Educational Psychology Midterm Review - Chapters 1-8 PDF

Educational Psychology Midterm Review Content Chapters 1-8 **Chapter 1:** Theories - Integrated set of concepts and principles developed to explain a particular phenomenon; may be constructed jointly by researchers over time or individually by a single learner; in science, usually...

Educational Psychology Midterm Review Content Chapters 1-8 **Chapter 1:** Theories - Integrated set of concepts and principles developed to explain a particular phenomenon; may be constructed jointly by researchers over time or individually by a single learner; in science, usually supported by considerable empirical evidence. Meaningful learning - Cognitive process in which learners relate new information to what they already know. Assessment - Process of observing a sample of a student's behavior and drawing inferences about the student's knowledge and abilities. Correlational study - Research study that explores possible associations among two or more variables. Between-group differences - Specific ways in which members of one group are different on average from those of another group. Professional learning community - Schoolwide collaborative effort in which teachers and administrators share a common vision for students' learning and achievement and work together to bring about desired student outcomes. Self-efficacy - Belief that one is capable of executing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals. Quasi-experimental studies - Research study that involves the manipulation of one variable to determine its possible effect on another variable, but without total control of additional variables that might have an impact on the outcome. Quantitative research - Research yielding information that is inherently numeric in nature or can easily be reduced to numbers. Evidence-based practices - Instructional method or other classroom strategy that research has consistently shown to bring about significant gains in students' development and/or academic achievement. Action research - Research conducted by teachers and other school personnel to address issues and problems in their own schools or classrooms. Reflective teaching - Regular, ongoing examination and critique of one's assumptions and instructional strategies, and revision of them as necessary to enhance students' learning and development. Principles - Statement that identifies a fairly consistent finding regarding cause-and-effect related to a particular phenomenon. Descriptive study - Research study that enables researchers to draw conclusions about the current state of affairs regarding an issue but not about correlation or cause-and-effect relationships. Within-group differences - Variability within any specific group (e.g., a particular gender or cultural group) with respect to particular characteristics and/or behaviors. Elaboration - Cognitive process in which learners embellish on new information based on what they already know or believe. Experimental study - Research study that involves both (a) the manipulation of one variable to determine its possible effect on another variable and (b) control of additional variables that might potentially have an impact on the outcome; allows conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships. Pedagogical content knowledge - Knowledge about effective methods of teaching a specific topic or content area. Educational psychology - Academic discipline that (a) systematically studies the nature of learning, child development, motivation, and related topics and (b) applies its research findings to the identification and development of effective classroom practices. Qualitative research - Research yielding information that cannot easily be reduced to numbers; typically involves an in-depth examination of a complex phenomenon. Conceptual change - Significant revision of one's existing beliefs about a topic, enabling new, discrepant information to be better understood and explained. Mixed-methods study - Research study that includes elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. Chapter 2 Formal operations stage - Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development, in which logical reasoning processes can be applied to abstract ideas as well as to concrete objects. Formal operational egocentrism - Inability of adolescents in Piaget's formal operations stage to separate their own abstract logic from the perspectives of others and from practical considerations. Specific language impairment - Disability characterized by abnormalities in the production or comprehension of spoken language, to the point that special educational services are required. Preoperational egocentrism - Inability of children in Piaget's preoperational stage to look at a situation from another person's perspective; reflects a cognitive limitation, not a personality flaw. Developmental milestones - Appearance of a new, more advanced behavior that indicates significant progress in a child's development. Constructivism - Theoretical perspective proposing that learners actively construct (rather than passively absorb) knowledge and beliefs from their experiences. Internalization - Process through which a learner gradually incorporates socially based activities into his or her internal cognitive processes. Scaffolding - Support mechanism that helps a learner successfully perform a challenging task (i.e., a task within the learner's zone of proximal development). Immersion - Second-language instruction in which students hear and speak that language almost exclusively in the classroom. Guided participation - Process in which a child gains new skills by working on a complex, meaningful task in close collaboration with an adult or more experienced peer. Synapses - Junction between two neurons that allows transmission of messages from one to the other. Apprenticeship - Mentorship in which a novice works with an expert for a lengthy time period to learn how to accomplish increasingly complex tasks within a particular domain. Inner speech - Process of talking to and guiding oneself mentally rather than aloud. Actual developmental level - Upper limit of tasks that a learner can successfully perform independently. Equilibrium - State of being able to address new events with existing schemes. Synaptic pruning - Universal process in brain development in which many previously formed but rarely used synapses gradually wither away. Synaptogenesis - Universal process in brain development in which many new synapses form spontaneously. Conservation - Recognition that if nothing is added or taken away, the amount stays the same, regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement. Cognitive academic language proficiency - (CALP) Mastery of English vocabulary and syntax sufficient for English language learners to achieve academic success in an English-only curriculum. Cognitive tools - Concept, symbol, strategy, procedure, or other culturally constructed mechanism that helps people think about and respond to situations more effectively. Concrete operations stage - Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, in which adult-like logic appears but is largely limited to concrete objects and events. Preoperational stage - Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, in which children can think about objects and events beyond their immediate view but do not yet reason in logical, adult-like ways. Sensitive periods - Age range during which environmental conditions have an especially strong influence on an aspect of a child's development (you may sometimes see the term critical period). Sociocognitive conflict - Situation in which one encounters and has to wrestle with ideas and viewpoints inconsistent with one's own. Cognitive apprenticeship - Mentorship in which an expert and novice work together on challenging tasks, with the expert providing guidance regarding how to think about the tasks. Mediated learning experience - Discussion between an adult and a child in which the adult helps the child make sense of an event they are mutually experiencing. Myelination - Growth of a fatty sheath (myelin) around the axons of neurons, enabling faster transmission of electrical impulses. Bioecological systems theory - Theory proposing that a child's everyday environments and the child's broader social and cultural contexts interact in their influences on the child's development. Accommodation - Process of responding to or thinking about a new object or event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one. Disequilibrium - State of being unable to address new events with existing schemes; typically accompanied by some mental discomfort. Neo-Piagetian theories - Theoretical perspective that combines elements of Piaget's theory with more contemporary research and theories and suggests that development in specific content domains is often stagelike in nature. Maturation - Gradual, genetically driven acquisition of more advanced physical and neurological capabilities over the course of childhood and adolescence. Neurons - Cell in the brain or another part of the nervous system that transmits information to other cells. Cortex - Upper part of the brain; primary site of complex, conscious thinking processes. Sociocultural theory - Theoretical perspective emphasizing the importance of society and culture in promoting learning and development. Bilingual education - Second-language instruction in which students are instructed in academic subject areas in their native language while simultaneously being taught to speak and write in the second language. Culture - Behaviors and belief systems that members of a longstanding social group share and pass along to successive generations. Assimilation - Process of responding to or thinking about an object or event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme. Code-switching - Deliberately switching from using one language to using another language. Subtractive bilingualism - Phenomenon in which complete immersion in a new-language environment leads to deficits in a child's native language. Cognitive development - Development of increasingly sophisticated thinking, reasoning, and language with age. Zone of proximal development - (ZPD) Range of tasks that a learner can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently. Class inclusion - Recognition that an object simultaneously belongs to a particular category and to one of its subcategories. Neurotransmitters - Chemical substance through which one neuron sends a message to another neuron. Phonological awareness - Ability to hear the distinct sounds of which spoken words are composed. Metalinguistic awareness - Ability to think consciously about the nature and functions of language. Level of potential development - Upper limit of tasks that a learner can successfully perform with the assistance of a more competent individual. Language processing - The process that the brain uses to allow humans to understand language as it is used in conversations. Universal - Similar patterns in how children change and progress over time, regardless of their specific environment. Self-talk - Process of talking to oneself as a way of guiding oneself through a task. Equilibration - Movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium and back to equilibrium, a process that promotes development of more complex thought and understandings. Basic interpersonal communication skills - (BICS) Proficiency in English sufficient for day-to-day conversation with English speakers but not sufficient for academic success in an English-only curriculum. Appropriation - Process of internalizing but also adapting the cognitive tools of one's culture for one's own use. Schemes - Organized group of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment. Glial cells - Cell in the brain that