EARTH SCIENCE.pdf

Makati Science High School Science and Technology Organization Grade 11 Earth Science Reviewer LESSON 01: EARTH AND ITS SUBSYSTEMS EARTH’S HABITABILITY - right distance from Sun - has a geomagnetic field, liquid water, & solid land - right atmosphere...

Makati Science High School Science and Technology Organization Grade 11 Earth Science Reviewer LESSON 01: EARTH AND ITS SUBSYSTEMS EARTH’S HABITABILITY - right distance from Sun - has a geomagnetic field, liquid water, & solid land - right atmosphere composition, temperature, size, & gravity - possesses a satellite (Moon) SUBSYSTEMS - “Earth is a system” - Earth’s components and their interconnected parts and processes BIOSPHERE - unique to Earth - set of all life forms IMPORTANT PROCESSES - Food Chain & Web, Energy Pyramid - Nutrient/Biogeochemical Cycles (carbon & water cycle) - Symbiotic Relationships ANTHROPOSPHERE - Human beings - maintains balance among subsystems - Failure to protect environments may be because of lack of appreciation or inability to recognize consequences of actions ATMOSPHERE - thin gaseous layer that envelops the lithosphere - composed of 78% N, 21% O, and 1% of other gases (CO2, Ar, Ne, etc.) - Troposphere: closest to the surface; weather, clouds, and wind formation - Stratosphere: blocks sun radiation w/ ozone - Mesosphere: where space debris burns up - Ionosphere & Thermosphere: hottest layer, space stations orbit here - Exosphere: closest to space IMPORTANT PROCESSES IN ATMOSPHERE - Weather Cycle: heat on the surface is redistributed through atmospheric circulation - Hydrologic Cycle: constant heat and moisture exchange between atmosphere & hydrosphere - Carbon Cycle: also known as CO2 - O2 cycle - Nitrogen Cycle GEOSPHERE  - rocks, soil, lava, and land formations - Crust: Solid & Rigid - Lithosphere: rocky layer that consists of crust & upper mantle - Mantle: Semi-solid & elastic - Outer Core: Liquid metallic, generates magnetic field - Inner Core: Solid metallic, mostly composed of iron IMPORTANT PROCESSES IN GEOSPHERE - Plate Tectonics: shapes the surface of the Earth; caused by mantle convection currents - Rock Cycle: transformation of rocks; geosphere interaction with other subsystems - Weathering and Erosion SOIL - contains sediments, organic and inorganic nutrients, & water - habitat for some organisms GEOMAGNETIC FIELD (MAGNETOSPHERE) - extends into space from Earth’s interior - generated by iron & nickel movement in the outer core - deflects most solar winds HYDROSPHERE - 70% of the Earth’s surface - Oceans & Seas: 97% saltwater - Glaciers: 2% freshwater - Rivers, Lakes, & Streams: 1% freshwater WATER - most abundant in cells (70% of cell mass) - dissolves & transports nutrients - essential for photosynthesis - habitat for living things - important sinks for CO2 and other minerals WATER CYCLE - exchange of heat and moisture with atmosphere - heat is absorbed & redistributed on the surface through ocean circulation - agent of weathering & erosion  LESSON 02: MINERAL AND ROCKS MINERALS - building blocks of rocks - Silicates: most common type, contains SiO4 (ex. Feldspar) NON-SILICATES - Carbonates: contains CO2 - Oxides: contains O2 - Sulfides: contains S - Sulfates: contains SO4 - Halides: contains halogens (chlorine, fluorine, etc.) - Native Elements: single elements (diamond, gold, etc.) CRITERIA - naturally occurring - solid & inorganic - definite chemical composition (ex. Cu, S, SiO2) - regular & repeating arrangement of atoms & molecules PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - composition & arrangement of atoms affect physical traits - Hardness: measured by Mohs hardness scale; resistance to abrasion or scratches - Streak: color of a mineral in powdered form; done by scratching against black and/or white tiles ★ LUSTER: quality & intensity of reflected light - Metallic: polished metal - Submetallic: metal exposed to erosion - Nonmetallic: adamantine (glittery), resinous (yellow or dark orange and slightly reflective), vitreous (glassy), pearly, greasy (oil-coated look), dull, earthy (soil or clay-like), silky (has lines) - Breakage: fracture (irregular/jagged) or cleavage (uniform/clean). tested by breaking a part of the mineral or looking