Principles Of Electronic Communication Systems PDF

Principles of Electronic Communication Systems Second Edition Louis Frenzel © 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies Principles of Electronic Communication Systems Second Edition Chapter 2 The Fundamentals of Electronics: A Review ©2003 The McGraw-Hill Compan...

Principles of Electronic Communication Systems Second Edition Louis Frenzel © 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies Principles of Electronic Communication Systems Second Edition Chapter 2 The Fundamentals of Electronics: A Review ©2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies Topics Covered in Chapter 2 Gain, Attenuation, and Decibels Tuned Circuits Filters Fourier Theory Gain, Attenuation, and Decibels Most circuits in electronic communication are used to manipulate signals to produce a desired result. All signal-processing circuits involve: Gain Attenuation Gain Gain means amplification. It is the ratio of a circuit’s output to it’s input. Amplifier Vin → ► → Vout Input Signal Output Signal A = gain = Vout ÷ Vin Power Gain Power gain (Ap) = Pout ÷ Pin Where Pin is the power input and Pout is the power output Example: The power output of an amplifier is 6 watts (W). The power gain is 80. What is the input power? Ap = Pout / Pin therefore Pin = Pout / Ap Pin = 6 / 80 = 0.075 W = 75 mW Cascaded Amplifier An amplifier is cascaded when two or more stages are connected together. The overall gain is the product of the individual circuit gains. Example: Three cascaded amplifiers have power gains of 5, 2, and 17. The input power is 40 mW. What is the output power? Ap = A1 x A2 x A3 = 5 x 2 x 17 = 170 Ap = Pout / Pin therefore Pout = ApPin Pout = 170 (40 x 10-3) = 6.8W Attenuation Attenuation refers to a loss introduced by a circuit or component. If the output signal is lower in amplitude than the input, the circuit has loss or attenuation. The letter A is used to represent attenuation Attenuation A = output/input = Vout/Vin Circuits that introduce attenuation have a gain that is less than 1. With cascaded circuits, the total attenuation is the product of the individual attenuations. Voltage Divider Attenuator A Voltage Divider introduces attenuation. Decibels The decibel is a unit of measure used to express the gain or loss of a circuit. The decibel was originally created to express hearing response. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel. NOTE: When gain and attenuation are both converted into decibels, the overall gain or attenuation of a circuit can be computed by adding individual gains or attenuations, expressed in decibels. Decibel Calculations Voltage Gain or Attenuation dB = 20 log Vout/Vin Current Gain or Attenuation dB = 20 log Iout/Iin Power Gain or Attenuation dB = 10 log Pout/Pin Decibel Calculation (continued) Example: An amplifier has an input of 3 mV and an output of 5 V. What is the gain in decibels? dB = 20 log 5/o.003 = 20 log 1666.67 = 20 (3.22) = 64.4 Example: A filter has a power input of 50 mW and an output of 2 mW. What is the gain or attenuation? dB = 10 log (2/50) = 10 log (0.04) = 10 (-1.398) = -13.98 Note: If the decibel figure is positive, that denotes a gain. Antilogs The antilog is the number obtained when the base is raised to the logarithm which is the exponent. Antilogs are used to calculate input or output voltage or power given the decibel gain or attenuation and the output or input. The antilog is the base 10 raised to the dB/10 power. The antilog is readily calculated on a scientific calculator. dBm When a decibel value is computed by comparing a power value to 1 mW, the result is a value called the dBm. This is a useful reference value. Tuned Circuits Virtually all communications equipment contains tuned circuits made up of inductors and capacitors that resonate at specific frequencies. Reactive Components All tuned circuits and many filters are made up of inductive and capacitive elements that include coils and capacitors. Opposition offered by coils and capacitors is known as reactance. Capacitors A capacitor used in an AC circuit charges and discharges. Capacitors tend to oppose voltage changes across them. Opposition to alternating current offered by a capacitor is known as capacitive reactance (Xc). Capacitive reactance (Xc) is inversely proportional to the value of capacitance (C) and operating frequency (f). Capacitive Reactance Calculation Example: What is the capacitive reactance of a 100-pF capacitor at 2 MHz? Xc = 1/2пfC Xc = 1/6.28 (2 x 106) (100 x 10-12) = 796.2 Ω Inductors An inductor, also called a coil or choke, is a winding of multiple turns of wire. If the applied voltage and current are varying, this has the effect of opposing current changes in the coil. This effect is known as inductance. The basic unit of inductance is the henry (H). However, practical inductance values are in the millihenry (mH = 10-3) and microhenry (μH = 10-6) region. Opposition to alternating current offered by inductors is known as inductive reactance (XL). Types of Inductors Inductive Reactance Inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency and inductance. Example: What is the inductive reactance of a 40-μH coil at 18 MHz? XL = 6.28 (18 x 106) (40 x 10-6) = 4522Ω Resistors At low frequencies, a standard resistor offers nearly pure resistance. At high frequencies, a resistor’s leads have inductance. A resistor’s lead inductance and stray capacitance cause the resistor to act like a complex RLC circuit. Tiny resistor chips used in surface mount circuits minimize inductance and stray capacitance. Film resistors minimize thermal effect noise. Tuned Circuits and Resonance A tuned circuit is made up of inductance and capacitance and resonates at a specific (resonant) frequency. The terms tuned circuit and resonant circuit are used interchangeably. Tuned circuits are frequency-selective and respond best at their resonant frequency. Series Resonant Circuits A series resonant circuit is made up of inductance, capacitance and resistance connected in series. Series resonant circuits are often referred to as LCR or RLC circuits. Resonance occurs when inductive and capacitive reactances are equal. Resonant frequency (fr) is inversely proportional to inductance and capacitance. Series RLC Circuit and Reactance versus Frequency Series Resonant Frequency Calculation What is the resonant frequency of a 2.7-pF capacitor and a 33-nH inductor? Fr = 1/2п√LC = 1/6.28√33 x 10-9 x 2.7 x 10-12 Fr = 5.33 x 108 Hz or 533 MHz By Definition… The bandwidth (BW) is the narrow frequency range over which the current is highest. Half-power points are the current levels at which the frequency response is 70.7% of the peak value of resonance. The quality (Q) of a series resonant circuit is the ratio of the inductive reactance to the total circuit resistance. Selectivity is how a circuit responds to varying frequencies. Parallel Resonant Circuit A parallel resonant circuit is formed when the inductor and capacitor of a tuned circuit are connected in parallel with the applied voltage. A parallel resonant circuit is often referred to as a LCR or RLC circuit. Resonance occurs when inductive and capacitive reactances are equal. The resonant frequency (fr) is inversely proportional to inductance and capacitance. Parallel Resonant Circuit and Phase Relationships Filters A filter is a frequency-selective circuit. Passive filters are created using components such as: resistors, capacitors, and inductors that do not amplify. Active filters use amplifying devices such as transistors and operational amplifiers. Filter Types Low-pass filters only pass frequencies below a critical (cutoff) frequency. High-pass filters only pass frequencies above the cutoff frequency. Bandpass filters pass frequencies over a narrow range between lower and upper cutoff frequencies. Band-reject filters reject or stop frequencies over a narrow range but allow frequencies above and below to pass. All-pass filters pass all frequencies over a desired range but have a predictable phase shift characteristic. RC Filters RC Filters use combinations of resistors and capacitors to achieve a desired frequency response. Most RC filters are of the low-pass or high-pass type. An RC coupling circuit is a high pass filter because the ac input component is developed across the resistor while dc voltage is blocked by a capacitor. Any low-pass or high-pass filter is effectively a frequency-dependent voltage divider. Low-Pass Filter A low-pass filter is a circuit that introduces no attenuation at frequencies below the cutoff frequency but completely eliminates all signals with frequencies above the cutoff. Low-pass filters are sometimes referred to as high cut filters. The cutoff frequency of a filter is that point where the resistance and capacitive reactance are equal. RC Low-Pass Filter High-Pass Filter A high-pass filter passes frequencies above the cutoff frequency with little or no attenuation but greatly attenuates those signals below the cutoff. The