Earth and Life Science Notes - PDF

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE notes by jada guion earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato What makes the Earth fit for Life? Quarter 1 Module 1 Factors that make a Planet Habitable: Temperature influences how quickly atoms and molecules move...

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE notes by jada guion earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato What makes the Earth fit for Life? Quarter 1 Module 1 Factors that make a Planet Habitable: Temperature influences how quickly atoms and molecules move = ideal temperature for living thing to survive and for liquid water can exist under certain condition the temperature of the planet can be modified by the intensity of global warming. Atmosphere Earth's atmosphere is about 100 miles thick it keeps the surface warm and protects it from radiation and small to medium-sized meteorites Greenhouse gases When the Sun's energy reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of the energy goes reflected in space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated. it includes: water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Because of this, it maintains the Earth's temperature at around warming, thus allowing life on Earth to exist. Energy The Earth has a steady input of either light or chemical energy cells can run the chemical reactions necessary for life. Sunlight essential for photosynthesis Chemosynthetic bacteria extract energy from chemicals present in hydrothermal vents Extremophiles organisms who can survive in harsh environments Radiophile – high radiation Barophile – high or low pressure Acidophile / Alkalophile – high or low pH Chemosynthetic – lack of light Hyperthermophile / thermophile – extreme heat / temperature Psychrophile – extreme cold Xerophile – extreme dryness Halophile – very salty water Nutrients are used to build and maintain an organism’s body Earth having a water cycle and volcanic activity can transport and replenish the chemicals required by living organisms. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato What makes the Earth fit for Life? Quarter 1 Module 2: The Earth's Subsystem Atmosphere absorbs water from the Earth's surface via the process of evaporation, then acts to redistribute heat and moisture across the earth's surface and is redistributed through atmospheric calculation Warm air converges and rises to form low pressure zones while cold air descend to form high pressure regions (dry regions) Low-pressure areas are associated with increased precipitation it contains substances that are essential for life Nitrogen = 78% Oxygen = 20.9% Argon Gases = 0.90% Other gases = 0.17% Carbon Dioxide = 0.03% Hydrosphere contains the water of the Earth in its liquid, gaseous (vapor) and solid (ice) phases. Oceans = 97% Glaciers and Polar Ice = 2% Fresh Water = 1% The thickness of this sphere ranges from 10 to 20 km. It extends several kilometers into the lithosphere and upward about 12 km into the atmosphere. Water can be both salty and non-salty or freshwater About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean water. Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh (2/3 ice, 1/3 streams, lakes and groundwater) Geosphere it is the largest of all spheres, it includes: solid crust molten mantle the liquid outer core; and the solid outer core Lithosphere- solid and rigid outer layer of the Earth; "lithos" meaning rocky Erosion and transport develop a layer of nutrient-rich soil that become available to living organisms, thus provide an important ecological habitat and the basis of many form of life. Plate tectonics shape the surface of the Earth. Biosphere it can be discovered the set of all the forms on Earth it covers all ecosystems- from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea. Cryosphere this is where freshwater is locked up in the form of frozen water on ice earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato What makes the Earth fit for Life? Quarter 1 Module 3: Rocks and Minerals Lesson 1: Rock-forming Materials Most geologists define mineral as a substance that must meet five requirements as follows: Naturally occurring Inorganic Solid Definite chemical composition Ordered internal structure Physical Properties of Minerals COLOR= can be opaque, translucent, or transparent STREAK= is the color of the mineral in powdered form when rubbed against a streak plate or unglazed porcelain LUSTER= is the amount of (quantity) and appearance (quality) of light reflected from the surface of a mineral. It provides an assessment of how much the mineral surface “sparkles”. TYPES OF LUSTER: Metallic having the look of a polished metal Examples: copper, gold, silver, galena, and pyrite Sub-Metallic having the look of a metal that is dulled by weathering or corrosion Example: hematite Non-Metallic Dull or Earthy- reflect light very poorly and do not shine (kaolinite) Resinous - resembling that of a resin (sulfur) Pearly - having the iridescent look of mother-of-pearl (talc) Greasy - looks as if it is covered with oil/grease (gypsum) Silky – having the look of silk, fine parallel fibers of mineral (asbestos) Vitreous – similar to that of glass (Quartz) Adamantine - sparkling reflection (diamond) HARDNESS= a measure of how resistant a mineral is from being scratched. Friedrich Mohs – German mineralogist who designed the Mohs scale in 1812. CLEAVAGE= property of some minerals to break along parallel repetitive planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces MUSCOVITE- Cleavage in one direction FELDSPAR- Cleavage in two directions HALITE- Cleavage in three directions CALCITE- Cleavage in two directions (slanted) earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato CRYSTAL FORM/HABIT= external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals that is displayed & observed as these crystals grow in open spaces It is the natural shape of the mineral before the development of any cleavage or fracture. SPECIFIC GRAVITY= is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water It is a measure to express the density (mass per unit volume) of a mineral. The specific gravity of a mineral is numerically equal to density. FRACTURE – occurs when a mineral is broken or crushed. Conchoidal breaks along smooth curved surfaces Fibrous and Splintery similar to the way wood breaks Hackly jagged fractures with sharp edges Uneven of Irregular rough irregular surfaces Other Properties of Minerals MAGNETISM= allows a mineral to attract or repel other magnetic materials Diamagnetic minerals– not attracted by a magnet Paramagnetic minerals– attracted by a magnet Examples: magnetite (Fe3O4) -strongly magnetic ilmenite (FeTiO3) -weakly magnetic TASTE= a characteristic shown among water-soluble minerals. Some minerals are toxic. So, tasting minerals is discouraged. acid or sour taste of sulfuric acid [indicates the presence of sulfur] alkaline taste of potash astringent or puckering [alum] bitter taste [epsom or bitter salts] cooling [saltpeter (NaNO3)] metallic decomposed FeS2 [brassy taste] saline or salty [table salt (NaCl)] DOUBLE REFRACTION= a special optical property of certain minerals where a light ray enters the crystal and splits up into two separate rays. EFFERVESCE= property of some minerals that effervesce or bubble when dilute hydrochloric acid is applied to the surface Chemical reaction of calcium carbonate with dilute hydrochloric acid produces bubbles because carbon dioxide gas if released. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato FLUORESENCE= the ability of a substance to produce light when activated by invisible ultraviolet light (UV), X-rays and/or electron beams; gypsum PHOSPHORESENCE= ability of a mineral to continue emitting light after external lightsource is taken away; fluorite THERMOLUMINESCENE= property of some minerals to glow when they are heated; calcite TRIBOLUMINESCENE= property of some minerals to glow when they are crushed, struck, scratched, or even rubbed in some cases; calcite and fluorite Chemical Properties of Minerals Minerals can be pure elements or compounds. Their chemical properties mainly reflect the kind of atoms or molecules present in each. The properties depend on the way the atoms or molecules are bound in the mineral's crystal structure. And minerals are identified by how they chemically react to certain substances. Classification of Minerals based on Composition Common rock-forming minerals and their chemical composition earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato ROCKS are made of minerals can be a mixture of different kinds of minerals, a mixture of many grains of the same kind of mineral, or a mixture of different grains of rocks When you split a rock into very small pieces, the pieces are different from each other when you break granite apart: quartz (clear) feldspar (pink or white) mica (black) 3 Common Classes of Rocks Igneous Rocks formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava word “igneous” is derived from Latin igneus, which means 'fiery' or 'on fire' 3 forms intrusive or plutonic Below the surface, from slowly cooling magma formation of crystals that are visible to the naked eye without the aid of a magnifying lens exs: granite, diorite, and syenite extrusive or volcanic On the surface, from rapidly cooling lava formation of very small crystals that may not be visible without the use of a magnifying lens exs: basalt, andesite, and rhyolite pyroclastic On the surface, from the consolidation of particle erupted by explosive volcanic activity hybrid of igneous and sedimentary processes the particles may solidify in different sizes and come together on the surface via lithification exs: ignimbrite (locally known as adobe), tuff, and volcanic breccia Classification of Igneous Rocks The two main categories of igneous rocks are intrusive and extrusive. can be crystalline when they form from slowly cooled magma or lava, or pyroclastic, when they are made of consolidated eruption products like volcanic ash earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Classification of Igneous Rocks Intrusive rocks called intrusive or plutonic when they cool and solidify beneath the surface; cooling occurs slowly, because they form within the Earth phaneritic texture- phaner means visible; have relatively large mineral crystals that are easy to see; best-known phaneritic rock is granite pegmatitic texture- have a huge variety of crystal shapes and sizes; the crystals are very observable; examples are pegmatite, diorite and gabbro Extrusive rocks called volcanic igneous rocks; formed from magmas that erupt as lava onto the earth’s surface cool and solidify rapidly aphanitic igneous texture- a means not, phaner means visible; in which few or none of the individual minerals are big enough to see with the naked eye porphyritic texture- texture will consist of coarse-grained crystals embedded in a fine-grained matrix vesicular texture- if lava has bubbles of gas escaping from it as it solidifies, it will end up with “frozen bubble holes” (vesicles) in it frothy texture- When there are many bubbles escaping from lava that it ends up containing more bubble holes than solid rock glassy texture- as lava cools extremely quickly, and has very little water dissolved in it, it may freeze into glass, with no minerals (glass as defined here is not a mineral, because it does not have a crystal lattice) Pyroclastic Rocks extrusive igneous rocks tephra is volcanic material that was hurled through the air during a volcanic eruption pyro means igneous, clastic means fragment; made of fine- grained volcanic ash may be said to have a fine- grained, fragmental texture earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato brecciated texture- coarse-grained, fragmental texture volcanic breccia- pyroclastic rock with many big chunks of material in it that were caught up in the explosive eruption Igneous Rock Compositions classified according to silica content and relative amounts of K, Na, Fe, Mg and Ca Felsic Rocks rocks tend to be light in color (white, pink, tan, light brown, light gray) because their composition is higher in silica (SiO2) and low in iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg) Mafic Rocks tend to be dark in color (black, very dark brown, very dark gray, dark green) mixed with black since their composition is higher in iron and magnesium and lower in silica Intermediate compositions contain silica, iron, and magnesium in amounts that are intermediate to felsic and mafic compositions Ultramafic Rocks very low silica content and are rich in minerals Obsidian Rocks a volcanic glass which erupts as a lava flow most obsidian is felsic in composition but will typically have a very dark color Dunite has ultramafic composition but is greenish in color because it is composed almost entirely of green mineral, olivine earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Sedimentary Rocks formed by the accumulation of sediments solid fragments of organic or inorganic materials from weathered and eroded pre-existing rocks and living matters term sediment is derived from the Latin sedentarius, which means 'sitting' Different Types Grains - greater than sand-sized minerals and/or rock fragments Matrix - fine-grained (clay to silt sized) minerals Cement - minerals precipitated from solution that binds the grains and matrix together Accumulation of sediments occur in low-lying areas like lakes, oceans, and deserts. Fragments are then compressed back into rock by the weight of overlying materials. sandstone which is formed from sand mudstone from mud limestone from seashells diatoms or bonelike minerals precipitating out of calcium-rich water formed on or near the Earth’s surface where temperature and pressure are low most important geological processes that lead to the creation of sedimentary rocks are: weathering erosion dissolution precipitation deposition lithification (compaction and cementation) Common Sedimentary Features Fossil Assemblages remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in rocks earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Stratification (Layering) is the