supports neurons or general brain functioning. English language learners - (ELLs) School-age child who is not fully fluent in English because of limited exposure to English prior to enrollment in an English-speaking school. Plasticity - Ability to reorganize in order to adapt to changing circumstances; term often used in describing the human brain. Clinical method - Procedure in which an adult presents a task or problem and asks a child a series of questions about it, tailoring later questions to the child's previous responses. Chapter 3 Social development - Development, with age, of increasingly sophisticated understandings of other people and of society as a whole, as well as increasingly effective interpersonal skills and more internalized standards for behavior. Ethnic identity - Awareness of one's membership in a particular ethnic or cultural group, and willingness to adopt behaviors characteristic of the group. Psychological control - The extent to which parents exert control over their children through the use of psychological strategies, such as withholding affection or inducing feelings of guilt. Sense of self - Perceptions, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about oneself as a person; includes self-concept and self-esteem. Behavioral control - The extent to which parents exert control over their children through the use of implementation of rules and communication about expectations. Mirror neurons - Neuron in the brain that fires either when a person is performing a particular behavior or when the person sees someone else perform the behavior. Service learning - Activity that promotes learning and development through contributing to the general betterment of other people and the outside community. Controversial students - Student whom some peers strongly like and other peers strongly dislike. Attachment - Strong, affectionate bond formed between a child and a caregiver. Imaginary audience - Belief that one is the center of attention in any social situation. Popular students - Student whom many peers like and perceive to be kind and trustworthy. Temperament - Genetic predisposition to respond in particular ways to one's physical and social environments. Identity - Self-constructed definition of who one is and what things are important to accomplish in life. Psychological aggression - Action intended to cause mental anguish or reduce self-esteem. Hostile attributional bias - Tendency to interpret others' behaviors as reflecting hostile or aggressive intentions. Cliques - Moderately stable friendship group of perhaps 3 to 10 members. Subculture - Group that resists the ways of the dominant culture and adopts its own norms for behavior. Authoritative parenting - Parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making. Crowds - Large, loose-knit social group that shares certain common interests and behaviors. Child maltreatment - Consistent neglect or abuse of a child that jeopardizes the child's physical and psychological well-being. Social information processing - Mental processes involved in making sense of and responding to social events. Morality - One's general standards regarding right and wrong behaviors. Rejected students - Student whom many peers identify as being an undesirable social companion. Bullies - Person who frequently threatens, harasses, or causes injury to particular peers. Personal fable - Belief that one is completely unlike anyone else and so cannot be understood by others. Conventional transgressions - Action that violates a culture's general expectations regarding socially appropriate behavior. Recursive thinking - Thinking about what other people may be thinking about oneself, possibly through multiple iterations. Self-socialization - Tendency to integrate personal observations and others' input into self-constructed standards for behavior and to choose actions consistent with those standards. Gang - Cohesive social group characterized by initiation rites, distinctive colors and symbols, territorial orientation, and feuds with rival groups. Sympathy - Feeling of sorrow for another person's distress, accompanied by concern for the person's well-being. Neglected students - Student about whom most peers have no strong feelings, either positive or negative. Self-efficacy - Belief that one is capable of executing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals. Moral dilemmas - Situation in which two or more people's rights or needs may be at odds and the morally correct action is not clear-cut. Authoritarian parenting - Parenting style characterized by rigid rules and expectations for behavior that children are asked to obey without question. Guilt - Feeling of discomfort about having caused someone else pain or distress. Culture shock - Sense of confusion when a student encounters a new environment with behavioral expectations very different from those previously learned. Preconventional morality - Lack of internalized standards about right and wrong behaviors; decision making based primarily on what seems best for oneself. Goodness of fit - Situation in which classroom conditions and expectations are compatible with students' temperaments and personality characteristics. Conventional morality - Uncritical acceptance of society's conventions regarding right and wrong behaviors. Prosocial behavior - Behavior directed toward promoting the well-being of people other than oneself. Proactive aggression - Deliberate aggression against another as a means of obtaining a desired goal. Perspective taking - Ability to look at a situation from someone else's viewpoint. Peer contagion - Phenomenon in which certain behaviors, attitudes, and/or values spread from one child or adolescent to another, perhaps through modeling, peer reinforcement, social sanctions, or self-socialization. Physical aggression - Action that can potentially cause bodily injury. Theory of mind - Self-constructed understanding of one's own and other people's mental and psychological states (thoughts, feelings, etc.). Collaborative social reasoning - An instructional strategy in which students are arranged in small groups and discuss social issues in an open, mutually respectful manner. Students are encouraged to consider each others' perspectives, and then to collaboratively come up with a group-generated recommendation. Relational aggression - Action that can adversely affect interpersonal relationships; a form of psychological aggression. Moral transgressions - Action that causes harm or infringes on the needs or rights of others. Effortful control - One's general ability to inhibit immediate impulses in order to think and act productively; believed to be a distinct aspect of temperament that has a biological basis in the brain. Reactive aggression - Aggressive response to frustration or provocation. Digital footprint - The information or data that remains on the internet, potentially indefinitely. Shame - Feeling of embarrassment or humiliation after failing to meet certain standards for moral behavior. Postconventional morality - Thinking in accordance with self-constructed, abstract principles regarding right and wrong behaviors. Cyberbullying - Engaging in psychological aggression via wireless technologies, social media, or the Internet. Empathy - Experience of sharing the same feelings as someone in unfortunate circumstances. Induction - Explanation of why a certain behavior is unacceptable, often with a focus on the pain or distress that someone has caused another. Personal development - Development, with age, of distinctive behavioral patterns and increasingly complex self-understandings. Aggression - Action intentionally taken to hurt another either physically or psychologically. Social reasoning - the mental processes that are invoked when individuals think, reason, or problem-solve about social situations. Personalities - Characteristic ways in which a particular individual behaves, thinks, and feels in a wide range of circumstances. Socialization - Process of molding a child's behavior and beliefs to be appropriate for his or her cultural group. Chapter 4 Stereotype - Rigid, simplistic, and erroneous view of a particular group of people. Wait time - Length of time a teacher pauses, after either asking a question or hearing a student's comment, before saying something. Worldview - General, culturally based set of assumptions about reality that influence understandings of a wide variety of phenomena. Group differences - Consistently observed differences (on average) among diverse groups of students (e.g., students of different genders or ethnic backgrounds). Dialect - Form of a language that has certain unique pronunciations, idioms, and grammatical structures and is characteristic of a particular region or ethnic group. Visual--spatial ability - Ability to imagine and mentally manipulate two- and three-dimensional figures. Control-group - Group of people in a research study who are given either no intervention or a placebo treatment that is unlikely to have an effect on the dependent variable. Intersectionality - The consideration of the complexity and diversity of students' identities. IRE cycle - Adult--child interaction marked by adult initiation (usually involving a question), child response, and adult evaluation. Socioeconomic status - (SES) One's general social and economic standing in society; encompasses family income, occupation, and educational level. Gender-fluidity - flexibility in the ways in which an individual describes their gender. Ethnic group - People who have common historical roots, values, beliefs, and behaviors and who share a sense of interdependence. Multicultural education - Instruction that integrates the perspectives and experiences of numerous cultural groups throughout the curriculum. Culture - Behaviors and belief systems that members of a longstanding social group share and pass along to successive generations. Gender schemas - Self-constructed, organized body of beliefs about characteristics and behaviors of males or females. Code-switching - Deliberately switching from using one language to using another language. Stereotype threat - Awareness of a negative stereotype about one's own group and accompanying uneasiness that low performance will confirm the stereotype; leads (often unintentionally) to lower-quality performance. Resilient students - Student who succeeds in school and in life despite exceptional hardships at home. Students at risk - Students with a high probability of failing to acquire the minimal academic skills necessary for success in the adult world. Gender-nonconforming - The tendency to not conform to traditional societal expectations of behavior associated with being either female or male. Standard English - Form of English generally considered acceptable at school, as reflected in textbooks and grammar instruction. African American English - Dialect of some African American communities that includes some pronunciations, idioms, and grammatical constructions different from those of Standard English. Cultural mismatch - Situation in which a student's home culture and the school culture hold conflicting expectations for behavior. Personal space - Personally or culturally preferred distance between people during social interaction. Acculturation - Gradual process of adopting the values and customs of a new culture. Culturally responsive teaching - Use of instructional strategies that build on students' existing knowledge and skills and that accommodate their accustomed ways of behaving and learning. Chapter 5 Externalizing behaviors - Symptom of an emotional or behavioral disorder that has a direct effect on other people (e.g., aggression, lack of self-control). Cognitive styles - Characteristic way in which a learner tends to think about a task and process new information; typically comes into play automatically