Assessment and Learning PDF

LLESSON 1 CHAPTER 1: BASIC CONCEPTS & PRINCIPLES IN ASSESSING LEARNING Assessment of Learning Assessment is generally defined as the process of gathering quantitative and/or qualitative data for the purpose of making decisions. Assessment of learning can be def...

LLESSON 1 CHAPTER 1: BASIC CONCEPTS & PRINCIPLES IN ASSESSING LEARNING Assessment of Learning Assessment is generally defined as the process of gathering quantitative and/or qualitative data for the purpose of making decisions. Assessment of learning can be defined as the systematic and purpose-oriented collection, analysis, and interpretation of evidences of student learning in order to make informed decisions relevant to the learners. How is assessment of learning similar or different from the concept of measurement or evaluation of learning? Measurement refers to the actual collection of quantitative information on student learning through the use of varied strategies and tools. Evaluation refers to the actual process of making a decision or judgement on student learning based from the information collected from measurement. Assessment and Testing The most common form of assessment is testing. In the educational contexts, testing refers to the use of a test or battery of tests to collecting information on student learning over a specific period of time. A test can be categorized as: Selected-response (e.g. matching-type of test) constructed-response (e.g. short answer test) objective format (e.g. multiple-choice) subjective format (e.g. essay) TOS - Table of Specification a table that maps out the essential aspects of a test (e.g. test objectives, contents, topics covered by the test, item distribution) is used in the design and development of a test. A test should be valid, reliable, has acceptable level of difficulty, and can discriminate between learners with higher and lower ability. Assessment and Grading A related concept to assessment of learning is grading which can be defined as the process of assigning a numerical score on the performance or achievement of a learner based on specified criteria or standards. The following are sample tasks that can serve as bases for grading: test, recitation, seatwork, homework, project The final grade of a learner in a subject or course is a summation of information from multiple sources (i.e. several assessment tasks or requirements). Grading is a form of evaluation as grades provide information whether a learner passed or failed a subject or a particular assessment task.  The Different Principles in Assessing Learning 1. Assessment should have a clear purpose. 2. Assessment is not an end in itself. 3. Assessment is an ongoing, continuous, and a formative process. 4. Assessment is learner-centered. 5. Assessment is both process- and product-oriented. 6. Assessment must be comprehensive and holistic. 7. Assessment requires the use of appropriate measures. 8. Assessment should be as authentic as much as possible. LESSON 2 CHAPTER 1: ASSESMENT PURPOSES, LEARNING TARGETS, & APPROPRIATE METHODS The Purpose of Classroom Assessment 1. Assessment of Learning. This refers to the use of assessment to determine learners’ acquired knowledge and skills from instruction and whether they were able to achieve or not the curriculum outcomes. It is generally summative in nature. 2. Assessment for Learning. This refers to the use of assessment to identify the needs of learners in order to modify instruction or the learning activities in the classroom. It is formative in nature and it is meant to identify gaps in the learning experiences of learners so they can be assisted in achieving the curriculum outcomes. 3. Assessment as Learning. This refers to the use of assessment to facilitate learners to become self-regulated. It is formative in nature and it is meant to use assessment tasks, results, and feedbacks to help learners practice self-regulation and make adjustments in order to achieve the curriculum outcomes. Role of Classroom Assessment in the Teaching-Learning Process FORMATIVE Teachers conduct assessment because they want to acquire information on the current status and level of learners' knowledge and skills or competencies. Teachers may need information (e.g. prior knowledge, strengths) about the learners prior to instruction so they can design their instructional plan better to suit the needs of the learners. Teachers may also need information on the learners during instruction to allow them to modify instruction or learning activities to help learners achieve the learning outcomes. DIAGNOSTIC Teachers can use assessment to identify specific learners' weaknesses or difficulties that may affect learners' attainment of the intended learning outcomes. Identifying these weaknesses allows teachers to focus on specific learning needs and provide opportunities for instructional intervention or remediation inside or outside of the classroom. EVALUATE Teachers conduct assessment to measure learners' performance or achievement for the purposes of making judgement or grading in particular. Teachers need information on whether the learners have met the intended learning outcomes after instruction is fully implemented. The learners' placement or promotion to the next educational level is informed by the assessment results.  