declar- the following extracts from Text 6.1: atives ('The Bostonians' was Henry James' last novel), they can also be expressed by tagged declaratives ('The Bostonians' was Henry James' last novel, wasn't it?), Diana You can't do that these days. We can now summarize our findings about dialogue in Table 6.4. Simon Can't they? Table 6,4 begs the question of just when and why typical or untypical choices get made. Who uses the marked choices, and why? What are the implications of choosing to make a Simon (to George) Evei: read a novel called 'The Bostonians'? command through the structure of a declarative, for example, rather than through an imper- George No, You know I haven't. ative? These issues are obviously of considerable interest to functional linguists, as it seems likeiy that the choice between a marked or an unmarked structure will be influenced by con- George He wasn't a physicist, though, this guy. textual demands (what the register is and, specifically, what the tenor relationships are). Simon I think in fact he was. However, if we are to be able co explore this connection between clause structure and George No. contextual dimensions, we need to first be able to describe the structures we are referring to. Just what is a declarative? What different types of interrogatives are there? We there- George He didn't know anything about physics. fore need to study what Halliday refers ro as 'the grammar of the clause as exchange'. What Simon Oh he knew heaps about physics! is the difference in structure between an imperative and an interrogative? Of an intetrog- George He did not. ative and a declarative? So, in this chapter we are going to look at the configurations of functions that constitute each of these structures. In each of these excerpts, the first speaker's clause makes a statement, which is then argued But to do that we have to work out first of all what are rhe functional constituents that with by the second speaker, with the first speaker sometimes coming back in again. When are involved. So in fact we need to address two questions: we ask how these arguments are carried forward, we can see that the clause appears to have two components. There is one component (you can'tl(you) ever readihe wasntlhe didn't know) 1. What are the functionally labelled constituents we need to identify to describe the that gets bandied about, tossed back and forth, to keep the argument going, while the Mood structure of the clause? second part of the clause (do that these days/a novel called 'The Bostonians'la physicist!anything 2. What different configurations can they occur in? i.e. what different structures do about physics) disappears once the atgument is under way. they realize? The component rhat gets bandied back and forth is what we call the MOOD element of the clause (we use capital letters to differentiate the MOOD constituent of the clause from We will begin our exploration of the Mood structure by concentrating on how clauses are the general teem, Mood, which describes the overall structure of the clause). The other com- structured to enable us to exchange information. When the clause is used to exchange ponent is called the RESIDUE. We can alteady, then, suggest that propositions can be information, Halliday refers to it as a proposition. What we are looking at, then, is the divided into two functional constituents. For example: He wasn't a physicist. Table 6A Summary of dialogue MOOD RESIDUE SUMMARY OF DIALOGUE speech function typical clause Mood non-typical clause Mood To discover which part(s) of the clause constitute the MOOD element, we ask which part command imperative modulated interrogative of the clause cannot disappear when the responding speaker takes up his/her position. The declarative essential part of the clause contains the nub of the argument. Thus, we can continue the offer modulated interrogative imperative declarative argument with: statement declarative tagged declarative question interrogative modulated declarative He was. (leaving out a physicist)  150 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 151 But not; we again cannot argue until you have established 'What about Henry James?', i.e. what Finite element I am attaching to the Subject. a physicist (leaving out he was) The grammatical test Halliday uses to discover which part of the clause is the MOOD and Constituents ofthe MOOD which is the RESIDUE is to add a tag. A tag is what you can pur at the end of any declar- ative to turn it into a question. We often do this to temper what we are