rather than by choice. Learning disabilities - Deficiencies in one or more specific cognitive processes but not in overall cognitive functioning. Speech and communication disorders - Impairments in spoken language or language comprehension that significantly interfere with classroom performance. IQ scores - Score on an intelligence test, determined by comparing a person's performance on the test with that of others in the same age-group; for most tests, it's a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder - (ADHD) Disorder marked by inattention, hyperactivity, impulsive behavior, or some combination of these characteristics. Multi-Tiered Systems of Support - (MTSS) Systematic, schoolwide approach in which students' academic and/or behavioral difficulties are addressed with three or more distinct levels of intervention and support, with individual students being moved from one level to another as their current abilities and needs require. Internalizing behaviors - Symptom of an emotional or behavioral disorder that adversely affects the student with the disorder but has little or no direct effect on other people (e.g., depression, social withdrawal). Visual impairments - Malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that prevents normal vision even with corrective lenses. Intelligence - Ability to apply prior knowledge and experiences flexibly to accomplish challenging new tasks. People-first language - Language usage in which a student's disability is identified after the student is named. Response to intervention - (RTI) Approach to diagnosing significant learning difficulties in which students are identified for in-depth assessment after failing to master certain basic skills despite evidence-based whole-class and small-group instructional practices. G - Theoretical general factor in intelligence that influences one's ability to learn and perform in a wide variety of contexts. Hearing loss - Malfunction of the ears or associated nerves that interferes with perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal human speech. Differentiated instruction - Practice of individualizing instructional methods---and possibly also individualizing specific content and instructional goals---to align with each student's existing knowledge, skills, and needs. Distributed intelligence - Enhancement of thinking through the use of physical objects and technology, concepts and symbols of one's culture, and/or social collaboration and support. Individualized education program - (IEP) Written description of an appropriate instructional program for a student with special needs. Students with special needs - Students different enough from their peers that they require specially adapted instructional materials and practices to maximize their learning and achievement. Assistive technology - Any electronic or nonelectronic device that can enhance certain abilities or performance areas for students with disabilities. Autism spectrum disorders - Disorders marked by impaired social cognition, social skills, and social interaction, presumably due to a brain abnormality; extreme forms often associated with significant cognitive and linguistic delays and highly unusual behaviors. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act - (IDEA) U.S. federal legislation granting educational rights from birth until age 21 for people with cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities. Physical and health impairments - General physical or medical condition that interferes so significantly with school performance that special accommodations are required. Giftedness - Unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more areas, to such a degree that students require special educational services to help them meet their full potential. Language comprehension - The auditory processing of language (i.e., language that one hears) as well as the decoding of language (i.e., attaching meaning to words and sentences). Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports - (SWPBIS) Systematic use of behaviorist principles to encourage and reinforce productive behaviors in all students; typically involves multiple layers of support in order to accommodate the varying needs and behavior patterns of different students. Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports - (PBIS) Variation of traditional applied behavior analysis that involves identifying the purposes of undesirable behaviors and encouraging alternative behaviors that more appropriately accomplish those purposes. Adaptive behavior - Behavior related to daily living skills or appropriate conduct in social situations; used as a criterion for identifying students with intellectual disabilities. Crystallized intelligence - Knowledge and skills accumulated from prior experience, schooling, and culture. Fluid intelligence - Ability to acquire knowledge quickly and adapt effectively to new situations. Severe and multiple disabilities - Combination of two or more disabilities that, taken together, require significant classroom adaptations and highly specialized educational services. Universal design - An approach to instruction that provides flexibility in the presentation of content, to meet the needs of all students. Wisdom - the ability to use one's knowledge and skills toward the good of oneself and others. Least restrictive environment - Most typical and standard educational environment that can reasonably meet the needs of a student with a disability. Individual differences - Diversity in abilities and characteristics (intelligence, personality, etc.) among students at a particular age and within a particular gender or cultural group. Dispositions - General inclination to approach and think about learning and problem-solving tasks in a particular way; typically has a motivational component in addition to cognitive components. Emotional and behavioral disorders - Emotional states and behavior patterns that consistently and significantly disrupt academic learning and performance. Intelligence tests - General measure of current level of cognitive functioning; often used to predict academic achievement in the short run. High functioning autism - a mild form of autism spectrum disorder characterized by normal language skills and average to above-average intelligence. Inclusion - Practice of educating all students, including those with severe and multiple disabilities, in neighborhood schools and general education classrooms. Intellectual disability - Disability characterized by significantly below-average general intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior, both of which first appear in infancy or childhood. Chapter 6 Baseline - Frequency of a response before it is intentionally and systematically reinforced. Antecedent responses - Response that influences the probability that a certain other response will follow. Applied behavior analysis - (ABA) Systematic application of behaviorist principles in educational and therapeutic settings. Negative reinforcement - Consequence that brings about the increase of a behavior through the removal (rather than the presentation) of a stimulus. Behavioral momentum - Increased tendency for a learner to make a particular response immediately after making similar responses. Presentation punishment - Punishment involving presentation of a new stimulus, presumably one a learner finds unpleasant. Interval schedule of reinforcement - Once a behavior has occurred, a stimulus or consequence is presented to the learner after a certain period of time has passed, in order to increase the frequency of the behavior. Situated learning - Knowledge, behaviors, and thinking skills acquired and used primarily within certain contexts, with limited or no retrieval and use in other contexts; sometimes involves dependence on physical or social support mechanisms available only in certain contexts. Response cost - Loss either of a previously earned reinforcer or of an opportunity to obtain reinforcement. Operant conditioning - Learning process in which a response increases as a result of being followed by reinforcement; is one form of instrumental conditioning. Functional analysis - Examination of inappropriate behavior and its antecedents and consequences to determine one or more purposes (functions) that the behavior might serve for the learner. Conditioned response - (CR) Response that begins to be elicited by a particular (conditioned) stimulus through classical conditioning. Responses - \(R) Specific behavior that an individual exhibits. Neutral stimulus - Stimulus that does not presently elicit any particular response. Time-out - Consequence for misbehavior in which a learner cannot interact with others and has no opportunity to receive the kinds of reinforcement to which classmates have access. Extinction - Gradual disappearance of an acquired response. In classical conditioning, it results from repeated presentation of a conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus; in instrumental conditioning, it results from repeated lack of reinforcement. Continuous reinforcement - Reinforcement of a response every time it occurs. Classical conditioning - Form of learning in which a new, involuntary response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being presented close together in time. Reinforcement - Consequence (stimulus) of a response that increases the frequency of the response it follows; the act of following a response with a reinforcer is known as reinforcement. Conditioning - Term commonly used by behaviorists for learning; typically involves specific environmental events leading to the acquisition of specific responses. Contextual theories - Theoretical perspective that focuses on how people's general physical, social, and/or cultural surroundings support their learning, development, and behavior. Intrinsic reinforcers - Reinforcer that is provided by the learner or inherent in the task being performed. Individual constructivism - Theoretical perspective that focuses on how learners each construct their own idiosyncratic meanings from their experiences. Contingency contract - Formal agreement between a teacher and a student that identifies behaviors the student will exhibit and the reinforcers that will follow. Behaviorism - Theoretical perspective in which learning and behavior are described and explained in terms of stimulus--response relationships. Delay of gratification - Ability to forego small, immediate reinforcers in order to obtain larger ones later on. Removal punishment - Punishment involving withdrawal of an existing stimulus, presumably one a learner doesn't want to lose. Generalization - Phenomenon in which a person learns a response to a particular stimulus and then makes the same response to a similar stimulus. In classical conditioning, it involves making a conditioned response to a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus; in instrumental conditioning, it involves making a voluntary response to a stimulus that is similar to one previously associated with a response--reinforcement contingency. Conditioned stimulus - (CS) Stimulus that, through classical conditioning, begins to elicit a particular response as a result of being experienced in conjunction with another (unconditioned) stimulus. Punishment - Consequence (stimulus) that decreases the frequency of the response it follows. Secondary reinforcers - Consequence that becomes reinforcing over time through its association with another reinforcer. Psychological punishment - Consequence that seriously threatens self-esteem and general psychological well-being. Stimuli - \(S) Specific object or event that influences an individual's learning or behavior. Unconditioned response - (UCR) Response that is already elicited by a particular (unconditioned) stimulus in the situation at hand. Primary