DRN PSYC101 Study Notes.pdf

PSYC101 Psychology: Mental Processes and Behaviour Topic 1 Psychology – The scientific investigation of mental processes (thinking, remembering and feeling) and behaviour Biopsychology examines the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as motivation, emotion and stress. Cross-cultural psy...

PSYC101 Psychology: Mental Processes and Behaviour Topic 1 Psychology – The scientific investigation of mental processes (thinking, remembering and feeling) and behaviour Biopsychology examines the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as motivation, emotion and stress. Cross-cultural psychology tries to distinguish universal psychological processes from those that are specific to particular cultures. Burton Chap 1 pp 2 History Ancient Egypt - Egypt is the first recorded psychological experiment (650 BC) - Knew that the brain was the source of mental function and that medical assessments should assess consciousness and memory not just physical health (1550 BC) - Recorded diagnoses of hysteria, alcoholism, ‘sadness’ (pos depression) Ancient China - Credited as some of the first people to use psychometric (measures behaviours or cognitive processes, personality tests IQ tests etc) testing (1000 BC) ▪ Tested Personality, intellect, behaviour etc ▪ Used to determine fitness for different roles e.g. officers, civil servants etc Ancient Greece - Plato (Tripartite mind/soul) – 380 BC ▪ Logos – intellect/reason (located in the head) ▪ Thymos – emotions and feelings (located in the chest) ▪ Eros – desires and appetites (located in the stomach) ▪ Certain behaviours can be explained by one being stronger than the others, e.g. gluttony the result of Eros being stronger - Herophilus 335-280 BC and Erasistratus 304-250 BC ▪ Performed dissection/vivisection on criminals ▪ Suggested the brain (not the heart) was the seat of reason ▪ Suggested the brain and nerves controlled the body - Galen 129 AD to 216 AD ▪ Galen’s expanded on the 4 human Hippocrates theorised ▪ Sanguine – blood, associated with enthusiasm, sociability etc ▪ Choleric – yellow bile, associated with aggression etc ▪ Melancholic – black bile, associated with depression etc ▪ Phlegmatic – phlegm, associated with apathy, listlessness etc ▪ Each humour associated with an environmental aspect ▪ Personality determined by how the humours are balanced in general  ▪ Illness associated with an imbalance in the humours e.g. depression was due to too much black bile and phlegm ▪ Treat illnesses by addressing whatever humour is imbalanced – e.g. blood letting comes from this theory ▪ Also treated with the “theory of opposites” i.e. depression was “dry” and “cold” (black bile and phlegm), so treated with “hot” and “wet” environmental changes structuralism (uncover the basic elements of consciousness through introspection) and functionalism (explain psychological processes in terms of the role, or function, they serve). Edward Titchener initiated the school of thought known as structuralism; William James was one of the founders of functionalism. Burton Chap 1 pp 2 Wilhelm Wundt – Father of Psychology - Introspection 1832 – 1920 - First to use scientific method but also took a more holistic approach including taking myths, religions etc into account - Introspection ▪ “Looking inward and reporting on one’s own conscious experience” ▪ Trained people to use introspection in what was supposed to be a consistent manner - Wanted to discover the “elements” of human consciousness ▪ Concluded that the basic elements were sensation and feelings, which combine to make perceptions Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory in 1879. - Burton Chap 1 pp 2 Edward Titchener – Introspection – Father of Structuralism 1867-1927 - Wanted to create a “periodic table” of consciousness ▪ i.e. categorise the whole of human conscious experience ▪ Father of “structuralism” ▪ Only used experimental methods William James – Functionalism – the why - Concerned with the function of psychological process rather than the structure ▪ Wanted to explain why not just what was in the mind - Functionalism - More complete focus of research, not just experimentation and introspection, but observation etc Introspection not used for research anymore! - Early psychological research relied on introspection, no longer used and is considered unreliable (in research) ▪ Lack of inter-rater reliability ▪ No access to unconscious reactions or behaviours  ▪ Limited to those who can be trained to use introspection in a ‘useful’ way Psychological Perspectives Psychoanalysis Initially developed by Sigmund Freud - Emphasised the role of the unconscious ▪ Freud – focus on sexual and aggressive unconscious motivations ▪ “Neo-Freudians” – typically de-emphasised sex and aggression and looked at unconscious motivations holistically or emphasised different motivations - Ego, super-ego - Defence mechanisms Criticism: the “unconscious” by definition, can’t be measured, so empirical proof it exists is elusive (more criticisms within textbook) Behaviourism Disagreed with psychoanalysis - Typically experimental research only - Pavlov’s dogs - Watson and Little Albert - Skinner and Skinner’s Box ▪ Positive/negative reinforcement/punishment Criticism: early behaviourism suggested people need first-hand experience to learn, but we know that’s not the case. E.g. we don’t need to put our hand on a hot stove to learn it will burn us Evolutionary Many behavioural tendencies stem from adaptive behaviours earlier in our evolution - E.g. parents who care for their children increase the chances of those children surviving. Their genes are more likely to survive, meaning the “child-rearing” genes are more likely to survive - E.g. aggressive traits are adaptive when resources are scarce. Those who are aggressive in