saying. Compare; We have therefore identified two essential functional constituents ofthe MOOD compo- nent ofthe clause: the Subject and the Finite. Throughout our presentation of grammatical It's so torturous, (untagged) versus It's so torturous, isn't it? (tagged) analysis for each Functional Role we recognize we will distinguish between the following: You will note that when we add a tag to a positive declarative, we usually change the tag -what its Function is, what it does in the clause: the definition of the Function and to a negative form (using not or n't). When we tag a negative declarative, we typically make - how we recognize the element filling that Function: the identification of the the tag positive; Function. He wasn't a physicist, was he? Definition and identification are not the same. The definition will be in terms of the role or contribution the element is making. Identification will be in terms of one or a number of grammatical tests you can apply to discover which part ofthe clause is filling the par- The elements that get picked up in the tag are the MOOD constituents of the clause. So, the first thing we can say about the grammat of the clause as exchange is that the clause consists ticular Function. of two functional constituents; a MOOD element, which functions to carry the argument, and a RESIDUE, which can be left out or elllpsed. Halliday describes the MOOD element Subject as catrying 'the burden of the clause as an interactive event'. That is why it remains constant, as the nub of the proposition. The definition ofthe Subject offered by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004: 117) is that it realizes the thing by reference to which the proposition can be affirmed or denied. It pro- The components ofthe MOOD element that enable it to carry the nub of the proposi- tion are revealed by examining responding moves in which the responder ellipses the vides the person or thing in whom is vested the success or failure of the proposition, what RESIDUE. For example: is 'held responsible'. The identification ofthe Subject can be achieved by the tag test: the element that gets He wasn't a physicist. picked up by die pronoun in die tag is the Subject. So, in order to uncover the Subject of any clause, you need simply to tag the clause. With a clause that is already a declarative, - Yes he was. - No, he wasn't. this is simple: These examples suggest that there are three main elements to the MOOD constituent: Hemy James wrote 'The Bostonians' (didn't be?) 1. an expression of polarity: either YES (positive polarity) or NO (negative polarity) Subject Subject 2. a nominal-type element, which we will call the SUBJECT 3. a verbal-type element, which we will call the FINITE Although there will only ever be one Subject per clause, the class of items which can be But since the polarity element can also be ellipsed without endangering the argument, Subject may vary. The Subject may be a single word (noun or pronoun), or it may be a there appear to be only two components that are essential to the MOOD: a Subject (always lengthy noun phrase: expressed by a nominal group in class terms) and a Finite (always expressed by a verbal group). 'The Bostonians', 'Portrait of a were all written by Henry James (weren't they?) It is easy to demonstrate that we must have these two elements in a clause if we wish to argue. For example, imagine I walk into the room and simply say: Lady' and 'Washington Square' Subject Subject is we cannot proceed to argue, for you will have to ask me 'What is? What are you talking There, a word empty of content, may also function as Subject, as the tag test will show: about?' In other words, you will need ro find out what the Subject of my clause is. Similarly, if I walk in and say; There was just no way (was there?) Subject Subject Henry James  152 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 153 The Subject may even be a clause i t t e J f ( a n e x a m p ] e rf„ ^ ^^ ^ ^. ^ "When the tag test shows you that did is the Finite, you simply write Finite undet the first half of the verbal element as follows: _^^f^_JT^7^^^7 was pink champagne (wasn't it?) Sa bje I learnt the English language from this guy. Subject Subject Finite As well as the tag test, another test which will help you d y Ua e C t the Sub verb from singular rto0 oh,™! ' */'„,' ' j " *"" ^ " ° " Ject is t 0 c »~*~z Henry James was writing 'The Bostonians'. Henry James wasn't writing 'The Bostonians'. positive polarity negative polarity  154 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 