reinforcers - Consequence that satisfies a biologically or psychologically built-in need. Extrinsic reinforcers - Reinforcer that comes from the outside environment, rather than from within the learner. Ratio schedule of reinforcement - Once a behavior has occurred, a stimulus or consequence is presented to the learner after a certain number of responses has occurred, in order to increase the frequency of the behavior. Contiguity - Occurrence of two or more events (e.g., two stimuli, or a stimulus and a response) at approximately the same time. Setting event - Complex environmental condition that is likely to evoke certain voluntary behaviors. Multi-tiered system of support - (MTSS) Systematic, schoolwide approach in which students' academic and/or behavioral difficulties are addressed with three or more distinct levels of intervention and support, with individual students being moved from one level to another as their current abilities and needs require. Discrimination - Phenomenon in which a student learns that a response is reinforced in the presence of one stimulus but not in the presence of another, similar stimulus. Group contingency - Situation in which everyone in a group must make a particular response before reinforcement occurs. Social constructivism - Theoretical perspective that focuses on people's collective efforts to impose meaning on the world. Intermittent reinforcement - Reinforcement of a response only occasionally, with some occurrences of the response not being reinforced. Cueing - Use of a verbal or nonverbal signal to indicate that a certain behavior is desired or that a certain behavior should stop. Reinforcers - Consequence (stimulus) of a response that increases the frequency of the response it follows; the act of following a response with a reinforcer is known as reinforcement. Positive reinforcement - Consequence that brings about the increase of a behavior through the presentation (rather than the removal) of a stimulus. Instrumental conditioning - Learning process in which a response either increases or decreases as a result of being followed by either reinforcement or punishment, respectively. Cognitive psychology - General theoretical perspective that focuses on the mental processes underlying learning and behavior; encompasses information processing theory, individual constructivism, and related perspectives. Contingency - Situation in which one event happens only after another event has already occurred; one event is contingent on the other's occurrence. Token economy - Technique in which desired behaviors are reinforced by small, insignificant items (tokens) that learners can use to "purchase" a variety of other, more desirable reinforcers. Induction - Explanation of why a certain behavior is unacceptable, often with a focus on the pain or distress that someone has caused another. Learning - Long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience. Target behaviors - Specific, concrete response that a teacher or therapist wants to either increase or decrease by means of a systematic intervention. Shaping - Process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations to a desired terminal behavior. Antecedent stimuli - Stimulus that influences the probability that a particular response will follow. Information-processing theory - Theoretical perspective that focuses on the specific ways in which learners mentally think about, or process, new information and events. Unconditioned stimulus - (UCS) Stimulus that already elicits a particular response in the situation at hand. Incompatible behaviors - Two or more behaviors that cannot be performed simultaneously. Chapter 7 Maintenance rehearsal - Rapid repetition of a small amount of information to keep it fresh in working memory. Executive functions - General mental processes that humans use to control what they pay attention to, think about, and learn; are presumed to occur within working memory. Prior knowledge activation - Process of reminding learners of what they already know relative to a new topic. Meaningful learning set - Earnest and ongoing effort to make sense of the information one is studying. Constructivism - Theoretical perspective proposing that learners actively construct (rather than passively absorb) knowledge and beliefs from their experiences. Encoding - Mentally changing the format of new information in order to think about it or remember it more easily. Confirmation bias - Tendency to seek information that confirms rather than discredits one's current beliefs. Consolidation - Neurological process in which newly acquired knowledge is firmed up in the brain; often takes several hours, sometimes even longer. Meaningful learning - Cognitive process in which learners relate new information to what they already know. Computer-based instruction - (CBI) Academic instruction provided by means of specially designed computer software and/or Internet websites. Cognitive neuroscience - Study of how various brain structures and functions are related to human learning and behavior; also known as neuropsychology. Misconceptions - Belief that is inconsistent with commonly accepted and well-validated explanations of phenomena or events. Astrocytes - Star-shaped brain cell hypothesized to be involved in learning and memory; has chemically mediated connections with many other astrocytes and with neurons. Automaticity - Ability to respond quickly and efficiently while mentally processing or physically performing a task. Situated learning - Knowledge, behaviors, and thinking skills acquired and used primarily within certain contexts, with limited or no retrieval and use in other contexts; sometimes involves dependence on physical or social support mechanisms available only in certain contexts. Interdisciplinary instruction - Instruction in which concepts and ideas from two or more distinct academic domains (e.g., science and writing, or mathematics and social studies) are blended within a single lesson or, more generally, across the curriculum. Wait time - Length of time a teacher pauses, after either asking a question or hearing a student's comment, before saying something. Hot cognition - Learning or cognitive processing that is emotionally charged. Concept maps - Diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; can enhance learning and memory of a topic. Retrieval - Mental process of finding information previously stored in memory. Storage - Mental process of putting new information into memory. Cognitive load - Cognitive burden that a particular learning activity places on working memory at any one time; includes both the amount of information learners must simultaneously think about and the specific cognitive processes learners must engage in to understand what they're studying. Reconstruction error - Construction of a logical but incorrect "memory" by combining information retrieved from one's long-term memory with one's general knowledge and beliefs about the world. Knowledge base - One's existing knowledge about specific topics and the world in general. Distance learning - Technology-based instruction in which students are at a location physically separate from that of their instructor. Long-term memory - Component of memory that holds knowledge and skills for a relatively long time. Individual constructivism - Theoretical perspective that focuses on how learners each construct their own idiosyncratic meanings from their experiences. Personal theories - Personally constructed, integrated set of concepts and principles developed to explain a particular phenomenon; may or may not be consistent with a well-established scientific theory. Construction - Mental process in which a learner takes many separate pieces of information and uses them to build an overall understanding or interpretation. Decay - Gradual weakening of information stored in long-term memory, especially if the information is used infrequently or not at all. Activation - Degree to which something in memory is being actively attended to and mentally processed. Procedural knowledge - Knowledge concerning how to do something (e.g., a skill). Keyword method - Mnemonic technique in which a learner mentally connects two ideas by forming a visual image of one or more concrete objects (keywords) that either sound similar to or symbolically represent those ideas. Conceptual understanding - Meaningfully learned and well-integrated knowledge about a topic, including many logical connections among specific concepts and ideas. Organization - Cognitive process in which learners make connections among various pieces of information they need to learn (e.g., by forming categories, identifying hierarchies, determining cause and- effect relationships). Explicit knowledge - Knowledge that a person is consciously aware of and can verbally describe. Memory - Ability to mentally save something that has been previously learned; also, the mental "location" where such information is saved. Superimposed meaningful structures - Familiar shape, word, sentence, poem, or story imposed on information in order to facilitate recall. Intelligent tutoring systems - Computer software program that provides individually tailored instruction and practice, supplemented with ongoing guidance and feedback, related to a particular topic and set of skills. Declarative knowledge - Knowledge concerning the nature of how things are, were, or will, or might be. Visual imagery - Process of forming a mental picture of an object or idea. Online learning - Approach to instruction in which students engage in interactive learning activities on the Internet. Internal organization - Cognitive process in which learners make connections among various pieces of information they need to learn (e.g., by forming categories, identifying hierarchies, determining cause-and-effect relationships). Elaboration - Cognitive process in which learners embellish on new information based on what they already know or believe. Conditional knowledge - Knowledge concerning appropriate ways to respond (physically or mentally) under various circumstances. Retrieval cue - Stimulus that provides guidance about where to "look" for a piece of information in long-term memory. Working memory - Component of memory that holds and actively thinks about and processes a limited amount of information for a short time. Neuropsychology - Study of how various brain structures and functions are related to human learning and behavior; also known as cognitive neuroscience. Sensory register - Component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a very brief period of time (2 or 3 seconds at most, depending on the modality). Schemas - Tightly organized set of facts about a specific topic. Script - Schema that involves a predictable sequence of events related to a common activity. Attention - Focusing of mental processing on particular stimuli. Cognitive processes - Particular way of thinking about and mentally responding to a certain event or piece of information. Rehearsal - Cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over within a short time frame (typically a few minutes or less) as a possible way of learning and remembering it. Mnemonics - Memory aid or trick designed to help students learn and remember one or more specific pieces of information. Central executive - Component of human memory that oversees the flow of information throughout the memory system. Conceptual change - Significant revision of one's existing beliefs about a topic, enabling new, discrepant information to be better understood and explained. Rote learning - Learning information in a relatively uninterpreted form, without making sense of it or attaching much meaning to it. Concepts - Mental grouping of objects or events that have something in common. Implicit knowledge - Knowledge that a person cannot consciously recall or