gaining/protecting resources are more likely to survive. Meaning “aggressive” genes are more likely to survive Galton Cousin of Darwin - Believed Darwin’s theories applied to social status (i.e. the rich/upper class were rich/upper class because they were more intelligent/mentally fitter) - Attempted to prove this through empirical testing - Supported eugencies – encouraged “superior” members of the population to marry other “superior” members (e.g. more mentally/physically fit) Criticism: Doesn’t account for the impact of “nurture” Humanistic Perspective Focuses on people as individuals, innately good - Key “goal” of people is self-actualisation, people are motivated to reach their full potential Abraham Maslow – Hierarchy of Needs Carl Rogers – Unconditional positive regard – real vs ideal self Cognitive The invention of computers is thought to have inspired the cognitive perspective - Studies mental processes e.g. attention, memory, perception etc - Linked to neuropsychology and biopsychology - Typically Experimental, but often indirectly ▪ E.g. measures memory by measuring reaction time to previously presented stimuli, rather than memory itself Sociocultural vs Biological Biological perspective: the field of psychology that studies the physical basis for behaviour, motivation, emotion etc Includes the study of the brain, nervous system, hormones etc Biopsychology (or behavioural neuroscience) explores the physical basis of psychological phenomena like memory and emotion, focusing on electrical and chemical processes in the nervous system. This field aims to link mind and body, highlighting the connection between brain and behaviour, particularly evident since the nineteenth century through observations of patients with head injuries - Burton Chap 1, pp 6 Sociological perspective: the perspective that takes social and cultural determinations into account when explaining behaviour, motivation, emotion etc - Both are relevant – neither explains the entirety of human experience completely - Both can be used to explore most areas of psychology ▪ E.g. behaviourism – what part of the brain lights up when we receive a reward (biological perspective) or what rewards are most effective to people from a particular culture or in a particular social context (socio-cultural perspective) - Each has their own strengths, e.g. sociocultural perspective can’t really explain things like aphasias, but biological perspective can’t effectively explain why people from certain cultures act/behave differently to people from other cultures in the same situation Philosophy - Many psychological debates are rooted in classic philosophical questions. Free will vs. determinism - Free Will: French philosopher René Descartes: Human action follows intention; people choose and act. - Determinism: Greek philosopher Democritus: Behaviour follows lawful patterns like natural events.  - Psychological determinists: Actions are influenced by genetic and environmental forces. - How do mental processes control physical actions like moving a pen? - The interaction between non-material (will) and material forces remains unresolved. Case Study - Antisocial Personality Disorder Man terrorises his girlfriend, enjoying her fear. *Free Will Perspective* - He could choose to continue or stop his actions. - Morally and legally responsible for his behaviour. *Determinism Perspective* - Influenced by violent, alcoholic parents and childhood abuse. - Genetic and environmental factors increase the likelihood of developing the disorder. Complex interplay of free will and deterministic influences in shaping behaviour. Positive Psychology Newer focus in the field of psychology - Previous focus was on mental illness, dysfunction, treating problems etc - Positive psychology focuses on what makes mentally healthy people healthy and what makes like meaningful/worthwhile ▪ E.g. researches hope, optimism, wellbeing, resilience etc The focus is on understanding and harnessing positive emotions and actively stimulating the conditions that help people flourish A paradigm is a broad system of theoretical assumptions that a scientific community uses to make sense of its domain of study. A paradigm has several components. First, it includes a set of theoretical assertions that provide a model, or an abstract picture, of the object of study. A paradigm includes a set of shared metaphors that compare the subject to something else that is readily apprehended (such as ‘the mind is like a computer’). Third, a paradigm includes a set of methods that scientists agree will produce valid and useful data. Burton Chap 1 pp 12 Burton Chap 1 pp 2-3 The psychodynamic perspective 1. People’s actions are determined by the way thoughts, feelings and wishes are connected in their minds. 2. Many of these mental events occur outside conscious awareness. 3. These mental processes may conflict with one another, leading to compromises among competing motives. 4. Sigmund Freud emphasised unconscious mental forces in his psychoanalytic theory. 