result of a change in grain size and composition Bedding- stratification which is greater than 1 cm Lamination- stratification which is less than 1 cm Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Clastic sedimentary rocks they form from the concentration of sediments that have been deposited, buried, and compacted over a long period of time such as quartz, felspar, and clay Clasts- fragments may come from pre-existing rocks or minerals; particles have been broken and transported may further be refined whether the shapes of the individual grains are angular or rounded; may also be described based on their sizes and is divided into three types: clay or silt sand gravel Examples of clastic sedimentary rocks : conglomerate rock- relatively large and rounded clasts angular clasts of the Breccia Sandstone- visible grains and prominent layering Claystone- may have several embedded fossils limestone- are a precipitate; non-clastic sedimentary rocks coquina- bioclastic Clastic rocks with volcanic origin (pyroclastics) and may have undergone some stages in the sedimentary processes could be classified as sedimentary rock (volcanoclastic rocks). Crystalline or chemical sedimentary rocks rocks when minerals or mineraloids are precipitated directly from water or are concentrated by organic matter or life Chemical Sedimentary Rocks the formation of the rocks when the solution is saturated, the precipitation of minerals like calcite and halite can occur earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato 3 common groups: Carbonate rocks made of the minerals, called calcite and dolomite a rock contains calcite, it is one of the types of limestone type of stone is usually formed by organisms that live in water, or biota, like clams or corals Limestone contains large pieces of fossils (fossiliferous limes) made of very small exoskeletons of algae are chalk oolitic limestone- made of spheres of calcite, or ooliths Dolostone rock that is made up of dolomite These stones begin as limestone, but they go through a change through recrystallization Evaporites chemical sedimentary rocks that are created by precipitation formed from the evaporation of water leaving the dissolved minerals to crystallize; water becomes supersaturated with these minerals Percipitates- rocks that developed when minerals from a mineral supersaturated water start to crystallize at the bottom of the solution Chert called a cryptocrystalline type of quartz; mineral structure is different than quartz created by biochemical processes where silica is taken up from the water by diatoms to use in their exoskeleton Organic sedimentary rocks sedimentary rocks can also be organic or bioclastic when they form as the result of the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of plant and/or animal remains these plant and animal debris have calcium minerals in them that pile on the sea floor over time exs: chert, peat, coal, some limestone METAMORPHIC ROCKS made when existing rocks are subjected to high temperatures and high pressures for long periods of time earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato METAMORPHIC ROCKS Metamorphism meta means change, morph means form happens when molten rock intrudes other rocks and bakes the contact zone where the molten rock touches the preexisting rock Contact Metamorphism in which heat and reactive fluids are the main factors in the transformation of rocks Regional Metamorphism Metamorphism also occurs at convergent boundaries where tectonic plates are colliding During this process of mountain building, rocks are subjected to pressure which is the main factor in its transformation. Protolith- also called the parent rock; derived by the action of heat and/or pressure on pre-existing igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks classified according to their texture: Foliated or Banded Metamorphic Rocks the dominant agent of metamorphism is pressure the mineral crystals in the rock are aligned with each other Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks result when the dominant agent is heat the mineral crystals in the rock have grown in many directions and do not show alignment commonly appear massive and structureless, with only a few lines of impurities through the rock earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato The appearance of a foliated metamorphic rock can easily be distinguished from a non-foliated one through its bands that clearly show that the minerals are arranged parallel to the axis of pressure. Non-foliated metamorphic rock does not show any bands since its metamorphism is due to heat that allowed mineral crystals to grow in many directions. Non-foliated rocks like marble also form through regional metamorphism, where pressure is not intense, far from the main geologic event. Both foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks have undergone the process of transformation due to increasing metamorphic grade and increasing pressure. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Importance of Minerals to the Society and Mining Minerals Ores Lesson 1: Importance of Minerals to the Society earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Importance of Minerals to the Society and Mining Minerals Ores Lesson 1: Importance of Minerals to the Society Mineral Occurrence – concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or technical interest Mineral Deposit – mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable extraction under the most favorable conditions Ore Deposit – mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be economically profitable to mine. Aggregate – rock or mineral material used as filler in cement, asphalt, plaster, etc., generally used to describe nonmetallic deposits Ore – naturally-occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be extracted. The minerals found in different tectonic environments are generally classified into two types of mineral resources namely: metallic and nonmetallic. These can only be available for use in industries after being extracted from the ground as ores. Ores are naturally occurring materials that can be profitably mined. It can be mineral, rock, metallic or nonmetallic, depending on the economic requirement. A deposit is considered a potential ore body if its localized abundance is greater than its average abundance or distribution on Earth’s crust. A rock or mineral is considered an ore based on the overall chemical composition, percentage of extractable resource with respect to its total volume and market value of the resource. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Importance of Minerals to the Society and Mining Minerals Ores Lesson 1: Importance of Minerals to the Society LOCATING ORES 1. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits are concentrations of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids flowing through fractures and pore spaces in rocks. Hydrothermal fluids form when groundwater or seawater is heated by magma, aqueous solutions are expelled from a cooling plutonic body. These fluids may contain large amount of dissolved metals As the metal-enriched hot waters move into cooler areas in the crust, the dissolved substances may start to precipitate. TYPES OF DEPOSITS Vein type deposits Discordant vein cuts across existing structures occur in fault or fissure openings or in shear zones. These may contain gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury Disseminated deposits the ore minerals are distributed as minute masses or very low in concentration through large volumes of rocks. This occurrence is common for porphyry copper deposits. Massive sulfide deposit (at oceanic spreading centers) Precipitation of metals as sulfide minerals occur when hot fluids circulated above magma chambers at oceanic ridges may contain sulfur, copper, and zinc when it come in contact with cold groundwater or seawater as it migrates towards the seafloor. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Importance of Minerals to the Society and Mining Minerals Ores Lesson 1: Importance of Minerals to the Society Stratabound ore deposits (in lake or oceanic sediment) dissolved minerals in a hydrothermal fluid precipitate in the pore spaces of unconsolidated sediments on the bottom of a lake or ocean. may contain lead, zinc, & copper, usually in sulfide forms like galena, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite. 2. Magmatic Ore Deposits valuable substances concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic processes such as crystal fractionation, partial melting and crystal settling. Example: Crystal settling magma cools down >> heavier minerals (solid and dense) crystallize early and settle in the lower portion of the magma chamber. basaltic magma, chromite, magnetite, and platinum can be concentrated through crystal settling. 3. Metamorphic Process alteration and recrystallization of minerals and aids the formation and localization of economically important materials like graphite, marble, and asbestos During fractional crystallization, the residual melt contains high percentage of water and volatile substances that are favorable for the formation of pegmatites. Pegmatites igneous rocks which have exceptionally large crystals. enriched in lithium, gold, boron, rare elements, and some other heavy metals such as beryl, topaz, and tourmaline. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Importance of Minerals to the Society and Mining Minerals Ores Lesson 1: Importance of Minerals to the Society 4. Kimberlite magma A special type of magma which originates deep within the mantle and is the source of diamonds, which only crystallizes at depths greater than 150 km. expelled very rapidly from the depth onto the Earth’s surface. Their passage through the crust and eventual solidification leaves behind kimberlite pipes, which are highly prized as diamond ores. 5. Sedimentary Ore deposits some valuable substances concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or seawater. Although clastic sedimentary processes can form mineral deposits, the term sedimentary mineral deposit is restricted to chemical sedimentation, where minerals containing valuable substances are precipitated directly out of water. Examples: Evaporite deposits occurs in a closed marine environment where evaporation is greater than water inflow. As most of the water evaporates, the dissolved substances become more concentrated in the residual water and would eventually precipitate. Halite, gypsum, borax (used in soap), and sylvite, from which K Examples: is extracted for fertilizers are Iron Formation examples of minerals deposited These deposits are made through this process. up of repetitive thin layers of iron-rich chert and several other iron bearing minerals such as hematite and magnetite. Iron formations appear to be of evaporite type deposits and are mostly formed in basins within continental crust during the Proterozoic (2 billion years or older). earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Importance of Minerals to the Society and Mining Minerals Ores Lesson 1: Importance of Minerals to the Society 6. Placer Ore deposits result from the action of ocean waves or currents in flowing surface water that tends to take sediments along. Heavy minerals are mechanically concentrated by water currents and the less-dense particles remain suspended and are carried further downstream 7. Residual Ore deposits results from the accumulation of valuable materials through chemical weathering processes. Rocks undergo chemical changes. During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by leaching as the water removes the soluble minerals. These minerals dissolved in water accumulate as they deposit, leaving the insoluble material as residue. Common deposits are bauxites and nickeliferous laterites. Bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum, is derived when aluminum-rich rocks undergo intense chemical weathering brought by prolonged rains in the tropics, leaching the common elements that include silicon, sodium, and calcium. Nickeliferous laterites, are residual ore deposits derived from the laterization of olivine-rich ultramafic rocks such as dunite & peridotite. Laterization is a condition of weathering which leads to the removal of alkalis & silica, resulting in a soil or rock with high concentrations of iron & aluminum oxides. Secondary Enrichment Deposits are derived when a certain mineral deposit becomes enriched due to weathering. Lesson 2: Mining Mineral Resources Mining processes through which useful resources are withdrawn from a stock of any nonrenewable resource The texture of a mineral or metal determines the type of mining operation needed and the amount of waste produced in the extraction, separation, and concentration of the ore. Upon careful planning and inspection, one of three possible extraction methods may be used. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Importance of Minerals to the Society and Mining Minerals Ores Lesson 2: Mining Mineral Resources 1. Sand and gravel extraction – very little waste rock is left behind the milling process, as these types of deposits are not economically viable unless the ore is of high grade. 2. Extraction from buried ore bodies – huge quantities of rock often needs to be removed and discarded so that a relatively small amount of ore can be recovered (e.g., a typical copper grade of 2% produces 20kg of pure copper metal from an ore, leaving 980kg of waste rock). 