explain but that nevertheless affects the person's thinking or behavior. Information-processing theory - Theoretical perspective that focuses on the specific ways in which learners mentally think about, or process, new information and events. Interference - Phenomenon whereby something stored in long-term memory inhibits one's ability to remember something else correctly. Chapter 8 Convergent thinking - Process of pulling together several pieces of information to draw a conclusion or solve a problem. Self-instruction - Instructions that one gives oneself while performing a complex behavior. Hypermedia - Collection of computer-based and electronically linked multimedia materials (e.g., text, pictures, sound, animations) that students can examine in a sequence of their own choosing. Specific transfer - Instance of transfer in which the original learning task and the transfer task overlap in content. Problem solving - Using existing knowledge and skills to address an unanswered question or troubling situation. Argument analysis - Close inspection and evaluation of reasons (arguments) that do and do not support a particular conclusion; is a form of critical thinking. Asynchronous online learning - Format of online learning in which the teacher and the students do not interact with each other in real time; often the teacher will record video or audio lectures that students can review whenever they choose to. Interleaved practice - Instructional strategy in which a teacher mixes several different kinds of problems within a single learning activity, thereby requiring students to consciously think about which problem-solving strategy would be appropriate for each one; tends to minimize the influence of unproductive mental sets during the activity. Synchronous online learning - A format of online learning in which the teacher and the students interact with each other in real time, just as if they were in a regular face-to-face classroom. Self-regulated problem solving - Use of self-directed strategies to address complex problems. Emotion regulation - Process of keeping in check or intentionally altering feelings that might lead to counterproductive behavior. Proximal goals - Concrete goal that can be accomplished within a short time period; may be a stepping stone toward a long-term goal. Transfer - Phenomenon in which something a person has learned at one time affects how the person learns or performs in a later situation. Problem-based learning - Classroom activity in which students acquire new knowledge and skills while working on a complex problem similar to one that might exist in the outside world. Cognitive load - Cognitive burden that a particular learning activity places on working memory at any one time; includes both the amount of information learners must simultaneously think about and the specific cognitive processes learners must engage in to understand what they're studying. Self-regulation - Process of setting goals for oneself and engaging in behaviors and cognitive processes that lead to goal attainment. General transfer - Instance of transfer in which the original learning task and the transfer task are different in content. Self-monitoring - Process of observing and recording one's own behavior. Overt strategies - Learning strategy that is at least partially evident in a learner's behavior (e.g., taking notes during a lecture). Authentic activities - Classroom activity similar to an activity that students are apt to encounter in the outside world. Formal discipline - View of transfer reflecting the idea that the study of rigorous subject matter enhances one's ability to learn other, unrelated things. Metacognition - Knowledge and beliefs about the nature of human cognitive processes (including one's own), as well as conscious attempts to engage in behaviors and thought processes that increase learning and memory. Ill-defined problem - Problem in which the desired goal is unclear, some information needed to solve the problem is missing, and/or several possible solutions to the problem may exist. Culture of transfer - Learning environment in which applying school subject matter to new situations, cross-disciplinary contexts, and real-world problems is both the expectation and the norm. Creativity - New and original behavior that yields a productive and culturally appropriate result. Epistemic beliefs - Belief about the nature of knowledge or knowledge acquisition. Intelligent tutoring systems - Computer software program that provides individually tailored instruction and practice, supplemented with ongoing guidance and feedback, related to a particular topic and set of skills. Well-defined problem - Problem in which the goal is clearly stated, all the information needed to solve the problem is present, and only one correct answer exists. Algorithm - Prescribed sequence of steps that guarantees a correct problem solution. Complex cognitive processes - Cognitive process that involves going well beyond the information specifically learned; for example, it might involve analyzing, applying, or evaluating the information. Higher-level questions - Question that requires students to use previously learned information in a new way---that is, to engage in one or more complex cognitive processes. Positive transfer - Phenomenon in which something learned at one time facilitates learning or performance at a later time. Comprehension monitoring - Process of checking oneself to verify understanding and memory of newly acquired information. Self-regulated learning - Regulation of one's own cognitive processes and studying behaviors in order to learn successfully. Distal goals - Long-term goals that students hope to reach over an extended period of time. Self-regulated behavior - Self-chosen and self-directed behavior that leads to the fulfillment of personally constructed standards and goals. Heuristic - General strategy that facilitates problem solving but doesn't always yield a viable solution. Illusion of knowing - Thinking one knows something that one actually does not know. Effortful control - One's general ability to inhibit immediate impulses in order to think and act productively; believed to be a distinct aspect of temperament that has a biological basis in the brain. Covert strategies - Learning strategy that is strictly mental (rather than behavioral) in nature and thus cannot be directly observed by others. Learning strategy - One or more cognitive processes used intentionally for a particular learning task. Co-regulated learning - Process through which an adult and child share responsibility for directing various aspects of the child's learning; alternatively, collaborative process in which one or more learners jointly support and monitor one another's learning progress. Critical thinking - Process of evaluating the accuracy, credibility, and worth of information and lines of reasoning. Negative transfer - Phenomenon in which something learned at one time interferes with learning or performance at a later time. Self-evaluation - Process of judging one's own performance or behavior. Self-explanation - Process of occasionally stopping to verbalize to oneself (and hence to better understand) material being read or studied. Self-imposed contingencies - Self-reinforcement or self-punishment that follows a behavior. Refutation texts - That identify a common misperception that students often hold, refute the misperception with evidence, and explain the new evidence in an easy-to-understand manner. Self-questioning - Process of asking oneself questions as a way of checking one's understanding of a topic. Mental set - Inclination to encode a problem in a way that excludes potential solutions. Divergent thinking - Process of mentally moving in a variety of directions from a single idea. **Theme** The lecture emphasizes the interplay between maturation, learning, and environmental factors in human development and cognitive growth, highlighting the importance of critical and sensitive periods.  **Takeaways** 1. Maturation, learning, and development are key topics.  2. Environmental stimulation is crucial for neural development.  3. Synaptic pruning makes the brain more efficient.  4. Language is crucial for cognitive development.  5. Critical periods are times when skills must be acquired.  6. Development is influenced by maturational, experiential, and sociocultural factors.  7. Behavioral genetics research uses twin studies to understand genetic and environmental influences.  8. Piaget\'s theory emphasizes that children think differently from adults.  9. Collaboration and communication were crucial for survival and hunting.  Highlights - \"Development, fundamentally, is a combination of maturational, experiential, and sociocultural influences. - \"Genetic materials never function without the environmental stimulation.\"\-- Speaker 1  - \"We human beings use our mind to adapt. 1. **Human Development, Psychology, and Education ** The lecture covers the importance of maturation, learning, and development in human growth. These concepts are crucial for understanding human development, psychology, and education. - Maturation, learning, and development are key topics. - Human development involves evolving as a person. - Maturation includes brain development and neural connections. 2. **Maturation and Neural Connections ** Maturation involves the development of neural connections, which are essential for learning and memory. Synaptic pruning helps make the brain more efficient by removing redundant connections. - Maturation involves brain and muscle development. - Neural connections are crucial for learning and memory. - Synaptic pruning makes the brain more efficient. 3. **Learning and Cognitive Development ** Learning is a fundamental part of cognitive development, which is not entirely pre-programmed. Experience plays a significant role in shaping cognitive abilities. - Learning is essential for cognitive development. - Experience shapes cognitive abilities. 4. **Synaptic Connections and Pruning ** Synaptic connections are the basis for neural communication and learning. Synaptic pruning occurs to remove unnecessary connections, making the brain more efficient. - Synaptic connections enable neural communication. - Synaptic pruning removes unnecessary connections. 5. **Environmental Influence on Neural Development ** Environmental stimulation is crucial for neural development, especially in early childhood. The concept of a critical period suggests that early stimulation is necessary for optimal development. 1. Environmental stimulation is crucial for neural development. 2. Critical period theory emphasizes the importance of early stimulation. **6. Synaptic Pruning ** Synaptic pruning is a natural biological process that makes the brain more efficient as it ages. It is not significantly influenced by the amount of stimulation infants receive, assuming normal levels of stimulation. 1. Synaptic pruning is a natural process. 2. It makes the brain more efficient. 3. It is not heavily influenced by external stimulation. **7. Environmental Influence on Brain Development ** Environmental factors, such as light and social interaction, are crucial for proper brain development. Lack of stimulation can lead to severe developmental issues, as evidenced by animal studies and cases like that of a girl kept in the dark. - Light and social interaction are crucial for brain development. - Lack of stimulation can cause severe developmental issues. - Animal studies show that deprivation can lead to blindness. **8. Maturation Process ** The maturation process involves the hard wiring of the brain\'s systems, which requires exposure to environmental stimuli like light and nutrition. This process is critical for the proper development of cognitive and sensory systems. 1. Maturation involves hard wiring of brain systems. 