basic high-pass filter is a voltage divider with the capacitor serving as the frequency-sensitive component. A high-pass filter can be implemented with a coil and a resistor. RC High-Pass Filter RC Band-Reject Filter RC Band-reject filters attenuate a narrow range of frequencies around a center point (frequency). Band-reject filters are also referred to as bandstop or notch filters. A simple notch filter implemented with resistors and capacitors is called a parallel-T or twin-T filter. RC Notch Filter LC Filters LC filters use combinations of inductors and capacitors to achieve a desired frequency response. LC filters are typically used with radio frequency (RF) applications. LC filter types include the basic constant-k and m- derived filters. By definition… Passband is the frequency range over which the filter passes signals. Stop band is the range of frequencies outside the passband, that is, the range of frequencies that is greatly attenuated by the filter. Attenuation is the amount by which undesired frequencies in the stop band are reduced. Insertion loss is the loss the filter introduces to the signals in the passband. Impedance is the resistive value of the load and source terminations of the filter. By Definition… Ripple is a term used to describe the amplitude variation with frequency in the passband. Shape factor is the ratio of the stop bandwidth to the pass bandwidth of a bandpass filter. A pole is a frequency at which there is a high impedance in the circuit. Zero is a term used to refer to a frequency at which there is zero impedance in the circuit. Envelope delay is the time it takes for a specific point on an input waveform to pass through the filter. Roll-off is the rate of change of amplitude with frequency in a filter. LC Low-Pass Filters The two basic types of LC filters are: Constant-k filters M-derived filters Constant-k Filters Constant-k filters make the product of the capacitive and inductive reactances a constant value k. Constant-k filters have constant resistive input and output impedances. Constant-k can be implemented as an L, T or п section. Constant-k T Section Filter M-Derived Filters M-derived filters use a tuned circuit in the filter to introduce a point of infinite attenuation for the purpose of making the roll-off rate faster. M-derived filters provide extra steepness of the response curve and improve selectivity. M-Derived T-type Filter Bandpass Filters A bandpass filter is one that allows a narrow range of frequencies around a center frequency to pass with minimum attenuation but rejects frequencies above and below this range. Bandpass filters are configured with series or parallel resonant circuits. Bandpass Filters Band-Reject Filters Band-reject filters reject a narrow band of frequencies around a center or notch frequency. Band-reject filters are also known as bandstop filters or traps. Band-Reject Filter Types of LC filters Butterworth Chebyshev Cauer (Elliptical) Bessel Active Filters Active filters are frequency-selective circuits that incorporate RC networks and amplifiers with feedback to produce low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, and bandstop performance. Advantages are: Gain No inductors Easy to tune Isolation Easier impedance matching Crystal and Ceramic Filters Crystal and ceramic filters are made of thin slivers of quartz crystal or certain other types of ceramic materials. Crystals and ceramic elements are widely used in oscillators to set frequency of operation to a precise value. Crystals and ceramic elements are also used as circuit elements to form filters, specifically bandpass filters. Fourier Theory One method used to determine the characteristics and performance of a communication circuit or system, specifically for non-sine wave approach, is Fourier Analysis. The Fourier theory states that a nonsinusoidal waveform can be broken down into individual harmonically related sine wave or cosine wave components. Fourier analysis states that a square wave is made up of a sine wave at the fundamental frequency of the square wave plus an infinite number of odd harmonics. Fourier analysis allows us to determine not only sine-wave components in a complex signal but also a signal’s bandwidth. By Definition… Analysis of variations of voltage, current, or power with respect to time are expressed in the time domain. A frequency domain plots amplitude variations with respect to frequency. A spectrum analyzer is an instrument used to produce a frequency-domain display.