5. According to psychoanalytic theory, many of the associations between feelings and behaviours or situations that guide our behaviour are expressed unconsciously. Burton Chap 1 pp 13-16 The psychodynamic perspective, founded by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, suggests that behaviour is influenced by interconnected unconscious thoughts, feelings, and wishes. Freud developed psychoanalysis to uncover these processes using techniques like free association and dream analysis. This perspective rests on three premises: actions are driven by mental connections, many mental events occur unconsciously, and these processes often conflict, leading to compromises among competing motives. Freud emphasised childhood experiences, unconscious processes, and internal conflicts in shaping personality. For instance, he argued that unconscious motives can drive behaviours such as morbid curiosity or self-sabotage. Despite criticism for its lack of scientific rigour, empirical evidence, and falsifiability— criticisms echoed by behaviourists like John B. Watson—recent research has validated some psychodynamic concepts. Psychodynamic psychotherapy has shown effectiveness in treating mood disorders, anxiety, and personality disorders, with enduring benefits. Critics question the perspective's reliance on clinical observations, suggesting it allows for subjective interpretations. Yet, proponents argue its holistic approach to human behaviour, emphasising complexity over traditional experimental methods. Advances in neuroimaging and physiology aim to integrate biological and psychological insights, potentially forming a unified theory of human mental life. However, more empirical testing and trials are needed to fully validate psychodynamic theories and therapies. Despite controversy, the psychodynamic perspective continues to provide valuable insights into the human mind. The humanistic perspective - The humanistic perspective focuses on the uniqueness of the individual — it assumes that people are motivated to become self-actualised (reach their full potential). - Carl Rogers’ client-centred therapy emphasised conscious, goal-directed choices and the need for individuals to realise their true potential — to self-actualise. Burton Chap 1 pp 19-21 The humanistic perspective in psychology, championed by figures like Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, focuses on the uniqueness of individuals and their innate drive towards self- actualisation—the realisation of their full potential. Emerging in the mid-20th century as a response to psychoanalytic and behaviourist approaches, humanistic psychology emphasises personal growth, subjective experience, and the belief that individuals are inherently good and motivated to pursue adaptive behaviours. Unlike behaviourism and psychoanalysis, which emphasise external stimuli or unconscious processes, humanistic psychology explores how individuals find meaning in life and strive towards fulfilling their aspirations. It rejects the application of natural scientific methods to human behaviour, arguing that human actions are deeply influenced by personal understanding and subjective experience, not merely external forces. Central to the humanistic perspective is the metaphor that life is akin to a bottle of milk, where the cream rises to the top—the idea that individuals will naturally strive to achieve their goals and aspirations despite obstacles. Humanistic methods, particularly in therapy, focus on fostering self-awareness, empathy, and personal autonomy. Therapists work collaboratively with clients to explore their unique perspectives and help them align their self-concept with their ideal self. Critics of humanistic psychology argue that it oversimplifies human behaviour by assuming innate goodness and universal motivation towards growth. They point to real-world examples, such as high incarceration rates, as evidence that not everyone inherently chooses adaptive behaviours. Despite these criticisms, humanistic psychology continues to influence therapeutic practices by emphasising personal agency and the pursuit of individual potential as essential components of mental health and well-being. The behaviourist perspective - The behaviourist perspective focuses on the way objects or events in the environment come to control behaviour through learning. - B. F. Skinner observed that behaviour can be controlled by environmental consequences that either increase (reinforce) or decrease (punish) their likelihood of occurring. Burton Chap 1 pp 16-19 The behaviourist perspective, developed in the early 20th century, asserts that behaviour is primarily shaped by external stimuli and learned responses, rather than internal mental processes. Pioneered by figures like John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behaviourism emphasises observable behaviours and the influence of environmental events. It contrasts sharply with the psychodynamic perspective by rejecting the role of unconscious motives and internal states in behaviour. Key to behaviourism is the concept of learning through reinforcement and punishment. For instance, Ivan Pavlov's experiments with dogs demonstrated how associations between stimuli (like a bell) and responses (like salivation) are formed through repeated pairings. This perspective views humans and animals as responding to their environments like machines, with behaviours influenced by the consequences of their actions. Critics argue that behaviourism oversimplifies human behaviour by ignoring cognitive processes and internal states. However, behaviourist principles have been influential in fields such as education and therapy, where techniques like operant conditioning (using rewards and punishments) have been applied to modify behaviours ranging from smoking cessation to enhancing learning in classrooms. While behaviourism dominated psychology for decades, contemporary perspectives increasingly acknowledge the role of cognitive processes alongside environmental influences in shaping behaviour. Nonetheless, behaviourism's focus on empiricism and its systematic approach to studying observable behaviours remain foundational to psychological research and practice. The cognitive perspective - The cognitive perspective focuses on the way people perceive, process and retrieve information. - Rene´ Descartes’ early philosophical questions led many cognitive psychologists to emphasise the role of reason in creating knowledge. - Modern-day cognitive psychologists use experimental procedures to infer the underlying mental processes in