2. Exposure to light and nutrition is essential. 3. Proper development of cognitive and sensory systems depends on this process. **9. Language and Cognitive Development ** Language is a fundamental tool for cognitive development. Cases like Victor, the boy raised by wolves, show that lack of linguistic interaction can severely damage cognitive abilities. 1. Language is crucial for cognitive development. 2. Lack of linguistic interaction can damage cognitive abilities. 3. Victor\'s case illustrates the importance of language. **10. Critical and Sensitive Periods ** Critical periods are specific times when certain skills must be acquired, or the opportunity is lost forever. Sensitive periods are times when learning is easier but not impossible outside this window. 1. Critical periods are times when skills must be acquired. 2. Sensitive periods are times when learning is easier. 3. Examples include language acquisition and visual system development. **11. Second Language Learning ** Second language learning has a sensitive period, typically around eight years old. After this period, mastering pronunciation becomes difficult, though semantics may be less of a barrier for adults. - Bilingual and trilingual environments facilitate language learning in children. - Optimal period for second language learning is around eight years old. - Adults may have an advantage in understanding concepts and structure in a second language. **12. Development and Environmental Stimulation ** Development is influenced by a combination of maturational, experiential, and sociocultural factors. Growth spurts can occur after a period of accumulation, leading to sudden advancements. 1. Development is influenced by maturational, experiential, and sociocultural factors. 2. Growth spurts occur after a period of accumulation. 3. Environmental stimulation is crucial for learning and survival. **13. Nature vs. Nurture ** The nature vs. nurture debate has been ongoing for a century in psychology. Behavioral genetics research, particularly studies on twins, helps to understand the influence of genetics and environment. 1. Nature vs. nurture debate has been ongoing for a century. 2. Behavioral genetics research uses twin studies to understand genetic and environmental influences. 3. Identical twins share 100% genetics, while fraternal twins share 50%. **14. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Development ** The lecture discusses the interplay between genetic and environmental factors in determining physical and psychological traits. It highlights that while genetics play a significant role, environmental factors are equally crucial. The complexity arises because genetic expression is contingent on environmental stimulation. 1. Identical twins are always of the same sex, while fraternal twins can be of different sexes. 2. Physical characteristics like eye color, hair color, and height are genetically determined. 3. Psychological traits, including IQ, are influenced by both genetics and environment. 4. Behavioral genetic research suggests a 50-50 influence of genetics and environment. 5. Genetic expression is environment-dependent. **15. Developmental Rates and Processes ** Development does not occur at a constant, smooth rate. It involves growth spurts and periods of stagnation. Physical development may peak in adolescence, but cognitive development, such as the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, continues into later years. 1. Development is not a constant, smooth process. 2. Growth spurts and stagnant periods are common. 3. Metabolism rates peak around age 16 and decline thereafter. 4. Cognitive development, including the prefrontal cortex, continues into later years. **16. Synaptic Pruning and Environmental Stimulation ** Synaptic pruning in early childhood is not solely due to inadequate environmental stimulation. The brain develops in a normal environment regardless of additional stimuli like music. However, extreme deprivation can hinder development. 1. Synaptic pruning occurs in early childhood. 2. Normal brain development happens regardless of additional stimuli. 3. Extreme deprivation can hinder development. **17. Language Learning and Production Deficiency ** There is a distinction between receptive and productive language skills. Second language learners often experience production deficiency, where they understand but struggle to speak or write the language. 1. Receptive language involves understanding spoken or written language. 2. Productive language involves speaking or writing the language. 3. Second language learners often face production deficiency. **18. Sensitive and Critical Periods in Development**  Sensitive periods are times when environmental conditions are most likely to affect development, but they do not completely stop the process. Critical periods, however, are times when certain developments must occur, or they may never happen. 1. Sensitive periods allow for environmental influence on development. 2. Critical periods are essential for certain developments to occur. **19. Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development ** Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist with a background in biology, significantly contributed to our understanding of cognitive development. His work, along with that of Lev Vygotsky, frames much of the current conversation on cognitive development and learning. 1. Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist with a background in biology. 2. Piaget\'s work is fundamental to understanding cognitive development. 3. Vygotsky\'s work is also crucial in this field. **20. Binet-Simon Intelligence Test ** The Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, developed by French psychologists Binet and Simon, was the first intelligence test. It was later adapted by Lewis Terman at Stanford University, becoming the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. 1. The Binet-Simon Intelligence Test was the first intelligence test. 2. It was developed to identify children with academic difficulties. 3. Lewis Terman adapted it into the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. **21. Piaget\'s Theory of Cognitive Development ** Piaget\'s theory emphasizes that children think differently from adults. He introduced concepts such as schemes, sensory motor stages, pre-operational stages, and the importance of symbolic representation. Piaget also discussed adaptation through assimilation and accommodation, highlighting how children adapt their cognitive structures to understand the world. 1. Children think differently than adults. 2. Schemes are behavioral patterns used to interact with the environment. 3. Sensorimotor stage involves using senses and motor skills to understand the world. 4. Pre-operational stage involves using symbols and language but lacks logical organization. 5. Adaptation involves assimilation (using existing schemes) and accommodation (modifying schemes). **22. Human Strength and Brain Development ** Humans, despite not being as physically strong as some animals, use their brains to collaborate and hunt effectively. 1. Humans are not as physically strong as some animals. 2. Humans use their brains to collaborate and hunt big animals. 3. Collaboration reduces the need for physical strength. **23. Living in a Complex Social World ** Humans live in a complex social world that requires learning and cognitive development. 1. Humans live in a complex social world. 2. Cognitive development is necessary to navigate this world. **24. A Brief History of Human Time ** The book \'A Brief History of Human Time\' discusses the cognitive development of humans due to the need to hunt big animals. 1. The book \'A Brief History of Human Time\' explores human cognitive development. 2. Hunting big animals required collaboration and cognitive skills. **25. Hunting and Gathering Society ** Before agriculture, humans lived in a hunting and gathering society, living in caves and gathering naturally growing resources. 1. Humans lived in caves during the hunting and gathering period. 2. They gathered naturally growing resources. **26. Agricultural Revolution ** The development of agriculture, particularly seed technology, allowed humans to settle in one place and marked a significant turning point in human history. 1. Agriculture developed due to seed technology. 2. This allowed humans to settle in one place. **27. Importance of Collaboration and Language ** Collaboration and communication were crucial for survival and hunting, leading to the development of sophisticated language. 1. Collaboration was essential for hunting big animals. 2. Communication was necessary for effective collaboration. 3. This led to the development of sophisticated language. **28. Equilibration and Disequilibration in PRJ\'s Development Theory ** Equilibration and disequilibration are fundamental concepts in PRJ\'s development theory. When individuals understand the world and everything happens as expected, they are in equilibrium. However, when unexpected events occur, they experience disequilibration, leading to confusion and a natural attempt to restore equilibrium through understanding. 1. Equilibration occurs when individuals understand the world and everything happens as expected. 2. Disequilibration happens when unexpected events cause confusion. 3. The mind tries to restore equilibrium by understanding the unexpected events. 4. This process involves accommodation and assimilation. **29. Accommodation and Equilibration ** Accommodation involves understanding and explaining the world without resorting to gossip. Equilibration is the process of coming to terms with the world and understanding it as it is. 1. Accommodation involves understanding and explaining the world. 2. Equilibration is the process of coming to terms with the world. **30. Piaget\'s Cognitive Development Theory ** Piaget\'s theory of cognitive development is fundamental and involves four stages: sensory motor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Each stage is crucial for reaching full human intelligence. 1. Four stages of cognitive development: sensory motor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. 2. Sensory motor stage (birth to 2 years): Development through experiences and movement. 3. Pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years): Symbolic functions and intuitive thoughts. 4. Concrete operational stage: Development of concrete cognitive operations. 5. Formal operational stage: Ability to think rationally about abstract concepts and hypothetical events. **31. Sensory Motor Stage ** In the sensorimotor stage, children develop through experiences and movement, leading to the development of working memory and object permanence. 1. Development through experiences and movement. 2. Development of working memory and object permanence. **32. Pre-operational Stage ** In the preoperational stage, children develop symbolic functions and intuitive thoughts, engage in pretend play, and begin to understand the world symbolically. 1. Development of symbolic functions and intuitive thoughts. 2. Engagement in pretend play. 3. Understanding the world symbolically. **33. Concrete Operational Stage ** In the concrete operational stage, children develop concrete cognitive operations, such as inductive reasoning and understanding the conservation of quantity. 1. Development of concrete cognitive operations. 2. Inductive reasoning. 3. Understanding the conservation of quantity. **34. Formal Operational Stage**  In the formal operational stage, individuals develop the ability to think rationally about abstract concepts and hypothetical events, leading to advanced cognitive abilities. 1. Ability to think rationally about abstract concepts and hypothetical events. 