Role of Classroom Assessment in the Teaching-Learning Process FACILITATIVE Classroom assessment may affect student learning. On the part of teachers, assessment for learning provides information on students' learning and achievement that teachers can use to improve instruction and the learning experiences of learners, On the part of learners, assessment as learning allows them to monitor, evaluate, and improve their own learning strategies. In both cases, student learning is facilitated. MOTIVATIONAL Classroom assessment can serve as a mechanism for learners to be motivated and engaged in learning and achievement in the classroom. Grades, for instance, can motivate and demotivate learners. Focusing on progress, providing effective feedback, innovating assessment tasks, and using scaffolding during assessment activities provide opportunities for assessment to be motivating and not demotivating. What are Learning Targets? Goals. This term refers to general statements about desired learner outcomes in a given year or during the duration of a program (e.g. senior high school). Standards. This term refers to specific statements about what learners should know and what they should be capable of doing at a particular grade level, subject or course, Four Different types of Educational Standardsby McMillan (2014, p.1i3) 1. Content (desired outcome in a content area) 2. Performance ( what students do to demonstrate competence) 3. Developmental (Sequence of growth and change over time) 4. Grade-level (Outcomes for a specific grade) Educational Objectives. This term refers to specific statements of learner performance at the end of an instructional unit. Educational objectives are sometimes referred to as behavioral objectives and are typically stated with the use of verbs.  Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives-Cognitive Domain Illustrative Cognitive Level Description Sample Objective Verbs Enumerates the six Recall or recognition of learned Defines, levels of expertise in materials like concepts, events, recalls, names, KNOWLEDGE the Bloom's taxonomy facts, enumerates, of objectives in the ideas, and procedures labels cognitive domain. Explains each of the Explains, Understanding the meaning of a six levels of describe, learned material, including expertise in the COMPREHENSION summarizes, interpretation, explanation, and Bloom's taxonomy of discusses, literal translation objectives in the translates cognitive domain. Applies, Demonstrates how to Use of abstract ideas, principles, demonstrates, use Bloom's APPLICATION or methods to specific concrete produces, taxonomy in situations illustrates, formulating learning uses objectives. Compares and Separation of a concept or idea Compares, contrasts the six into constituent parts or contrasts, levels of expertise in ANALYSIS elements and an understanding categorizes, Bloom's taxonomy of the nature and association classifies, of objectives in the among the element calculates cognitive domain. Composes, Construction of elements or constructs, Composes learning parts from different sources to SYNTHESIS creates, targets using form a more complex or novel designs, Bloom's taxonomy. structure integrates Appraises, Evaluates the Making judgement of ideas or evaluates, congruence between EVALUATION methods based on sound and judges, learning targets and established criteria concludes, assessment methods criticizes  Cognitive Process Dimensions in the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Cognitive Description Illustrative Verbs Sample Objective Process compose, produce, Propose a program of develop, formulate, Combining parts to action to help CREATE devise, prepare, make a whole solve Metro Manila's traffic design, construct, congestion. propose, re-organize Critique the latest film Judging the value assess, measure, that you have watched. Use EVALUATE of information or estimate, evaluate, the critique guidelines and data critique, judge format discussed in the class. analyze, calculate, Breaking down examine, test, Classify the following ANALYZE information into compare, chemical elements based on parts differentiate, some categories/areas organize, classify Applying the facts, apply, employ, Solve the following rules, concepts and practice, relate, use, problems using the APPLY ideas in another implement, carry-out, different measures of context solve central tendency. Understanding describe, determine, Explain the causes of UNDERSTAND what the interpret, translate, malnutrition in the country. information means paraphrase, explain identify, list, name, Recognizing and Name the 7th president of REMEMBER underline, recall, recalling facts the Philippines. retrieve, locate  Knowledge Dimensions in the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Knowledge Description Sample Question This type of knowledge is basic in every discipline, It tells the facts or bits of What is the capital FACTUAL information one needs to know in a discipline. city of the This type of knowledge usually answers Philippines? questions that begin with who, where, and when. This type of knowledge is also fundamental in every discipline. It tells the concepts, What makes the generalizations, principles, theories and models CONCEPTUAL Philippines the “Pearl that one needs to know in a discipline. This type of the orient seas?” of knowledge usually answers questions that begin with what. This type of knowledge is also fundamental in every discipline. It tells the processes, steps, techniques, methodologies or specific skills How do we develop PROCEDURAL needed in performing a specific task. that one items for an needs to know and be able to do in a discipline. achievement test? This type of knowledge usually answers questions that begin with how. This type of knowledge makes the discipline relevant to one's life. It makes one understand the value of learning into one's life. It requires reflective knowledge and strategies of how to go about solving problems or doing a cognitive task Why is Engineering METACOGNITIVE through understanding of oneself and context. the most suitable This type of knowledge usually answers course for you? questions that begin with why. Questions that begin with "how" and "what" could be used if they are embedded in a situation that one experiences in real life.  