3. Ore processing – producing ore minerals from ores through crushing, separating, and purifying. STEPS DONE IN MINING Mineral Exploration Prospecting or exploration can be simply described as looking for the ore body which is a deposit that can yield a large amount of a specific mineral. Steps needed during mineral exploration: Project Design: This is the initial stage in formulating a project. This involves review of all available data (geologic reports, mining history, maps, etc.), government requirements in acquiring the project, review of social, environmental, political, and economic acceptability of the project, and budget and organization proposals. This is a Stop- Go process that controls risk for the investor and of which is done by providing geological and economic considerations in producing a mine. Field Exploration: This stage involves physical activities in the selected project area. This can be subdivided into three phases: Regional Reconnaissance: This is a regional surface investigation and interpretation to identify targets or interesting mineralized zones covering a relatively large area. Detailed Exploration: This involves more detailed surface and subsurface activities with the objective of finding and delineating targets or mineralized zones. Prospect Evaluation: The main objective is to assess market profitability by extensive resource, geotechnical and engineering drilling metallurgical testing environmental and societal cost assessment Pre-production Feasibility Study: The feasibility study determines and validates the accuracy of all data and information collected from the different stages. The purpose is for independent assessors to satisfy interested investors to raise funds and bring the project into production. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Importance of Minerals to the Society and Mining Minerals Ores STEPS DONE IN MINING Mining Methods The location and shape of the deposit, strength of the rock, ore grade, mining costs, and current market price of the commodity are some of the determining factors for selecting which mining method to use. Underground Mining This method of mining is utilized to extract higher-grade metallic ores found in deep veins under the Earth’s surface. Large tabular- shaped ore bodies or ore bodies lying more than 1,000 feet (300 m) below the surface are generally mined underground as well. This type of mining is quite more expensive than surface mining as the rock is drilled and blasted, then moved to the surface by truck, belt conveyor, or elevator. Once at the surface, the material is sent to a mill to separate the ore from the waste rock. Surface Mining Surface mining is utilized to extract lower grade metal ores which are found closer to the Earth’s surface. This method generally costs less than underground method. In a surface mine, hard rock must be drilled and blasted, although some minerals are soft enough to mine without blasting. Different types include open pit mining, quarrying, placer mining and strip mining Placer Mining Placer mining is used to recover valuable minerals from sediments in present-day river channels, beach sands, or ancient stream deposits. More than half of the world’s titanium comes from placer mining of beach dunes and sands. In placer operations, the mined material is washed and sluiced to concentrate the heavier minerals. The Milling Process The materials mined are rocks composed of both ore and waste material. High grade ores are extracted or separated from the rest of the deposit. While the part of the rock which contain very little, or no element or mineral of economic value is considered as waste material. The extracted rocks will undergo processes of mineral (e.g., metal) separation and recovery which is usually done in a mill. In milling, the ore is crushed and concentrated. Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled size reduction followed by grinding where the rocks are pulverized. The waste materials or mine tailings are released. Milling or Recovery Processes include the following: Heavy media separation: The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the heavier or denser minerals sink (Figure 5). Thus, heavier minerals are separated from the lighter ones. This is commonly used to separate chalcopyrite from quartz before the refining processes of extracting copper. Magnetic separation: If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from the waste materials using a powerful magnet earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Importance of Minerals to the Society and Mining Minerals Ores STEPS DONE IN MINING Flotation: The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurry where some minerals and metals based on physical and chemical properties may either sink to the bottom or may stick to the bubbles and rise to the top thus separating the minerals and metals from the waste. Cyanide heap leaching: This method is used for low-grade gold ore where the crushed rock is placed on a “leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on top of the pile. As the leach solution percolates down through the rocks, the gold is dissolved into the solution. The solution is processed further to extract the gold. The waste material is either used as a backfill in the mine or sent to a tailings pond, while the metals are sent for further processing. Environmental Impacts Improper mining can cause flooding, erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of biodiversity and air pollution. Contamination resulting from leakage of chemicals affects the health of the local population if not properly controlled. Mining is a controversial industry because of the neglectful and irresponsible practices that bring about environmental problems. Mining companies are required to follow stringent environmental and rehabilitation codes to minimize environmental damage and ill-effects to human health. These codes and regulations all require the common steps of environmental impact assessment, development of environmental management plans, mine closure planning and environmental monitoring during operation and after closure. topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil reintroduction of flora and fauna neutralizing acidic waters backfilling and sealing of abandoned underground mines stabilizing the slope of impacted area to reduce erosion Republic Act 7942 otherwise known as the Philippine Mining Act of 1995 govern the exploration, development, utilization and processing of all mineral resources within the territory and exclusive economic zone of the Philippines Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) ensures the implementation this law with its Mines and Geosciences Bureau that is responsible tasked for the conservation, management, development, and proper use of the country’s mineral resources including those in reservations and lands of public domain Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) takes charge in formulating plans, programs, and appropriate environmental quality standards for the prevention and control of pollution, the protection of the environment, and ensures their implementation. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Importance of Minerals to the Society and Mining Minerals Ores Local Ore Minerals and Their Uses In fact, the Philippines has various kinds of mineral reserves which has put the country in the world mineral map as the fifth most mineralized country in the world, third in gold reserves, fourth in copper, and fifth in nickel. Important metallic minerals that are found in abundance include gold, copper, iron, chromite, nickel, cobalt, and platinum, and nonmetallic minerals include sand and gravel, limestone, marble, clay, and other quarry materials. Benguet Province (Baguio and Mankayan Districts) most prolific copper and gold producers in the Philippines Surigao-Davao Districts contribute to the production of gold in the country Palawan and Surigao major producers of nickel Natural Resources Management 3 Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) In this way, unwanted materials are collected and processed into useful products to conserve and make natural resources sustainable. broken tiles (made of clay minerals) are recycled to cover a beautiful pathway and a mosaic garden steps Conservation, protection, and rehabilitation of ecosystems are also important in mitigating harmful effects of mineral resource extraction so that affected ecosystems may recover and eventually restore itself back to its natural state. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Energy Sources RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES are those that are continuously replenished in a short period of time NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES are those that cannot be recreated in a short period of time FOSSIL FUELS are formed from living plants and animals that existed 500 million years ago. Intense heat and pressure and chemical reactions caused the remains of plants and animals to turn into hydrocarbons. HYDROCARBONS can be in the form of solid, liquid, or gas. The solid form is what called coal, the liquid form is called petroleum or crude oil, and the gaseous form is called natural gas. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Energy Sources RENEWABLE SOURCES Examples: Sun- sunlight is converted into heat that is used to produce electricity. Solar cells or photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Solar power plants turn sunlight into electricity. Wind- Windmills are used to generate electricity as the kinetic energy of the wind turns the turbines to create electricity. Geothermal energy– is contained in the rocks and fluids beneath the earth's crust and is found as far down to the Earth's hot molten rock, called magma. The most common way of getting the energy from geothermal sources is to tap the hot water under the ground. Types of Geothermal Plants Steam Power Plants It runs on natural steam coming from under the ground. The steam is made to flow through long pipes that reach up to the power plants and is used to run the turbines. Flash-steam Power Plants It uses underground hot water and steam that is about 182°C. The steam is contained in pipes and is transported to the turbine to make it work. Remaining water is flushed in a separate tank to be changed into steam again. Binary cycle Power Plants It uses hot water but not directly as the source of steam. It is the refrigerant that is changed into steam and is made to flow through pipes to the turbine. Only steam is emitted. The water is recycled back to the ground. Enhanced Geothermal System It is found in areas with hot and dry underground rocks. Water is pumped to the well and absorbs the heat from the rocks as it flows to the reservoir. The hot water warms a refrigerant, which evaporates to steam and runs the turbine. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Energy Sources RENEWABLE SOURCES Examples: Hydrothermal energy- Volumes of water from waterfall or dam have kinetic energy that can run a turbine. We have several hydoelectric power plants in the country. Some of them are the Maria Cristina Falls in Iligan City, Lanao del Nort, Angat Dam, etc. Dendrothermal energy- Biomass is the total amount of living things in the environment. It can be processed to make biofuel. Biofuel can come from crops like corn or algae where methanol and ethanol are extracted. It can be used as fuel to run engines of vehicles Nuclear energy- An alternative source of energy is nuclear fission, which is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom, which produce nuclear energy. It can generate greater amount of electrical energy. NONRENEWABLE SOURCES Examples: Coal- is a solid fossil fuel that is black or brownish-black in color and mostly composed of carbon Four Types of coal: Peat- 1st stage in the development of coal; soft substance made of decayed plant fiber. Lignite- is called brown coal that is soft and has a woody texture that produces low heat energy. Bituminous coal- a sedimentary rock that contains sulfur; dark brown or black and soft; most common type of coal. Anthracite coal- is the bituminous coal that has metamorphosed into almost pure carbon. It is extremely hard and brittle. Oil- is a liquid fossil fuel, which is commonly called petroleum oil or crude oil since it is a mixture of different hydrocarbons. It is formed from tiny organisms that lived on the surface of the sea and sunk on the seafloor and buried for thousands of years. As layers pile up heat and pressure increase and turn the remains of the organism into liquid oil through millions of years. It has to be refined before it can be used as an energy source. Refined oil produces gasoline, diesel, and kerosene. They are raw materials for making wax, plastics, fertilizer, and other products. Gasoline and diesel are used as fuel to run engines of automobiles. Kerosene is burned as a source of heat. Natural gas- is composed of hydrocarbon called methane. Formation of natural gas is similar to the formation of oil. Since it is less dense than oil, it rises above the oil. Natural gas deposits are usually found above oil deposits. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS FOSSIL FUEL Ongoing research is being done by scientists to find ways of minimizing the gas emission from fossil fuel through carbon capture technology. Carbon capture technology is done by separating the carbon from coal and injected underground to be stored permanently. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Energy Sources ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY The use of geothermal energy affects both water quality and consumption. Hot water from the under the ground contains high levels of sulfur, salt, and other minerals which are sources of pollutants. To remedy this problem, extracted water is directly pumped into a reservoir after being used for reproduction of electricity. HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY Hydroelectric plants have an extreme environmental impact. It may cause flooding that can destroy forest, wildlife, and agricultural lands. As preventive measure, dams are built to control the flood and also serve other purpose like farm irrigation and recreation. NUCLEAR ENERGY Nuclear wastes are difficult to manage, accident may happen and the threat of terrorism is a serious concern. Various scientific studies have shown an increased rate of cancer among people who live near nuclear power plants. Long term exposure to low-level radiation has been shown to damage DNA. But modern reactor designs feature better safety systems and produce significantly less waste than older reactors. Modern thorium reactors can actually use spent fuel from older reactor designs, consuming this problematic toxic waste to produce energy. Thus, nuclear