2. Development of advanced cognitive abilities. **35. Object Permanence**  Object permanence is a crucial concept in Piaget\'s theory, allowing individuals to understand that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible. 1. Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not visible. 2. Importance of object permanence in cognitive development. **36. Egocentrism ** Egocentrism, in Piaget\'s theory, refers to the tendency to see things from one\'s own perspective. It is a natural human trait and not related to selfishness. 1. Egocentrism refers to seeing things from one\'s own perspective. 2. It is a natural human trait and not related to selfishness. **37. Critiques of Piaget\'s Theory ** Critics argue that Piaget underestimated children\'s capabilities and overestimated adults\' cognitive development. Children can empathize and think logically at a younger age than Piaget suggested. 1. Piaget underestimated children\'s capabilities. 2. Children can empathize and think logically at a younger age. 3. Piaget overestimated adults\' cognitive development. **38. Assimilation ** Assimilation involves understanding new information based on previous knowledge. For example, dribbling a new soccer ball the same way as a basketball. 1. Understanding new information based on previous knowledge. 2. Example: Dribbling a new soccer ball the same way as a basketball. **39. Object Permanence and Piaget\'s Theory ** The lecture discusses the concept of object permanence and Piaget\'s ideas of assimilation and accommodation. Over-assimilation and over-accommodation are explained as tendencies that can lead to misunderstandings. 1. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. 2. Assimilation and accommodation are key processes in Piaget\'s theory of cognitive development. 3. Over-assimilation is similar to overgeneralization. 4. Over-accommodation occurs when too much new information overwhelms the mind. **40. Teaching and Cognitive Development ** Effective teaching should focus on big ideas and how different concepts connect to avoid over-accommodation. Piaget and Vygotsky\'s theories offer complementary views on cognitive development. 1. Teaching should focus on big ideas to help students connect different concepts. 2. Piaget\'s theory focuses on cognitive development within an individual. 3. Vygotsky\'s theory emphasizes cognitive development in social contexts. **41. Vygotsky\'s Theory ** Vygotsky\'s theory highlights the importance of social interaction and language in cognitive development. The concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding are key components. 1. Language is vital for cognitive development according to Vygotsky. 2. Social speech becomes private speech, which helps in internalizing social interactions. 3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) represents the range of tasks a child can perform with help. 4. Scaffolding is a technique to support learning within the ZPD. **42. Comparison of Piaget and Vygotsky**  Piaget and Vygotsky both offer constructivist approaches to cognitive development but differ in their emphasis. Piaget focuses on individual cognitive processes, while Vygotsky emphasizes social interactions. 1. Piaget\'s theory is a cognitive constructivism focusing on individual processes. 2. Vygotsky\'s theory is a social constructivism focusing on social interactions. 3. Both theories reject nativism and environmentalism, emphasizing cognitive agency. **43. Disequilibration and Cognitive Development ** Disequilibration is a state of cognitive imbalance that drives learning and development. It can be understood as confusion or incongruence in a child\'s understanding. 1. Disequilibration occurs when a child encounters something puzzling or confusing. 2. It can be seen as cognitive dissonance or incongruence. 3. This state motivates the child to resolve the imbalance and learn. **44. Vygotsky\'s Theory on Tools and Thinking ** Vygotsky\'s theory emphasizes that the extent of one\'s thinking is influenced by the tools available. These tools can be both technical and conceptual, aiding in the development of complex ideas and solutions. 1. Vygotsky\'s theory states that thinking is influenced by available tools. 2. Tools can be technical or conceptual, aiding in complex idea development. **45. Learning and Development ** Learning and development are interconnected processes. Learning involves acquiring new behaviors and skills, often through imitation and reinforcement. Development is a long-term process of organizing thoughts and behaviors in response to the environment. 1. Learning is acquiring new behaviors and skills through imitation and reinforcement. 2. Development is a long-term process of organizing thoughts and behaviors. 3. Development constraints learning, but learning also facilitates development. **Theme** The lecture emphasizes the importance of effective teaching practices, understanding educational psychology, and using evidence-based strategies to enhance student learning and development.  **Takeaways** 1. Effective teaching involves motivating students, recognizing genuine learning, and assessing progress.  2. Educational psychology helps teachers understand how children learn and develop.  3. Reflect on and evaluate existing knowledge and beliefs about learning and instructional practices.  4. Tailoring instruction to learning styles does not enhance learning; focus on cognitive processes.  5. Effective learning strategies include setting goals, connecting new information to prior knowledge, and elaborating.  6. High self-efficacy in teachers and students leads to higher achievement.  7. Quantitative research involves numerical data and can indicate relationships but not causation.  8. Qualitative research explores complex human behavior and describes current states without drawing hard conclusions.  9. Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches to address research questions.  10. Action research allows teachers to systematically study and improve their instructional strategies.  **Highlights** - \"Effective teachers don\'t simply transmit new information and skills to students; they also work hard to help students master the information and skills.\"《Smith, 2009》  - \"For all intents and purposes, there\'s no such thing as left-brain or right-brain thinking.\"《Bressler, 2002》  - \"Your goal should be to become the best teacher and also the best learner you can possibly be.\"  **Chapters & Topics** 1. Reflect on and Evaluate Some of Your Existing Knowledge and Beliefs About Human Learning and Effective Instructional Practices  2. Use Effective Strategies When You Read and Study  3. Develop a Long-Term Plan for Gaining Expertise as a Teacher  4. Draw Appropriate Conclusions from Various Kinds of Research Studies  5. Describe Several Strategies for Collecting Information About Your Own Students  6. **Case Study: The No D Policy ** Anne Smith, a 9th grade English teacher, implemented two new policies to engage students: requiring at least a C to pass and allowing multiple revisions of assignments. These policies led to improved student engagement, better writing quality, and higher final grades. - Students must earn at least a C to pass. - Multiple opportunities to revise and resubmit assignments. - One-on-one instruction is provided if necessary. - Students\' positive feedback and improved writing quality. - A higher percentage of students earn grades of C or better. 7. **Effective Teaching Practices ** Effective teaching involves not only presenting topics but also motivating students, helping them recognize genuine learning, and assessing their progress. Teachers need knowledge about human learning, motivation, developmental trends, and instructional practices. - Motivate students to learn. - Help students recognize genuine learning. - Assess each student\'s progress. - Create an environment where students believe they can achieve at high levels. 8. **Educational Psychology ** Educational psychology helps teachers understand children and adolescents, how they learn and develop, and how to engage them in the classroom. It provides strategies for planning instruction, keeping students motivated, and assessing progress. - Understand children and adolescents. - Learn how they are similar and different. - Engage students in the classroom. - Strategies for planning and carrying out instruction. 9. **Learning and Instruction ** Reflect on and evaluate some of your existing knowledge and beliefs about human learning and effective instructional practices. - Reflecting on what you already know about learning and instruction. - You yourself have been a student for many years now. - You\'ve undoubtedly learned a great deal about how children change over time. - Teachers can foster children\'s learning and development. 10. **Left-brain and Right-brain thinking ** There is no such thing as left-brain or right-brain thinking. The two hemispheres of the brain have different specialties but continually communicate and collaborate. - Some children are predominantly left-brain thinkers, whereas others are predominantly right-brain thinkers. False. - New medical technologies have provided insights into how the human brain works. - The two hemispheres of the brain have different specialties but communicate and collaborate. 11. **Personality Development ** Children\'s personalities are influenced by both their home environments and other external factors such as teachers. Inherited characteristics also play a significant role in shaping children\'s personalities. - Children\'s home environments affect their behaviors to some extent. - Other people outside the family, including teachers, have considerable influence on children\'s typical ways of behaving. - Inherited characteristics have a significant impact on children\'s personalities. - Differences in temperament appear to have their roots in biology and genetics and persist throughout childhood and into adulthood. 12. **Instruction and Learning Styles ** Tailoring instruction to students\' individual learning styles does not noticeably enhance learning or academic achievement. It is more important for teachers to base their instructional practices on knowledge of cognitive processes. - Most measures of supposed learning styles merely reflect students\' self-reported preferences. - Tailoring instruction to such preferences doesn\'t noticeably enhance students\' learning or academic achievement. - Teachers should base their instructional practices on knowledge of cognitive processes that underlie how virtually all students think and learn. 13. **Effective Learning Strategies ** Repetition of specific facts is a relatively ineffective way to learn. Students learn and remember information better when they connect it with things they already know, using strategies like elaboration. - Repeating information several times is better than doing nothing at all, but it\'s relatively ineffective. - Students learn information more easily and remember it longer when they connect it with things they already know. - Elaboration is an effective strategy, which involves using prior knowledge to expand or embellish on a new idea. 14. **Students\' Misjudgment of Knowledge ** Students often misjudge how much they know about a topic, thinking that spending a long time studying equates to effective learning, which is not always the case. - Many students think that long study hours guarantee learning. - Ineffective study methods can lead to overestimation of knowledge. 15. **Anxiety\'s Effects in Different Situations ** A manageable amount of anxiety can improve learning and performance, especially when students believe they can accomplish tasks with reasonable effort. - Anxiety is not always detrimental; it can enhance performance. - Students\' perception of task difficulty influences anxiety\'s impact. 