155 Polarity is always present in the Finite, even though it does not appear as a separare element Constituents of the RESIDUE when polarity is positive. When polarity is negative, the not or n't morpheme has to be used You can see that it is part of the Finite element because as soon as we need to negate a verb We have suggested that the RESIDUE component of the clause is that part of the clause in the simple present or simple past, we are obliged to make the Finite element explicit which is somehow less essential to the arguabilky of the clause than is the MOOD com- (i.e. to reintroduce the did) so that we have a Finite to attach the negation to; ponent. For, example, we noted that the RESIDUE could be ellipsed in the responding moves in dialogue. Just as the MOOD component contained the two constituents of Henry James wrote 'The Bostonians'. no do Finite Subject and Finite, so the RESIDUE component can also contain a number of functional elements: a Predkator, one or more Complements, and any number of different types of do reinrroduced: Adjuncts. We will review each of these in turn. Henry James didn't write 'The Bostonians'. Predkator Subject Fin iter negative The PREDICATOR is the lexical or content part of the verbal group. For example: Having identified the Finite, we are now in a position to understand the differences between the following clause types: 7 'm reading 'The Bostonians'. Subject Finite Predicator I'm reading Henry James, MOOD RESIDUE Reading Henry James To read Henry James The verbal group contains two elements: am reading. The first part of the verbal group, am, The first clause is a finite clause: it contains a Finite element am. The second clause is an is the Finite as it carries the selections for number, rense, polarity, etc. The second verbal example of a non-finite clause. That there is no Finite element present becomes apparent element, reading, tells us what process was actually going on. This element is the Predicator. if we try to tag the clause: not only do we not know who the Subject is (I, George, the The definition of the Predicator, then, is that it fills the role of specifying the actual event, Smiths), but we also do not know whether the Finite should be 'am', 'were', 'will be', 'might action or process being discussed. be going to', etc. Non-finite clauses are clauses which have not selected for a tense or modal The Predicator is identified as being all the verbal elements of the clause after the single verbal element. The third clause is also a type of non-finite clause, as it has no Finite Finite element. Thus, in a clause with a lengthy verbal group: element. We usually refer to it as an infinitive clause: the infinitive of a verb, its 'to' form, is rhe form in which verbs are listed in the dictionary, These two elements of Subject and Finite link together to form the MOOD consrituent. Simon might have hen going to read 'The Bostonians'. To capture their role as MOOD elements, we generally enclose them in the MOOD box, Subject Finite: modal Predicator with the other constituents of the clause placed in the RESIDUE box: MOOD RESIDUE / learnt the English language from this guy. might is rhe Finite, and all the remaining verbal elements (have been going to read) is the Subject Finite Predicator. MOOD RESIDUE In clauses in which there is only a single verbal constiruent (i.e. the simple present and simple past tense of verbs), we have the fusion of the elements of the Finite and the Predicator. These are the cases we saw above, where there was no distinct Finite element. Simmi mightn't have read 'The Bostonians'. In analysing these clauses, we align the Finite with one half of the verb, while the other Subject Fin:modal:neg half of the verb, which is carrying the lexical meaning, is labelled as Predicator: MOOD RESIDUE He knew nothing about physics. Thus, a full analysis of the MOOD element includes nor just labelling the Subject and Subject Finite Predicator Finite, but placing them within rhe MOOD box. We now need to identify and label the RESIDUE MOOD other elements of the clause: those in the RESIDUE.  