energy does not release greenhouse gasses so it does not contribute to global climate change Our government through the DOE’s Philippine Energy Plan 2012-2030 find ways to addressed environmental concern through their policy thrust. EARTH'S WATER SCIENCE How does the Earth support life? Water (H2O) – universal solvent Global Distribution of Water earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato EARTH'S WATER SCIENCE EARTH'S WATER SCIENCE REFILLING THE UNDERGROUND WATER Usage of Groundwater Infiltration of precipitation restores the aquifer (renewable) Refilled either very slowly or not at all (non-renewable) Largest aquifers of non-renewable are found in North Africa, the Middle East, Australia, and Siberia. WATER USE AND CONSUMPTION Blue Water- rainwater that enters lakes, rivers, and groundwater Green Water- the amount of rainfall either captured by vegetation or enters the soil and absorbed by plants for photosynthetic activity that goes back to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration Source of water on Earth Virtual water and water footprints concept earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato EARTH'S WATER SCIENCE WATER USE AND CONSUMPTION Virtual Water the amount of water to produce different goods and services Improves the managing of the available water in semi-arid and arid areas Gray water when filtered well can be recycled for watering plants. Black water must be properly disposed Both gray water and black water can be used domestic & industrial purpose Water footprint is a measure of humanity’s appropriation of freshwater in volumes of water consumed and/or polluted. is the total consumption of water as computed for the individual consumer, community, nation, or business thus maintain the Earths’ water availability. HUMAN ACTIVITIES WHICH ARE THREATS TO THE QUALITY & QUANTITY OF EARTH'S WATER SYSTEMS Farming lead to bioaccumulation of toxic materials which might be taken in by aquatic organisms that may have an active effect once it enters circulation in the food chain. Improper waste disposal during Industrial production causes water pollution dissolved oxygen in bodies of water decreases which leads to low production of aquatic resources. Excessive water withdrawal reduces a considerable amount of water supply intended for public utility use Clearing of land to build roads and other construction structures increase surface runoff and cause landslides or flash floods in sloping areas leads to low and slow infiltration in recharging groundwater supply slow infiltration of surface runoff water results to flooding in low lying areas earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Waste Generation and Waste Management Wastes unwanted and unusable materials these are substances having no value Waste Stream The sum total production of waste from human society, including agricultural, industrial, municipal and mining Sources of Waste Agricultural wastes all the leftovers after a harvest is completed. Typically, these are generated by agricultural activities. These may include leaves, vegetable peels, excreta of farm animals, empty containers of pesticides and unused fertilizers. Mining wastes the materials that has been brought up from the Earth in the process of extracting coal, metal ore or some other mineral resources. Industrial wastes generated after industrial and manufacturing processes. Basically, these 130-166 waste comes factories and industries. Commercial wastes produced in schools, shops, markets, malls and offices. Domestic wastes generated during household activities like cooking and cleaning. Biomedical wastes generated in hospitals and clinics. These includes infectious wastes used in medical treatments (cotton swabs, gauzes, or bandages) sharps (used syringes, needles and blades) radioactive wastes (X-rays or cancer treatments) Municipal wastes waste from households, offices, schools, market and other public places. This would include food waste, used papers, broken glass bottles, garden wastes and many more. The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (RA 9003) defines municipal waste as those that are produced from activities within local government units which include a combination of domestic, commercial, institutional and industrial waste and street litters. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Waste Generation and Waste Management Classification of Waste According to kind/form of waste Solid waste commonly known as trash or garbage that is produced in our homes or other places. RA 9003 defined solid waste as those that are discarded household commercial waste non-hazardous institutional & industrial waste street sweepings construction debris agricultural waste non- hazardous/non-toxic solid waste. Liquid waste includes waste water from our homes, offices and commercial establishments and liquid chemical effluents from factories and industries. Gaseous waste includes gases that is being released in factories during processes of production and domestic gases born out of household activities. According to their properties Biodegradable waste known as organic waste can be decomposed by bacteria and other organisms comes from plant and animal sources includes food waste, trimmings from your gardens and excreta from animals Non-biodegradable waste cannot be decomposed by bacteria and other organism also known as inorganic waste and can persist for a long time like plastics According to effect on life and environment Non-hazardous wastes do not bring harm to the environment or to life mostly municipal solid waste Hazardous wastes are those that bring potential harm to life or the environment Hospital and mining wastes are classified as hazardous because they are potential health hazards. may also contain toxic substances; may be found in a lot of household products They can be classified as: flammable or combustible explosive corrosive toxic earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Waste Generation and Waste Management Classification of Waste Special category: E-wastes also known as waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) various forms of electronic and electric equipment that have ceased to be useful or nearing the end of their lives busted bulbs unused battery broken appliances outdated models of cellphones Waste Management the collection, transportation and disposal of garbage, sewage and other waste products it includes managing and monitoring waste materials to minimize its impact to health and environment Waste characterization very important process for coming up with a good waste management strategy a process of finding out the amount of garbage disposed from the source and its composition Municipal solid waste (MSW) commonly known as garbage or trash majority of the waste disposed in every municipality in the Philippines are biodegradables as defined by the Environment Management Bureau (EMB) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources in the Philippines Recyclables any waste material retrieved from the waste stream and free from contamination that can