Learning Targets Mcmillan (2014, p. 53) proposed five criteria for selecting learning targets: (1) Establish the right number of learning targets. (Are there too many or too few targets?); (2) Establish comprehensive learning targets. (Are all important types of learning included?); (3) Establish learning targets that reflect school goals and 21st century skills. (Do the targets reflect school goals and 21st century knowledge, skills, and dispositions?); (4) Establish learning targets that are challenging yet feasible. (Will the targets challenge students to do their best work?); and (5) Establish learning targets that are consistent with current principles of learning and motivation. (Are the targets consistent with research on learning and motivat Types of Learning Targets Types Description Sample I can explain the role KNOWLDGE Refers to factual, conceptual, and procedural of conceptual information that learners must learn in in a TARGETS framework in a subject or content area. research. research. Knowledge-based thought processes that REASONING I can justify my learners must learn. It involves application if research problems TARGETS knowledge in problem-solving, decision-making, with a theory. other tasks that require mental skills. I can facilitate a Use of knowledge and/or reasoning to perform focus group SKILLS TARGET or demonstrate physical skills. discussing (FGD) with research participants. PRODUCT Use of knowledge, reasoning, and skills in I can write a thesis TARGETS creating a concrete or tangible product. proposal. Other experts consider a fifth type of learning targets - affect, which refers to affective characteristics that students can develop and demonstrate because of instruction. This includes attitudes, beliefs, interests, and values, Some experts used disposition as an alternative term for affect. The following is an example of an affect or disposition learning target: "I can appreciate the importance of addressing potential ethical issues in the conduct of a thesis research.”  Appropriate Method of Assessment Once the learning targets are identified, appropriate assessment methods can be selected to measure student learning. The match between a learning target and the assessment method used to measure if students have met the target is very critical. There are several types of assessment and it is up for the teachers to select the method of assessment and design appropriate assessment tasks and activities to measure the identified learning targets.  LESSON 3 CHAPTER 1: DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF ASSESSMENTS Classifications of Tests 1.PURPOSE The purpose of assessment determines how the results are use to make decisions for students. TYPE AND EXAMPLE 1. EDUCATIONAL - Different forms of assessment used in the school setting in order to help students progress and mark their performance for grade promotion. 2. PSYCOLOGICAL - Tests and scales used to measure cognitive and effective characteristics of individuals to diagnose difficulties, deficiencies, strengths, attitudes, and dispositions. Results are used to inform intervention. 2.FORM The form of assessment provides the medium on how it is delivered and the kind of information sought. TYPE AND EXAMPLE 1. PAPER-AND-PENCIL - Test types that includes true or false, identification, matching type and multiple choice. 2. PERFORMACE-BASES - Tasks that students need to demonstrate. 3.FUNCTION The function of assessment tells the basis on the contents of the assessment, the way it is developed and administered, and the information it provides. TYPE AND EXAMPLE 1. TEACHER-MADE - Quizzes, long tests, and quarterly tests create by the teacher. 2. STANDARDIZED - Developed by organizations that have a well-defined system of administering, scoring, and interpreting (Ex. Otis Lenon School Ability Test, Brained Occupational Preference Inventory) 4.KIND OF LEARNING This kind of learning sought will vary such as when given at the end of instruction or to determine the potential of students even before instruction. TYPE AND EXAMPLE 1. ACHIEVEMENT - Determine what the students have learned at the end of instruction (Ex. Metropolitan Achievement Test. Iowa Test of Basic Skills) 2. APTITUDE - Determines the potential of students on a specific program (Raven’s progressive matrices, Differential Aptitude Test) 5.ABILITY This kind of ability sought will require a different kind of assessment to determine how many items are answered and how many difficult items are answered correctly. TYPE AND EXAMPLE 1. SPEED - Consists of easy items and time in answering is limited. 2. POWER - Consists of items of varying levels of difficulty with sample time for answering. 6.INTERPRETATION OF SCORES The interpretation of assessment results would vary depending on the kind of reference used such as comparing one’s score to a group or to a set of standard. TYPE AND EXAMPLE 1. NON-REFERENCED - Score is compared relative to a group performance. 2. CRITERION-REFERENCED - Score is interpreted based on a fixed set of criteria. Examples of Learning Targets for Paper-and-Pencil Test Identify the parts of the plants Label the parts of the microscope Compute the compound interest Classify the phase of a given matter Provide the appropriate verb in the sentence Identify the type of sentence Examples of Learning Targets for Performance-based Assessment Varnish a wooden' cabinet. Draw a landscape using paintbrush in the computer. Write a word problem involving multiplication of polynomials. Deliver a speech convincing your classmates that you are a good candidate for the student council. Write an essay explaining how humans and plants benefit from each other. Mount a plant specimen in the glass slide How to distinguish teacher-made and standardized test? Standardized tests have fixed directions for scoring and administering. They can be purchased with test manuals, booklets, and answer sheets. When these tests were developed, the items were sampled to a large number of target group called the norm. The norm group's performance is used to compare the results of those who took the test. Non-Standardized or teacher-made tests are usually intended for classroom assessment. They are used for classroom purposes such as determining whether students have reached the learning target. They intend to measure the behavior (such as learning) inline with the objectives of the course. Examples are Quiz, Long Test, Exams, etc. Formative and summative assessments are usually teacher-made tests.  