156 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 157 Halliday and Marthiessen {2004: 122) points out that in addition to its function to specify Does Simon have a copy of'The Bostoniam'? the kind of process of the clause, the Predicator has three other functions in the clause: Finite Subject Predicator MOOD RESIDUE 1. it adds time meanings through expressing a secondary tense: for example, in have been going to read the primary tense {have, present) is specified in the Finite, but the secondary tense {been going to) is specified in the Predicator. A common occurrence in English is that of phrasal verbs, where the Predicator consists 2. it specifies aspects and phases: meanings such as seeming, trying, helping, which colour of a lexical verb followed by an adverb (to runflg),a preposition (to write gp} or both an adverb the verbal process without changing its ideational meaning. and preposition (to look out for). Tests to determine whether a particular verb + adverb/preposition combination is a phrasal verb (and should therefore be treated as part of the Predicator) or whether there is Simon was trying to read 'The Bostonians'. a Predicator followed by a separate circ urns tan rial Adjunct (considered below) include: Subject Finite Predicator MOOD RESIDUE 1. movability: if the preposition introduces a phrase which is independently movable, then it is not a phrasal verb; e.g. He wrote on the page - On the page he un-ote (indepen- 3. it specifies the voice of the clause: the distinction between active voice {HenryJames dently movable, so on is not part of the Predicator) versus He wrote up the story - * wrote 'The Bostonians') and passive voice {'The Bostonians' u>as written by Henry James) Up the story he wrote (so up is considered part of the Predicator). Similarly, if an adverb will be expressed through the Predicator. is independently movable, then it is not a phrasal verb; 2. substirution: frequently a single lexical verb could be substiruted for a phrasal verb: e.g. continue for go on; 'The Bartoniam' was written by HemyJames. 3. position: the adverbial component of a phrasal verb can be moved to the end of the Subject Finite Predicator clause: He ran the sentence on but not *He ran the race on. MOOD RESIDUE Complement Although most non-elliptical clauses will contain Predicators, there are two verbs which A second component of the RESIDUE is the Complement. A Complement is defined as a have no Predicator in the simple past and the simple present tenses: the verbs to be and to non-essential participant in the clause, a participant somehow affected by the main argu- have (in the sense of'possess', not in the sense of'take'). ment of the proposition. It is identified as an element within the Residue that has the potential of being Subject He is/was a physicist. but is not. A Complement can get to be Subject through the process of making the clause Subject Finite passive: MOOD RESIDUE wrote 'The Bostoniam'. Henry James Subject Finite Predicator Complement Simon haslhad a copy of'The Bostoniam'. MOOD RESIDUE Subject Finite MOOD RESIDUE 'The Bostonians' was written by Henry James. Subject Finite Predicator (Adjunct: see below) The Predicator associated with these verbs appears immediately you use the verbs in a MOOD RESIDUE different mood (e.g. if you rurn them into interrogatives) or if you use the continuous tense: Clauses in which the Predicator is give or a synonym may contain two Complements: He was being a physicist. Simon gave George a book. Subject Finite Predicator Subject Finite Predicator Complement Complement MOOD RESIDUE MOOD RESIDUE  158 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 159 passive test identifies both elements as Complements, as either could become Subject: Although all Adjuncts share these character!srics, we can differentiate between three broad classes of Adjuncts, according to whether their contribution to the clause is principally George ideational, interpersonal or textual. The different classes of Adjuncts are accorded different was given a book by Simon. positions in the MOOD/RESIDUE analysis of the clause. At the end of the following dis- Subject Finite Predicator Complement Adjunct (see below) cussion, a summary table covering all the Adjunct types is presented. MOOD RESIDUE AMing ideational meaning: Circumstantial Adjuncts A book was given to George by Sivion, Circumstantial Adjuncts add ideational content to the clause, by expressing some circum- Subject Finite Predicator Adjunct Adjunct (see below) stance relating to the process represented in the clause. Circumstantial meanings may refer MOOD to time (probed with when), place {where), cause {why), matter {about what), accompaniment RESIDUE {with whom), beneficiary {to whom), agent {by whom). Here are some analysed examples: TIME: when The Complement is typically a nominal group, as in all the examples given above, It at times be a whole clause, in which case we have an example of embedding: They can't do