be converted to suitable beneficial use Residuals are solid waste materials that are non-compostable and non- recyclable that needs to be disposed properly in a sanitary landfill Different Methods of Waste Management Open Dumps these are the simplest, cheapest, and fastest way to deal with garbage. community will just identify a shared open area where they can leave their garbage Disadvantages: it would likely contaminate the soil and nearby water supply this will become breeding grounds of pest that are vectors of diseases would release methane (CH3), an odorless, colorless, and highly flammable gas, that could start spontaneous combustion in open dumps earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Waste Generation and Waste Management Different Methods of Waste Management Sanitary Landfills A large area that has been excavated and lined to allow the safe deposit of municipal solid waste. These landfills are monitored closely for the presence of leachate. Leachate is a liquid by-product of the decomposition of waste that percolates at the bottom of a landfill this picture shows major components of a sanitary landfill Clay is usually used as a liner in sanitary landfills together with a layer of polyethylene or rubber that would make the bottom and the sides of the pit impermeable to leachate. After a garbage is thrown in he landfill, it is spread out evenly, compacted and covered with soil, clay or plastic foam. It is then sprayed with chemicals to prevent the spread of foul odor. When it is already full it must be closed and covered with more clay, sand, gravel and topsoil. Workers in a sanitary landfill must be well-protected. They should wear the proper protective equipment like suitable clothes, boots and masks. Open Burning People usually burn garbage to reduce the volume of waste this is one of the causes of air pollution and contributes to the greenhouse effect thus is being prohibited with RA 9003 and the Clean Air Act to make it sure that toxic gases and smoke will be minimized. Incineration a process of burning waste in high-temperature furnaces or ovens which are strictly controlled, monitored and maintained could reduce the volume of garbage to as much as 75% of the original volume earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Waste Generation and Waste Management Different Methods of Waste Management Incineration Incineration Plant a large structure complete with facilities for mixing garbage, furnace for burning, smokestacks for gaseous emissions, and equipment for collecting ash and noncombustible products. Waste to Energy facilities modern incineration plants not only serve as garbage disposal facility but as well as for the production of electricity Japan- widely practice incineration because of the limited space for landfills Disadvantages: it contributes to the increased emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases also produces toxic fly ash (contains Cd. Pb and Hg) and dioxin Dioxin- a carcinogenic by-product of burning plastics and chlorinated materials What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050 it was predicted that global waste generation will rise by 70% in 2050 Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) (2008) made a projection that waste generation will increase from 13.48 M tons in 2010 to 18.05 M tons of waste by 2020 Zero Waste Approach is a paradigm shift in waste management from waste should in end in dumpsites, landfills or incinerators to a making it sure that resources are optimally used and reused in such a way that zero waste goes to the municipality’s disposal sites Zero Waste International Alliance (ZWIA) (2018) defines this approach as “the conservation of all resources by means of responsible production, consumption, reuse, and recovery of products, packaging and materials without burning and with no discharges to land, water or air that threaten the environment or human health” The 5 R’s of Waste Management Refuse means saying no to what you don’t need not patronize products that could harm the environment and even our health Reduce means being a wise consumer example: Buying a bottle of shampoo generates lesser waste than buying in sachets Reuse & Repair these two go together when you reuse, the material is being maximized using disposable materials to reusable materials like bringing reusable bags to store grocery items is a good example of reuse. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Waste Generation and Waste Management The 5 R’s of Waste Management Recycle means reprocessing a material into a new raw material for a new product Rot is composting your biodegradable wastes there are different methods of composting Vermicomposting = most common; uses earthworms to decompose organic waste Upcycling a process where an “old” product gets to be modified and get a second life as they’re turned into a “new” product also called creative reuse since this “unwanted materials” are turned into of much greater quality with an artistic or environmental value Different Methods of Waste Management Waste Markets commonly called as junkshops buy and sell different kinds of recyclable and reusable materials Bioremediation one of the techniques in handling hazardous waste makes use of living organisms like plants and fungi to absorb and metabolize toxins Integrated Waste Management (IWM) combines waste stream, waste collection, treatment and disposal methods into a system that provide environmental sustainability, economic affordability, and social acceptance a combination of waste management and waste disposal strategies Effects of Improper Waste Disposal After the implementation of RA 9003, waste management in the Philippines is still a big challenge to hurdle. A lot of studies had shown the negative impact of improper waste management on our health and environment. Health Waste that is improperly disposed or dumped anywhere can be the breeding grounds of disease vectors like insects and rodents. Decomposing waste also emit methane not only harms our health but could contribute to spontaneous combustion and global warming. Leachate from dumps could also contaminate our waterways that it could harm our health. National Solid Waste Management Commission (NSWMC) they cited WHO and World Bank’s estimate that diarrhea, cholera, helminthiasis, hepatitis and typhoid cases are due to poor water quality, sanitation and hygiene. These diseases could be directly or indirectly caused by improper waste disposal. Open dumps could emit foul odor which is make air quality poor. Poor air quality contributes to respiratory problems like asthma. earth science Mrs. Hannah Mae Gabato Waste Generation and Waste Management Effects of Improper Waste Disposal Environment Soil contamination is caused by hazardous chemical getting into the soil. Water pollution can be due to leachate getting into ground water or improper sewage disposal. Air pollution cannot only harm our bodies but it could also hamper with our daily activities. Loss of biodiversity means the decline of the number and variety of organism in a biological community.