16. **Potential Benefits of Appropriately Designed Video Games ** While excessive video game play can interfere with academic success, some educational video games can promote important cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills. - Excessive gaming can hinder academic success. - Educational video games can enhance cognitive abilities. **16. Assessment Practices and Student Learning ** The ways teachers assess students\' learning significantly influence what and how students learn, encouraging cognitive processes essential for high-quality learning. - Assessment methods convey messages about learning expectations. - Good assessments promote integrated and meaningful learning. 17. **Studying and Learning Effectively ** Effective learning involves setting specific goals, relating new information to prior knowledge, elaborating on new concepts, and periodically checking comprehension. - Set specific goals for study sessions. - Relate new information to existing knowledge. - Elaborate on and go beyond the information read. - Periodically check comprehension and understanding. 18. **Developing as a Teacher ** Becoming an effective teacher requires ongoing professional growth, understanding subject matter deeply, acquiring pedagogical content knowledge, and being culturally aware. - Professional growth is essential for teaching effectiveness. - Deep subject matter knowledge is crucial. - Pedagogical content knowledge helps address student difficulties. - Cultural awareness enhances student academic success. 19. **Within-Group Differences ** Within-group differences, also known as individual differences, are discussed in Chapter 5. It\'s important not to form rigid stereotypes about any cultural group or group of students. - Consider between-group differences but focus more on within-group differences. - Reflect on and critically examine assumptions, inferences, and teaching practices. 20. **Reflective Teaching ** Effective teachers engage in reflective teaching by continually examining and critiquing their assumptions, inferences, and instructional practices, and adjusting their beliefs and strategies based on new evidence. - Reflective teaching involves continual examination and critique of teaching practices. - Effective teachers adjust their strategies based on new evidence. 21. **Communication and Collaboration ** Effective teachers frequently communicate and collaborate with colleagues within their school district, across the nation, and internationally. They coordinate efforts to enhance students\' learning and personal well-being. - Teachers should communicate and collaborate with colleagues. - Use various communication tools like email, blogs, and video communication software. 22. **Professional Learning Community ** Teachers and administrators should create a professional learning community to share a common vision for students\' learning and achievement and work collaboratively to achieve desired outcomes. - Create a professional learning community. - Share a common vision for students\' learning and achievement. - Self-Efficacy - High self-efficacy in both teachers and students leads to higher achievement levels. Teachers must believe in their ability to make a difference in students\' lives. - High self-efficacy leads to higher achievement. - Teachers must believe in their ability to make a difference. 23. **Understanding and Interpreting Research Findings ** Teachers must draw appropriate conclusions from various kinds of research studies and use evidence-based practices to enhance students\' development and academic achievement. Teaching should be based on a firm foundation of research findings. - Use evidence-based practices. - Quantitative Research  - Quantitative research involves numerical data and can be descriptive, correlational, experimental, or quasi-experimental. It provides information about relationships between variables but does not indicate causation. - Quantitative research involves numerical data. - Types include descriptive, correlational, experimental, and quasi-experimental. 24. **Qualitative Research ** Qualitative research involves non-numeric data and explores the complex nature of human behavior in social settings. It describes the current state of affairs but does not draw hard-and-fast conclusions about correlation or cause and effect. - Qualitative research involves non-numeric data. - Explores complex human behavior in social settings. 25. **Mixed Methods Research ** Mixed methods research combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research to best address research questions. - Combines quantitative and qualitative research. - Best addresses research questions. 26. **Transition from Elementary to High School ** Many students experience a sharp decline in academic achievement during their first year of high school, with over 40% of first-semester ninth-graders failing at least one course. Qualitative data, such as the case of a student named Anna, reveal that organizational challenges and perceptions of uncaring faculty contribute to these difficulties. - Sharp decline in academic achievement in the first year of high school. - Over 40% of first-semester ninth-graders fail at least one course. - Qualitative data reveal organizational challenges and perceptions of uncaring faculty. 27. **Interpreting Research Results ** To determine a cause-and-effect relationship, all other possible explanations must be eliminated. For example, in a study comparing two reading programs, differences in teacher expectations or student abilities could influence outcomes. - Eliminate all other possible explanations to determine cause-and-effect relationships. - Differences in teacher expectations or student abilities could influence outcomes. 28. **Principles and Theories in Educational Psychology ** Principles identify factors that affect learning and describe their effects, while theories provide explanations for these effects. For example, the principle of reinforcement explains that rewarded behavior is more likely to recur. Theories, such as information processing theory, help create effective learning environments. - Principles identify factors affecting learning and their effects. - Theories provide explanations for these effects. - Reinforcement principle: rewarded behavior is more likely to recur. - Information processing theory emphasizes the importance of attention in learning. 29. **Collecting Data and Drawing Conclusions ** Teachers can collect and interpret data about their students through formal and informal assessments. Action research allows teachers to systematically study issues in their own schools to find effective strategies. - Teachers collect data through formal and informal assessments. - Action research helps teachers study issues in their own schools. 30. **Assessing Students\' Achievements ** Effective teachers assess students\' knowledge and abilities through various methods, including observing students in different contexts. These assessments help form hypotheses about students\' characteristics and instructional strategies. - Assess students through assignments, projects, presentations, and quizzes. - Observe students in various contexts for insights into their learning and development. 31. **Conducting Action Research ** Action research involves identifying a focus area, collecting data, analyzing data, and developing an action plan. This process helps teachers find effective strategies for their students. - Identify a focus area and gather preliminary information. - Collect and analyze data to find patterns. - Develop an action plan based on findings. 32. **Reflecting on Knowledge and Beliefs ** Teachers must reflect on and evaluate their knowledge and beliefs about learning and instructional practices. Effective strategies include setting goals, connecting new concepts to prior knowledge, and reconsidering beliefs when new information is presented. - Reflect on and evaluate knowledge and beliefs about learning. - Set goals, connect new concepts to prior knowledge, and reconsider beliefs. 33. **Effective Strategies for Reading and Studying ** Successful learning involves active and strategic approaches. Strategies include setting goals, connecting new concepts to prior knowledge, elaborating on concepts, and regularly checking understanding. - Set goals for each study session. - Connect new concepts to prior knowledge. - Elaborate on concepts and check for understanding regularly. 34. **Developing Long-term Teaching Expertise ** Effective teachers are lifelong learners who reflect on their assumptions and strategies. They seek new information from various sources, including formal coursework, professional journals, and collaboration with colleagues. - Reflect on assumptions and strategies. - Seek new information from various sources. 35. **Drawing Conclusions from Research Studies ** Different types of research studies are suitable for other issues. Qualitative and descriptive quantitative studies provide information about current conditions, while experimental studies yield conclusions about causality. - Qualitative and descriptive quantitative studies provide information about current conditions. - Experimental studies yield conclusions about causality. 36. **Strategies for Collecting Student Information ** Teachers collect data about students through preplanned assessments and observations. Action research can address specific questions about students or local issues. - Collect data through preplanned assessments and observations. - Conduct action research to address specific questions. **Suggestions** - Engage students in discussions about quality work.  - Provide continuous feedback and support.  - Set specific goals for each study session.  - Relate new concepts to personal experiences.  - Keep up to date with research and innovations in education.  - Learn about the cultures of the community in which you work.  - Avoid forming rigid stereotypes about any group.  - Greater faculty support, both emotional and academic, is needed during the transition.  - Randomly assign classes to different programs to ensure comparability. **Theme** The lecture provides an in-depth analysis of child cognitive development theories by Piaget and Vygotsky, highlighting their principles, applications, and critiques and emphasizing the importance of self-exploration and guided learning in educational settings.  Language development during school involves mastering various linguistic components and is influenced by hereditary and environmental factors. Bilingualism offers cognitive and social advantages, but limited English proficiency can pose challenges in English-based classrooms. Effective strategies and educational approaches can support English Language Learners and promote academic success.  **Takeaways** 1. Children develop at different rates, and their development is influenced by heredity and environment. 2. Piaget\'s theory explains cognitive development stages and emphasizes constructivism.  3. Vygotsky\'s sociocultural theory highlights the role of social and cultural factors in cognitive development.  4. The brain plays a crucial role in cognitive development, with plasticity allowing for lifelong learning.  5. Educational practices should align with brain development, avoiding information overload for young children.  6. Piaget\'s stages should be used as a rough guide, not taken too literally. 7. Scaffolding and guided participation are effective educational strategies. 8. Play is essential for cognitive development, allowing children to practice adult-like behaviors. 9. Both Piaget\'s and Vygotsky\'s theories have significantly influenced contemporary views on learning and cognitive development. 10. Teachers can apply both Piagetian and Vygotskian perspectives in classroom activities.  11. Language development involves mastering phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. 12.