that these days. Henry James is Subject Fi ni te: mod /negative Predicator Complement Ad j una:: ci rcums can r ial a guy that can write. Subject Finite MOOD RESIDUE Complement MOOD RESIDUE CAUSE: what for There is a particular sub-class of Complements which are called Attributive Complements, where the Complement is realized by an adjectival element (word or phrase): You read books forfun. He isn't Subject Finite Predicator Complement Ad j unct :ci rcums tan t i al contemporary. Subject Finiterneg MOOD RESIDUE Comp lement:attributive MOOD RESIDUE MATTER: of what, about what In these examples, the Complement functions to describe the Subject, to offer an attribute of it. Technically, Attributive Complements cannot become Subjects (they cannot form Hemyjames unites about women. passives): Subject Finite Predicatot Adjuncncircumstantial MOOD RESIDUE * Contemporary is not been by him. AGENT: by whom Adjuncts George was read 'The Bostonians' by Sivion. The final constituents that we need to describe are Adjuncts. Adjuncts can be defined as Subject Finite Predicator Complement Ad j u n c t: circumstan ti al clause elements which contribute some additional (but non-essential) information to the clause. They can be identified as elements which do not have the potential to become MOOD RESIDUE Subject - i.e. they are not nominal elements, but are adverbial, or prepositional. The Adjuncrs in the following clauses are shown in bold: Agent Circumstantials appear in passive clauses where the Agent has not been deleted. The Agent Circumstantial element (unlike other Circumstantials) can become the Subject of I learnt the English language from this guy. the clause, by changing the clause to active and deleting the preposition by: Simon read Camels always walk like that. George 'The Bostonians'. Actually, I really wanted pink champagne. Circumstantial Adjuncts are usually expressed by either prepositional phrases or by an Frankly, I can't stand Henty James. adverb of time, manner, place, etc. As Circumstantial Adjuncts do not contribute meaning  160 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 161 which is part of the arguable nub of the proposition, although they are always available for — Maybe T p i ' S n ' m T r treated ^ ^ °f t h e R E S I D U E °f dle Ckuse < and sh ™Id be analysed i in Adjunct: modal the RESIDUE box as shown above. MOOD Adding interpersonal meaning: Modal Adjuncts — Obviously Modal Adjuncts are clause constituents which add interpersonal meanings to the clause That is they add meanings which ate somehow connected to the creation and maintenance Adjunct: modal of the dialogue. They can do this either by impacting directly on the M O O D element (by MOOD adding some qualification to the Subject/Finite), or indirectly, by merely adding an expres- sion of attitude or by making an attempt to direct the interaction itself. There are four mam 2. Polarity Adjuncts: Yes a n d N o types of Modal Adjunct: Yes and No, and their common conversational alternatives (yea, yep, na, nope, e t c ) may func- tion in two different ways: 1. Mood Adjuncts i) as Polarity Adjuncts: when YES or N O are standing in for an ellipsed clause, they should 2. Polarity Adjuncts be analysed as Polarity Adjuncts. Since in this role they are taking the place of an ellipsed 3- Comment Adjuncts M O O D constituent, Polarity Adjuncts are classified as part of the M O O D constituent of.4, Vocative Adjuncts the clause: Henry James was a guy that could write. b T i n ^ M n o n 1 T 3CC d ! r e C r l y ° " t l l E M O ° D c o n s t i ™ n f > «* ™ therefore shown as -Yes. being M O O D elements, the second rwo affect the clause as a whole and are therefore not oc uded i n h he M O O D or t h e R E S I D U E bQxes ^ ^ a u b _ c i m rf^^^ Adjunct: Polarity will be considered briefly. I. M o o d Adjuncts MOOD Based or> Halliday and Matthiessen (2004: 126-9), the following categories of items can In this Polarity role, they will always be stressed items, will realize an intonation choice, oe classified as Mood Adjuncts: and the Subject and Finite ellipsed can be made explicit (e.g. Henry James was a guy that could write, — He was.) 0 expressions of probability: e.g.perhaps, mayfa,probably ii) as Textual Adjuncts: when YES or N O (or more typically yea or na) occur in unstressed n) expressions of usuaMty. sometimes, usually initial position, introducing a clause, they should be treated as continuity items and clas- iii) expressions of intensification or minimization: really, absolutely, Just, somewhat sified as Textual