What information is sought from Achievement and Aptitude? Achievement Tests measure what students have learned after instruction or after going through a specific curricular program. Achievement test provides information of what students can do and have acquired after training and instruction. Achievement is a measure of what a person has learned within or up to a given time (Yaremko et al. 1982). It is a measure of the accomplished skills and indicates what a person can do at the present (Atkinson 1995). Achievement can be measured in a variety of means. Achievement can be reflected in the final grades of the students within a quarter. The quarterly test composed of several learning targets are also good ways of detergining achievement of students. Aptitudes Tésts are the characteristics that influence a person's behavior that aids goal attainment in a particular situation( Lohgman, 2005) Aptitude refers to the degree of readiness to learn and to perform well in a particular situation or domain (Corno et. al., 2002). xamples include the ability to comprehend instructions, to manage one's time, to use previously acquired knowledge appropriately, to make good inferences and generalizations, and to manage one's emotions. Aptitude can now go beyond cognitive abilities. Magno (2009) created a taxonomy of aptitude test to include 12 classifications categorized under verbal and nonverbal. The schemes in the verbal are verbal analogy, syllogism, and number or letter series, while the nonverbal is composed of topology, visual discrimination, progressive series, visualization, orientation, figure ground perception, surface development, object assembly, and picture completion. What is Speed and Power Tests? Speed Test consists of easy items but time is limited. An example of a speed test is a typing test. The examinees need to type correctly as many words possible given a limited amount of time. Power Test consists of items with increasing level of difficulty where time of answer is ample enough to cover all items. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics developed a power test for mathematics. It consists of the ability of the examines to utilize data to reason and become creative, formulate, solve, and reflect critically on problems provided.  How to use Form and Criterion-referenced Tests? There are two ways of interpreting scores: Norm-referenced and Criterion- referenced. Criterion-referenced Test requires interpretation of test scores based on a given set of standards. The scores are then compared on the given criterion. For example, in a 50 item test: 40-50 is high, 31-39 is average, 21-30 is poor, 0-20 is low. One approach in a criterion-referenced. interpretation is that the score is compared to a particular cut off. An example would be the grading in schools where 98-100 is proficient, 93-97 is competent, 90-92 is basic level, 80 to 89 is approaching standards, 75-to 79 is improving, and 74 and below are beginners. The Norm-referenced Test uses the distribution of scores of a sample group in interpreting scores. The mean and standard deviations are computed from the group. The standing of individuals in a norm-referenced test is based on how far they are from the mean and standard deviation of the sample. Standardized tests commonly interpret scores using norm-referenced way where they have established a large standardized sample. Having an established norm for a test means obtaining a normal or average performance in the distribution of scores. A normal distribution is obtained by increasing the sample size. A norm is a standard and it is based on a very large group of samples. Norms are reported in the manual of standardized tests.  LESSON 4 CHAPTER 2: PLANNING A WRITTEN TEST Defining the Test Objectives or Learning Outcomes Targeted for Assessment In designing a well-planned written test, first and foremost, one should identify the intended learning outcomes in a course where test is an appropriate method to use. These learning outcomes are knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that every student should develop throughout the course. Clear articulation of learning outcomes is a primary consideration in lesson planning since it serves as the basis for evaluating the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process determined through testing or assessment. Learning objectives or outcomes are measurable statements that articulate at the beginning of the course what students should know and be able to do or value as a result of taking a course. Objectives for Testing In developing a written test, the cognitive behaviors of learning outcomes are usually targeted. * For the cognitive domain, it is important to identify the levels of behavior expected from the students. Traditionally, Bloom's Taxonomy was commonly used to classify learning objectives based on levels of complexity and specificity of the cognitive behaviors. With knowledge at the base (i... lower order thinking skill), the categories progress to comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. However, Anderson and