at ridges - Specific Gravity/Density  - Other Characteristics: taste, order, magnetism MINERALOIDS - naturally occurring solid compounds - do not meet the definition of a mineral (lack one or more of the criteria) - Ex: Amber, Pearl (Organic), Obsidian and Opal (Amorphous), Mercury (Liquid) ROCKS - Types: Igneous, Sedimentary, & Metamorphic IGNEOUS - solidified lava/magma - intrusive/extrusive based on origin & cooling process - ultramafic, mafic, intermediate, or felsic (highest to lowest silica content) - Pegmatitic, phaneritic, porphyritic, aphanitic, vesicular, glassy (based on texture) SEDIMENTARY - accumulation of minerals/organic particles at the Earth’s surface - Clastic: compacted sediments classified based on size - Crystalline: precipitates & evaporites - Organic: contains living matter METAMORPHIC - transforms by pressure/heat - Regional: caused by pressure of converging plates - Contact: caused by heat of nearby magma sources LESSON 03: MINERAL ORES PHILIPPINES - fifth mineralized country in the world (30% of its land being potential mining sites) COMMON MINERALS Chromite Platinum Nickel Cobalit Copper Sand & Gravel Gold Lead  Iron Limestone & Clay Manganese Marble ABUNDANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS IN THE CRUST O: 46.6% Na: 2.8% Si: 27.7% K: 2.6% Al: 8.1% Mg: 2.1% Fe: 5.0% Other: 1.7% (Cu, etc.) Ca: 3.6% ECONOMIC MATERIALS - minerals that can be extracted, processed, and marketed for profit FACTORS - demand in the mineral - qsize of deposit - mineral concentration - surface depth of the mineral - market value ORE - natural material with a high concentration of economically valuable minerals that can be mined for a profit MINING - extraction of valuable/geological materials from ore and mineral deposits - materials extracted are a combination of aggregates and useful minerals - materials gathered must undergo a milling/purification process MINING PROCESS EXPLORATION - Field Exploration: looking for anomalies & testing - Pre-Production Feasibility Study: economically and environmentally-safe? MINING & PROCESSING - Mining -> Milling, Seperation, & Processing -> Marketing MINE CLOSURE - Closure Plans -> Restoration, Reclamation, & Rehabilitation -> Sustaining Post-Mining Use SURFACE MINING SUBSURFACE MINING  Surface layer removed Ores extracted underground Targets non-metallic minerals Targets metallic minerals Safer than Subsurface Mining Poses safety hazards for workers Mostly done in mountain areas Can trigger erosions and sinkholes Damages the ecosystem in different ways TYPES Open Pit, Strip Mining, Quarrying, Placer N/A Mining MINERAL PROCESSING - usually done in a mill to recover minerals from ore and waste materials - Crushing & Screening: controlled size reduction -> rocks are pulverized - Separation & Recovery: dependent on the target mineral/metal NICKEL PROCESSING PROCESS RA 7942 (Philippine Mining Act of 1995)  LESSON 04: ENERGY RESOURCES PARTS OF POWER PLANTS - Turbine: rotor that moves past to produce continuous power. - Generator: converts mechanical energy to electric power using electromagnets. - Transformer: transfers electricity from one circuit to another. RENEWABLE - energy not depleted when uses - Solar, Wind, Water, Biomass, & Geothermal - Advantages: constantly available & environmentally friendly - Disadvantages: low efficiency, transportation of energy, requires huge land area, high costs GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Internal Heat (Earth) -> Mechanical Energy (Steam) -> Mechanical Energy (Turbine) -> Electricity Advantages Disadvantages Reliable & Consistent High cost of construction & maintenance Can provide basic load electricity Possible instability of location Release of gases Additional Note requires a magma source (for heat) & make geothermal/hydrothermal wells for ground water (for steam) more pressure to make steam HYDROELECTRIC (Most Efficient)  Potential Energy (Water) -> Kinetic Energy (Water) -> Mechanical Energy (Turbine) -> Electricity Advantages Disadvantages More efficient dams damage the ecosystem A dam can be used for flood control and Maintenance cost Water filtration Specific location Poor or excessive water supply Flooding Additional Note produces 83% of renewable