operation. Burton Chap 1 pp 21-24 The cognitive perspective in psychology represents a shift towards understanding mental processes such as perception, memory, decision-making, and problem-solving. Emerging as a dominant force in psychology since the mid-20th century, the cognitive perspective contrasts sharply with behaviourism by focusing on internal mental states and processes rather than observable behaviour alone. Rooted in the experimental traditions of Wilhelm Wundt and the insights of Gestalt psychology, cognitive psychology gained significant momentum with the advent of computing technology. Cognitive psychologists often use the metaphor of the mind as a computer, emphasising that mental processes involve information processing—where stimuli from the environment are received, transformed, stored, and retrieved through mental "programs" akin to software. Memory, a core area of study within cognitive psychology, is explored through experiments measuring recognition and recall. For instance, researchers use response times to determine how quickly individuals can identify previously encountered information compared to novel stimuli. This approach helps elucidate how information is organised and accessed in memory over time. Decision-making is another critical aspect studied from a cognitive perspective. Researchers examine how individuals process and integrate information when making choices, such as evaluating attributes of different options (e.g., car features in a showroom) and applying stored knowledge to interpret new information. Philosophically, the cognitive perspective draws on rationalist traditions that emphasise the role of reasoning and mental representation in acquiring knowledge. Unlike behaviourism, which views organisms as responding predictably to external stimuli, cognitive psychology views the mind as actively processing information internally, akin to how a computer operates. Despite its strengths in elucidating mental processes, the cognitive perspective has faced challenges, such as the difficulty of directly observing mental states and the oversimplification of complex cognitive processes. Nonetheless, its application extends beyond traditional cognitive domains to include understanding emotions and social cognition, demonstrating its broad impact on modern psychological research and practice. The evolutionary perspective - The evolutionary perspective argues that many behavioural tendencies in humans, from the need to eat to concern for our children, evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and rear healthy offspring. - Evolutionary psychologists support Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection—the most adaptive behavioural traits are those that helped our ancestors adjust and survive in their environment. Burton Chap 1 pp 25-30 The evolutionary perspective on human behaviour asserts that many fundamental behaviours, such as eating and sexual impulses, have evolved due to their adaptive significance in ensuring survival and reproductive success among our ancestors. This perspective argues that these behaviours are deeply rooted in biological imperatives shaped by natural selection. For instance, the urge to eat is essential for acquiring energy needed for survival, while sexual impulses are critical for procreation and passing on genetic material. Similarly, caring for offspring is viewed as an instinctual behaviour aimed at enhancing the survival chances of one's genetic lineage. Evolutionary psychologists contend that these behaviours are not merely learned responses but are underpinned by genetic predispositions that have been favoured over generations for their adaptive benefits. The perspective also addresses the nature-nurture controversy by emphasising the role of both genetic predispositions and environmental influences in shaping behaviour. While acknowledging that environmental factors can modify how these predispositions manifest, evolutionary psychology argues that many behavioural tendencies are universal across cultures and species due to their evolutionary origins. In contrast to behaviourist theories that emphasise learned behaviours through environmental reinforcement, evolutionary psychology highlights how even learned behaviours often have underlying genetic foundations guiding their development. In modern psychology, evolutionary perspectives integrate findings from genetics, neuroscience, and behavioural studies to provide comprehensive explanations for human behaviour. By tracing behaviours back to their evolutionary roots, this approach offers insights into why certain behaviours are prevalent across societies and species, illuminating the adaptive advantages they confer. Despite criticisms, the evolutionary perspective continues to contribute valuable insights into the complexities of human psychology, bridging biological and psychological explanations and enriching our understanding of human behaviour. PSYC101 Research Methods Topic 2 Applied and Basic Research Lecture L2.1 Applied research tries to solve practical problems - Is it safe to talk on a mobile phone and drive at the same - What is the most effective strategy to teach grade on students to read? Basic research tries to answer fundamental or theoretical questions - How do complex tasks affect visual attention? - How does language ability develop in children? Measurement Scales Nominal to categorise behaviours and characteristics - Male/female, yes/no Ordinal measurement scale in which events and behaviours can be rank ordered (i.e. first, second, third etc) - Uni grades, football teams Interval measurement scale that allows researchers to specify how far apart two observations are on a given dimensions (no absolute zero) - Temperature measurements Ratio nearly the samwe as interval, but