Krathwohl, Bloom's student and research partner, respectively, came up with a revised taxonomy. In the revised taxonomy, the nouns used to represent the levels of cognitive behavior were replaced by verbs and the synthesis and evaluation are switched. FIGURE 1: TAXONOMIES OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES  Table of Specifications A table of specifications (TOS), sometimes called a test blueprint, is a tool used by teachers to design a test. It is a table that maps out test objectives, contents or topics covered by the test, levels of cognitive behavior to be measured, distribution of items, number, placement, and weights of test items, and test format. It helps ensure that the course intended learning outcomes, assessments, and instruction are aligned. Generally, TOS is prepared before a test is created. However, it is more ideal to prepare one even before the start of instruction. Teachers need to create a TOS for every test that they intend to develop. The test TOS is important since it: ensures match between the instructional objectives and what the test captures; ensures that the test developer will not overlook details considered essential to a good test; makes developing a test easier and more efficient; ensures that the test will sample all important content areas and processes; is useful in planning and organizing; and offers an opportunity for teachers and students to clarify achievement expectations General Steps in Developing a Table of Specifications 1.Determine the objectives of the test. This should be based on the instructional objectives. In general, the instructional objectives or the intended learning outcomes are identified at the start, when the teacher creates the course syllabus. There are three types of objectives: (1) cognitive, (2) affective, and (3) psychomotor. Cognitive objectives are designed to increase an individual's knowledge, understanding and awareness. When planning for assessment, choose only the objectives that you know could be best captured by a written test. There are objectives that are not meant for a written test. For example, if you test the psychomotor domain, it is better to do performance-based assessment for that. There are also cognitive objectives that sometimes are better assessed through performance-based assessment. Those that require demonstration or creation of something tangible like projects would be more appropriately measured using also a performance-based assessment.  General Steps in Developing a Table of Specifications For a written test, you can consider cognitive objectives ranging from remembering to creating of ideas, that could be measured using common formats for testing like multiple choice, alternative-response test, matching type and even essays or open- ended tests. 2. Determine the coverage of the test. Only topics or contents that have been discussed in class and that are relevant will be included in the test. 3. Calculate the weight for each topic. Once the test coverage is determined, the weight for each topic covered in the test is identified. The weight assigned per topic in the test is based on the relevance and the time spent to cover each topic during instruction. The percentage of time for a topic in a test is determined by dividing the time spent for that topic during instruction by the total amount of time spent for all topics covered in the test.. Determine the number of items for the whole test. To determine the number of items to be included in the test, the amount of time to spend to answer the items are considered. As a general rule, students are given 30-60 seconds for each item in test formats with choices. For a one hour class, this means that the test should not exceed 60 items. However, since you need to give time also for test paper/booklet distribution and giving of instructions, the number of items should be less, maybe just 50 items. 5. Determine the number of items per topic. To determine the number of items to be included in the test, the weights per topic are considered. Thus, using the examples above, for a 60-Item final test. Theories & Concepts, Humanistic Theories, Cognitive Theories, Behavioral Theories, and Social Learning Theories will have 5 items, Trait Theories -10 items, and Psychoanalytic Theories - 15items.  Different Formats of a Test Table of Specifications 1. One-Way TOS. A one-way TOS maps out the content or topic, test objectives, number of hours spent, and format, number and placement of items. This type of TOS is easy to develop and use since it just works around the objectives without worrying on the different levels of cognitive behaviors. However, a one-way TOS' cannot ensure that all levels of cognitive behaviors that should have been developed by the course are covered in the test. 2. Two-Way TOS. A two-way TOS reflects not only the content, time spent, and number of items but also the levels of cognitive behavior targeted per test content based on the theory behind cognitive testing. For example, the common framework for testing at present in the DepEd Classroom Assessment Policy is the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy (DepEd, 2015). One advantage of this format is it allows one to see the levels of cognitive skills and dimensions of knowledge that are emphasized by the test. It also shows the framework of assessment used in the development of the test. However, this format is more complex than the one-way format. 3. Three-Way TOS. This type of TOS reflects the features of one-way and two-way TOS. One advantage of this format is that it challenges the test writer to classify objectives based on the theory behind the assessment. It also shows the variability of thinking skills targeted by the test. However, it takes a much longer time to develop this type of TOS.