Adjuncts (see below). iv) expressions of presumption: evidently, presumably, obviously 3. C o m m e n t Adjuncts v) expressions of inclination: happily, willingly While Mood and Polarity Adjuncts express meanings which ate directly related to the arguable nub of the ptoposition (i.e. to the M O O D constituent), Comment Adjuncts func- Camels tion to express an assessment about the clause as a whole. For example: probablyImaybelusuallyI walk like that. always/sometimes Frankly, J can't stand Henry James. Subject Adjunct: mood Fini Pred icator Adjunct: Ad j u nc t: com men t Subject Finite:mod/neg Predicator Complement circumstantial MOOD MOOD RESIDUE RESIDUE Mood Adjuncts expressing probability meanings are closely related to the Modal Operators Unfortunately / >ve never read 'The Bos tomans'. considered above, and will be considered again under the Modality section below They Adjunct: comment Subject Finite Adjunct; mood Predicate Complement provide a second chance for the speaker to add her judgement of the probability /likelihood MOOD RESIDUE M TTTnr, ^ J'' m a n y d l i p d C a i r e S P T O a r e C k s s i f i e d » M °«/ jw/ do be placed elsewhere in the clause (i can't comment, therefore, on the length of his sentences). We physics George? Finite capture this optional, textual role ot therefore by analysing it as a Conjunctive Adjunct in Subject Predicator Complement Adjunct:vocative our Mood analysis, leaving it outside both the M O O D and RESIDUE boxes: MOOD RESIDUE don't read Henryjames. 1 Subject Finite Predicator Complement everyone knows that, Simon. Subject MOOD RESIDUE Finite Predicator Complement Adjunct: vocative MOOD RESIDUE Therefore, J can't comment on the length of bis sentences. Adjunct:conjunctive Subject Finite Predicator Adjunct:circumstantial Adding textual meaning: Textual Adjuncts MOOD RESIDUE of textual Adjuacts: coniunctive Textual meamngs are meanings to do with the organization of the message itself There z-z^x:- A d j u n c t s. The Conjunctive type, expressed by cohesive conjunctions function r l Adjunct ^ x Bur in h) we have two clauses within one sentence (clause complex). The two clauses are linked by the tactic conjunction because which is neither optional nor movable: we cannot create this enhancing structural relationship without using a structural conjunction, and prov.de linking relations between one sentence and another. Thev t y p l l l y o c c u r T r r h ! we can't move the because to anywhere else in the second clause. As we'll see in Chapter Nine, tactic conjunctions like because are really not adding textual meaning but logical meaning, which we capture through our clause complex analysis. For this reason, many analysts do not assign any label to tactic conjunctions (and other purely structural words) like because: Ezra; rir;:*-ss t£ Ad uncts belong n e t h e r in the M o o n I , *^ «™»rig. conjunctive I Subject don't Finite read Predicator RESIDUE Henryjames Complement analysed as follows: ' °°r'" * e R E S I D U E b ° * a n d c a n be MOOD  The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 165 164 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics hca.se bis sentences are too long, Subject Finite Complement MOOD RESIDUE has taken a tutn and is about to declare his/her position: Just as there is overlap in the meanings made by cohesive and tactic conjunctions, so also there is some overlap in the words used: so can function either cohesively (to link one know. Yea, 1 sentence to an earlier sentence) or tactically (to link two clauses structurally within a clause Predicator Subject Finite complex). And to complicate matters even further, conversationalists often use tactic Adjunct: textual RESIDUE conjunctions to link their own comments to previous comments by other speakers, in MOOD which case we really have to treat their conjunctions as cohesive. For example, when George challenges Simon with: The use of ye* (often repeated at tegular intervals) to signal continued listening; by zn U d r e s l e s h l l d also be considered a Textual Adjunct, smce there » no ellipsed M O O D Because be didn't know anything about physics. element involved. Ad j unc t :co n j u n cti ve Subject Finite: neg Predicator Complement MOOD RESIDUE Summary of Adjuncts George's because here creates an enhancing relation to Simon's earlier statement. So, for the purposes of Mood analysis, cohesive conjuncrions should be labelled as example: Conjunctive Adjuncts because they are indeed additional, non-essential components in the clause performing a