a score of zero is meaningful - How long it took to finish the task 0s time is meaningful - Someone who finished in 50 minutes took twice as long as someone who finished in 25 minutes Quantitative Research Burton Chap 5 pp 190 Quantitative research takes a deductive and objective approach. Conclusions about predetermined hypotheses are drawn from the results of scientifically controlled testing. - Psychologists’ goals: to describe, predict and explain or understand behaviour and mental processes  Theoretical Framework Burton Chap 5 pp 191 A theory is a systematic way of organising and explaining observations, which includes a set of propositions, or statements about the relationship among various phenomena. - Theory provides the framework for the researcher’s specific hypothesis. A hypothesis is a tentative belief about the relationship between two or more variables. - It predicts the findings that should be observed if the theory is correct. A variable is any phenomenon that can differ, or vary, from one situation to another or from one person to another. - A variable is a characteristic that can take on different values Burton Chap 5 pp 192 A variable that can be placed on a continuum – such as degree of optimism, intelligence, shyness or rate of recovery – is called a continuous variable. In contrast, a categorical variable is comprised of groupings or categories, such as state, species, or whether or not a person has had a heart attack. - A categorical variable cannot easily be placed on a continuum Generalisability From a Sample Psychological research typically studies the behaviour of a subset of people in order to learn about a larger group to whom research findings should be applicable, called a population. A sample is a subgroup of the population that is likely to be representative of the population as a whole – similar enough to other members of the population so that conclusions drawn from the sample are likely to be true of the rest of the population. A representative sample contributes to the generalisability of a study’s conclusions. Generalisability refers to the applicability of the findings to the entire population of interest to the researcher. Burton Chap 5 pp 193 A sampling bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the population as a whole – certain elements or events have a greater (over-representation) or lesser chances (under- representation) of being selected than they should, given their frequency in the population. For a study to be generalisable, its procedures must be sound, or valid. To be valid, a study must meet two criteria. - Employ methods that convincingly test the hypothesis; internal validity – the validity of the design itself. If a study has fatal flaws – such as unrepresentative samples or non-standardised aspects of the design that affect the way participants respond – its internal validity is jeopardised. - The study must establish external validity; the findings can be generalised to situations outside, or external to, the laboratory. Replicating results found in the  laboratory using other data collection procedures is critical to establishing external validity. Objective Measurement Objectivity is important, otherwise, the results of a study might simply reflect the experimenter’s subjective impression. - Devise ways to quantify or categorise variables so they can be measured. Burton Chap 5 pp 194 A measure is a concrete way of assessing a variable, a way of bringing an often abstract concept down to earth. E.g. a rating scale – a measure that assesses a variable on a numerical scale. - To measure variables, researchers need to know two characteristics of a measure: whether it is reliable and whether it is valid. Reliability Reliability refers to a measure’s ability to produce consistent results. A reliable psychological measure does not fluctuate substantially despite the presence of random factors that may influence results Burton Chap 5 pp 195 Three kinds of reliability are important. - Retest reliability refers to the tendency of a test to yield relatively similar scores for the same individual over time - Internal consistency is a measure that is internally consistent if several ways of asking the same question yield similar results. - Inter-rater reliability is if two different interviewers rate an individual on some dimension, both should give the personal similar scores. Lecture L2.1 Internal consistency in a survey or test with many questions, do responses on similar questions correlate with each other? Test-retest reliability if participants take the same measure twice, do their responses correlate with each other? Parallel-forms reliability if one person slightly different tests of the same thing do their responses correlate? Inter-rater reliability if two people answer questions about the same thing, do their answers correlate with each other? Validity When the term validity is applied to a psychological measure, it refers to the measure’s ability to assess the variable it is supposed to assess. Burton Chap 5 pp 196 To ensure the validity of a psychological measure, researchers conduct validation research. Validation means demonstrating that a measure consistently relates to some objective criterion or to other measures that have themselves already demonstrated their validity - A central characteristic of a valid measure is that it can predict other variables with which it should, theoretically, be related. Lecture L2.1 Internal validity the extent to which the study is methodological adequate - Threats: selection bias, experimental mortality External validity the extent to which study findings can be generalised to situations outside of the lab - Threats: participants characteristics do not match population of interest, experimental set up does not reflect