power more water from a higher height -> higher PE to convert into KE NON-RENEWABLE - Energy from resources that can’t be easily replaced (fossil fuels) - Advantages: easy to transport, highly efficient - Disadvantages: finite supply, causes political disputes, harmful to environment FOSSIL FUELS COAL OIL NATURAL GASES ancient plants during the Marine organisms that Marine organisms that carboniferous period that underwent anaerobic underwent anaerobic underwent coalification decomposition decomposition for a longer period Lignite -> Subbituminous -> Petroleum, gasoline, Dry Gas: Methane Bituminous -> Anthracite diesel, jet fuel, asphalt Wet Gas: Methane w/ Ethane & Butane All 3 are hydrocarbons, organic, and combustible  Coalification: dead plants covered by sediments Oil & Natural Gas were made first before Coal (carboniferous period was later) FOSSIL FUEL POWERED STEAM TURBINE Internal Heat (Earth) -> Mechanical Energy (Steam) -> Mechanical Energy (Turbine) -> Electricity Additional Notes pollution control is compacted into solids cooling water (to recycle water) uses up and buried deep some of the energy made LESSON 05: WATER RESOURCES WATER CYCLE - Evaporation: water rises into the atmosphere as water vapor - Condensation: water vapor becomes water - Precipitation: water falls back to the earth’s surface - Deposition: gas -> solid (water vapor to ice) - Sublimation: solid -> gas - Infiltration: water absorbed by the ground - Evapotranspiration: water -> soil -> plants -> atmosphere - Percolation: flow of water absorbed through rocks - Surface Runoff: water returning to water sources via the ground WATER USES - Agricultural (70%): Irrigation, Cleansing, Pesticides/Fertilizer, Animals  - Industrial (23%): Chemical Production/Process, Cleansing, Energy Production - Domestic (7%): Household/Personal Use WATER TYPES GREEN WATER - moisture from soil and plants BLUE WATER - water sources like rivers GREY WATER - chemically polluted water EFFECTS OF GREY WATER - Leaching Water: dissolves chemicals - Eutrophication Water: environment changes due to high amount of nutrients/chemicals - Algal Bloom: algae blooms due to nutrients present in the water - Oxygen Deprivation: algae will die and bacteria will grow; blocks sunlight and oxygen - Dead Zones & Fish Kill: aquatic organisms will start to die BLACK WATER - polluted water w/ fecal matter LESSON 06: SOIL SOIL - biologically active, porous medium that has developed in the uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust. - Made up of 45% minerals, 5% organic matter, 25% air, 25% water ARABLE LAND - used for cultivating plants for human needs and contains healthy topsoil SOIL EROSION - Removal of top layer of soil by factors like water, animals, wind, and humans SOIL POLLUTION - Contamination of soil SOIL LAYERS - 1 inch of topsoil takes 500-1000 years to form - Topsoil: contains humus; dark color; top layer of Solum - Zone of Eluviation: loses clay; leaving sand & silt particles; middle layer of Solum  - Subsoil: accumulation of clay; creation of bulky structures; last layer of Solum - Parent Material: weathered & unconsolidated earth material - Bedrock: final layer; consolidated rock HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT SOIL CONSERVATION AFFECT SOIL QUALITY & TECHNIQUES QUANTITY Soil Depletion Contour Planning Overgrazing Animals No-Till Farming Deforestation Terracing Mining Cover crops Development and Expansion Windbreaks Recreational activities Crop rotation LESSON 07: WASTE WASTE - moveable object with no direct use - discarded permanently BASED ON FORM - Solid: biodegradable/non-biodegradable - Liquid: commonly transported in containers/pipes - Gaseous: primarily generated by combustion & industrial processes BASED ON SOURCE - Agricultural: Excess use for fertilizers & pesticide - Industrial: Waste released from manufacturing - Mining: Waste generated from the exploitation of mineral resources - Biomedical: generated by hospitals & other health care institutions - Residential: generated in households WASTE MANAGEMENT (3Rs) - Reduce: lessen production & consumption, most effective waste management - Reuse: Using products repeatedly - Recycle: Re-introducing materials in production process