textual role. But tactic conjunctions can be left unlabelled. usually be bought in local unfortunately Henry can't But bookshops. However, if you.find this distinction difficult to make at this stage, no great damage is done James' novels by labeling all conjunctions as Conjunctive Adjuncts. In fact, there is a drift in modern Finite: Adjunct: Predicator Adjunct: Adjunct: Adjunct: Subject English for cohesive adjuncts (such as however) to be used as tactic conjunctions anyway, so mod/neg mood cite conjunctive comment this atea of English grammar is currenrly in flux. RESIDUE MOOD ContinuityAdjuncts The second sub-category of Textual Adjuncts is the Continuity Adjunct. This category includes the continuative and continuity items, particularly frequent in casual talk, such Table 6.5 summarizes the position and identification of these different types of Adjuncts. as well, yea, oh, where these items occur to introduce a clause, and signal that a response ro prior talk is about to be provided. Unlike the Conjunctive Adjuncts, no specific logical Table 6.5 Summary of types of Adjuncts relation (i.e. of elaboration, extension or enhancement) is expressed by a Continuity Adjunct. They merely signal that the speaker will be saying more. Again, these Continuity SUMMARY OF ADJUNCTS Adjuncts do not belong in eithei the M O O D or the RESIDUE boxes, as they contribute location class of item to the textual organization of the clause, rather rhan to dimensions of its arguability. Type sub-type meanings in analysis prepositional in RESIDUE Well what was that book you gave me? ideational circumstantial time, manner, location, etc. phrase adverb Adjunct:continuity Subject Finite Complement intensity probability interpersonal mood in MOOD usuality presumption adverb MOOD RESIDUE (modal) in MOOD positive or negative yes/no (elliptical) - polarity not in MOOD speaker's assessment adverb prepositional comment or RESIDUE Continuity and Conjunctive Adjuncts may occur in sequence: of whole message phrase name not in MOOD vocative nominating next or RESIDUE Oh now he speaker not in MOOD s talking about Henry James. cohesive conjunctive logical linking textual conjunction or RESIDUE Adjunct: Adjunct: Subject Finite Predicate Adjuncncirc of messages minor clauses not in MOOD continuity conjunctive continuity message coming adverbs (yeh/nah) or RESIDUE MOOD RESIDUE  The grammar of interpersonal meaning: MOOD 167 166 An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics S u m m a r y : the Mood structure of declarative clauses The structure of the polar interrogative involves die positioning of the Finite bj&re the Subject. For example, we can derive a polar interrogative from a declarative as follows: To this point we have identified and labelled all the constituents that appear in the Mood structure of declarative clauses. The labels we have introduced now allow us to make an reading Hemyjames. important distinction between major and m i n o r clauses. A major clause is a clause which Simon has a MOOD component, even though that M O O D component may sometimes be Finite Ptedicator Complement Subject ellipsed. Here are examples of major clauses: RESIDUE MOOD non-elliptical (full) major clause Henry James wrote 'The Bostonianf. reading Hemyjames? Simon Subject Finite Predicator Complement Subject Predicator Complement Finite MOOD RESIDUE MOOD RESIDUE elliptical major clause (in answer t o question: D i d H e n r y James w r i t e it?) In cases where the related declarative contained a fused Finite/Predicatot (i.e. simple past and simple ptesent of verbs), we need to introduce a Finite element to place before the Yes (he did). Subject, This Finite element is typically the auxiliary verb do: AdjuncnPolarity (Subject Finite) MOOD the English language from Henry Janm. Simon learnt Predicator Complement Ad j u n a : ci rcumstan t ial In an elliptical major clause, we know that a M O O D component has been selected because Subject Finite we can fill in the Subject and Finite. MOOD RESIDUE M i n o r clauses, on the othet hand, are clauses which have never had a M O O D con- stituent, for example, Oh dear1,, Welt!, Eh?, OK Minor clauses ate typically brief, but their brevity is not the result of ellipsis. We cannot learn the English language from Hemyjames? Did Simun fill out a Subject and a Finite for a minor clause, for the simple reason that such clauses have Complement Adjunct:circumstantial Finite Subject Predicator never selected a Subject or Finite. 'OK does not mean 'I'm OK' or 'It's OK o r ' We'll be OK — it