real world Face validity does the measure appear to measure what it should? Construct validity does the measure actually tap into the construct of interest? Content validity are the questions/items fully and comprehensively relevant to the content being measured? Criterion validity do the results correspond to different tests of the same thing? Test Bias and Minority Groups Tests are considered biased if two conditions are met: - (A) if systematic differences are found between the mean scores of different groups of people - (B) if the test scores make incorrect predictions in real-life Multiple Measures One of the best ways to obtain an accurate assessment of a variable is to employ multiple measures of it. Multiple measures are important because no psychological measure is perfect. Built into every measure is a certain amount of error or discrepancy between the phenomenon as measures and the phenomenon as it really is. Experimental Research in Psychology - Share logic with experiments but have less control Scientific Approach - Cannot randomly assign participants to - Uses empirical methodologies to test conditions hypotheses - Require careful consideration of - Aims for description, prediction, and potential confounding variables understanding of phenomena - Examples include studies on pre- - Relies on rigorous testing rather than existing groups (e.g., divorced vs. non- intuition divorced families) Core Elements Importance of Control - Independent variables: Manipulated by - Random assignment to conditions researchers (when possible) - Dependent variables: Measured - Use of control groups responses to manipulations - Accounting for extraneous variables - Experimental conditions: Different variations of the independent variable Ethical Considerations - Informed consent Logic of Experimentation - Protection from harm - Manipulate one or more variables - Debriefing participants - Observe the impact on participants' - Balancing scientific goals with responses participant well-being - Establish cause-and-effect relationships Generalisability Strengths - Results may not always generalise to - Provides clear evidence for causation other populations or settings - Allows precise control over variables - Importance of diverse samples and - Can be replicated to verify findings replication studies - Minimises influence of confounding variables Combining with Other Methods - Often used in conjunction with Limitations correlational or observational studies - May lack ecological validity (real-world - Mixed-methods approaches can applicability) provide more comprehensive - Ethical constraints limit certain types of understanding research - Practical limitations on what can be Statistical Analysis studied in laboratory settings - Crucial for interpreting results and - Potential for demand characteristics determining significance (participants guessing study goals) - Helps quantify the strength of - May oversimplify complex phenomena relationships between variables Quasi-Experimental Designs This approach allows for the advancement - Used when true experiments are of psychological knowledge through impractical rigorous scientific inquiry. Descriptive Research Describes phenomena as they already exist rather than manipulating variables. A case study is an in-depth observation of one person or a group of people. Case studies are useful in generating hypotheses, exploring complex phenomena that are not yet well understood or difficult to examine experimentally, fleshing out the meaning of quantitative findings and interpreting behaviours with complex meanings. Naturalistic observation is the in-depth observation of a phenomenon in its natural setting. It is useful for describing complex phenomena as they exist outside the laboratory. Survey research involves asking a large sample of people questions, usually about their attitudes or behaviour, through interviews or questionnaires. Random and stratified random samples allow psychologists to gather substantial information about the population by examining representative samples. Unlike experiments, descriptive methods cannot unambiguously establish causation. Naturalistic Observation A second descriptive method, naturalistic observation, is the in-depth observation of a phenomenon in its natural setting. Most people behave somewhat differently when they are aware that someone is watching them; thus, a limitation of observational methods is that the very fact of being watched may influence behaviour, if only subtly. Researchers try to minimise this bias in one of two ways. One is simply to be as inconspicuous as possible — to blend into the woodwork. The other is to become a participant–observer, interacting naturally with subjects in their environment. like other descriptive studies, naturalistic observation primarily describes behaviours; it cannot explain why they take place. Based on extensive observation, a psychologist can make a convincing argument about the way one variable influences another, but this method does not afford the luxury of doing something to participants and seeing what they do in response, as in experimental designs. Survey research A third type of descriptive research, survey research, involves asking questions of a large sample of people, usually about their attitudes or behaviours. The two most frequently used tools of survey researchers are interviews, in which researchers ask questions using a standard format, usually to a large sample of participants; and questionnaires, which participants fill out by themselves. Selecting the sample is extremely important in survey research. Researchers typically want a random sample, a sample selected from the general population in a relatively arbitrary way that does not introduce any systematic bias. In random sampling, every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. Random selection, however, does not always guarantee that a sample will accurately reflect the demographic characteristics (qualities such as gender, race and socioeconomic status) of the population in which the researcher is interested. Where proportional representation of different subpopulations is important, researchers use a stratified random sample. A stratified random sample specifies the percentage of people to be drawn from each population category (age, race etc.) and then randomly selects participants from within each category. Researchers often use census data to provide demographic information on the population of interest and then match this information as closely as possible in their sample. Thus, they may stratify a sample along a number of lines, such as age, gender, race, marital status, geographical region and education, to make sure that they provide an accurate picture of the population. The major problem with survey methods is that they rely on participants to report on themselves truthfully and accurately, and even minor wording changes can sometimes dramatically alter their responses. Correlational research Correlational research attempts to determine the degree to which two or more variables are related, so that knowing the value (or score) on one variable allows prediction of the other. Although correlational analyses can be applied to data from any kind of study, most often correlational designs rely on survey data such as self-report questionnaires. To correlate two variables means to assess the extent to which being high or low on one measure predicts being high or low on the other. The statistic that enables a researcher to do this is called a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient measures the extent to which two variables are related (literally, co-related, or related to each other). A correlation can be either positive or negative. A positive correlation means that the higher individuals measure on one variable, the higher they are likely to measure on the other. This also means, of course, that the lower they score on one variable, the lower they will score on the other. A negative correlation means that the higher participants measure on one variable, the lower they will measure on the other. Correlations can be depicted on scatterplot graphs, which show the scores of every participant along two dimensions. Correlation coefficients vary between +1.0 and −1.0. A strong correlation — one with a value close to either positive or negative 1.0 — means that a psychologist who knows a person’s score on one variable can confidently predict that person’s score on the other. Correlational research assesses the degree to which two variables are related; a correlation coefficient quantifies the association between two variables, and ranges from −1.0 to +1.0. A correlation of 0 means that two variables are unrelated, whereas a high correlation (either positive or negative) means that subjects’ scores on one variable are good predictors of their scores on the other. Correlational research can shed important light on the relationships among variables, but correlation does not imply causation. Brain Imaging Techniques Scientists began studying the functioning of the brain more than a century ago by examining patients who had sustained damage or disease to particular neural regions. A major advance came in the 1930s, with the development of the electroencephalogram z(EEG)), which measures electrical activity towards the surface of the brain. The EEG capitalised on the fact that every time a nerve cell fires it produces electrical activity. Researchers can measure this activity in a region of the brain’s outer layers by placing electrodes on the scalp. X-ray technology and other methods were discovered to produce pictures of soft tissue (rather than bones), such as the living brain. Neuroimaging techniques use computer programs to convert data taken from brain-scanning devices into visual images of the brain. One of the first neuroimaging techniques to be developed was a computerised axial tomography (CAT) scan. A CAT scanner rotates an x-ray tube around a person’s head, producing a series of x-ray pictures. A computer then combines these pictures into a composite visual image. Computerised tomography scans can pinpoint the location of abnormalities such as neuronal degeneration and abnormal tissue growths (tumours). A related technology, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is a neuroimaging technique that produces similar results without using x-rays. Another advancement in MRI technology, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), offers the possibility of mapping neuronal pathways and measuring structural connectivity in the human cortex in vivo. However, DTI cannot establish synaptic connections or neuronal origin of pathways. These techniques rely on properties of brain cells that can be measured, such as the amount of blood that flows to cells that have just been activated. Thus, researchers can directly observe what occurs in the brain as participants solve mathematical problems, watch images or retrieve memories. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a neuroimaging method that involves injecting a small quantity of radioactive glucose into the bloodstream. Nerve cells use glucose for energy and they replenish their supply from the bloodstream. As these cells use glucose that has been radioactively ‘tagged’, a computer produces a colour portrait of the brain, showing which parts are active. The results of such investigations are changing our understanding of diseases such as schizophrenia, as researchers can administer tasks to patients and find the neural pathways on which they diverge from individuals without the disorder. The other technique, called functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), uses MRI to watch the brain as an individual carries out tasks such as solving mathematical problems or looking at emotionally evocative pictures. Functional MRI works by exposing the brain to pulses of a phenomenally strong magnetic (strong enough to lift a truck) and measuring the response of chemicals in blood cells going to and from various regions, which become momentarily ‘lined up’ in the direction of the magnet Ethics in Psychological Research The Psychology Board of Australia (2015) adopts the APS Code of Ethics for the profession, which comprises three main principles: respect for the rights and dignity of people and peoples; propriety; and integrity. Deception in Psychological Research Many studies keep participants blind to the aims of the investigation until the end; some go further by giving participants a ‘cover story’ to make sure they do not ‘catch on’ to the hypothesis being tested. How to Evaluate a Study Critically To evaluate a study critically, the reader should examine the research carefully and attempt to answer seven broad questions. 1. Does the theoretical framework make sense? This question encompasses a number of others. Does the specific hypothesis make sense, and does it flow logically from the broader theory? Are terms defined logically and consistently? For example, if the study explores the relationship between social class and intelligence, does the article explain why social class and intelligence should have some relationship to each other? Are the two terms defined the same way throughout the study? 2. Is the sample adequate and appropriate? A second question is whether the sample represents the population of interest. If researchers want to know about emotional expression and health in undergraduates, then a sample of undergraduates is perfectly appropriate. If they truly want to generalise to other populations, however, they may need additional samples, such as adults drawn from the local community, or people from the wider community, to see if the effects hold. Another question is sample size. To test a hypothesis, the sample has to be large enough to determine whether the results are meaningful or accidental. A sample of six rolls of the dice that twice produces ‘snake eyes’ is not sufficient to conclude that the dice are loaded because the ‘results’ could easily happen by chance 3. Are the measures and procedures adequate? Once again, this question encompasses a number of issues. Do the measures assess what they were designed to assess? Were proper control groups chosen to rule out alternative explanations and to assure the validity of the study? Did the investigators carefully control for confounding variables? For example, if the study involved interviews, were some of the interviewers male and some female? If so, did the gender of the interviewer affect how participants responded? 4. Are the data conclusive? The central question here is whether the data demonstrate what the researcher claims. Typically, data in research articles are presented in a section entitled ‘Results’, usually in the form of graphs, charts or tables. To evaluate a study, carefully examine the data presented in these figures and ask whether any alternative interpretations could explain the results as well as or better than the researcher’s explanation. Often, data permit many interpretations, and the findings may fit a pattern that the researcher rejected or did not consider. 5. Are the broader conclusions warranted? Even when the results ‘come out’ as hypothesised, researchers have to be careful to draw the right conclusions, particularly as they pertain to the broader theory or phenomenon. A researcher who  finds that children who watch violent television shows are more likely to hit other children can conclude that the two are correlated, but not that watching violent shows causes aggressive behaviour. An equally plausible hypothesis is that aggressive children prefer to watch violent television shows — or perhaps that violent television shows trigger actual violence only in children who are already predisposed to violence. 6. Does the study say anything meaningful? This is the ‘so what?’ test. Does the study tell us anything we did not already know? Does it lead to questions for future research? How meaningful a study is depends in part on the importance, usefulness and adequacy of the theoretical perspective from which it derives. Important studies tend to produce findings that are in some way surprising or help choose between opposing theories (Abelson, 1995). 7. Is the study ethical? Finally, if the study uses animals or human participants, does it treat them humanely, and do the ends of the study—the incremental knowledge it produces—justify the means? Individual psychologists were once free to make ethical determinations on their own. Today, however, the Australian Psychological Society publishes guidelines that govern psychological research practices (APS, 2002, 2003, 2007), and universities and other institutions have ethics committees and institutional review boards that review proposals for psychological studies, with the power to reject them or ask for substantial revisions to protect the welfare of participants. In fact, most people would be surprised to learn just how much effort is involved in getting institutional approval for the most benign studies, such as studies of memory or mathematical ability. PSYC101 Motivation and Emotion Topic 3 Motivation Burton Chap 13 pp 603-604 Motivation has two components: what people want to do (the goals they pursue) and how strongly they want to do it. Psychodynamic Perspective The psychodynamic perspective emphasises the biological basis of motivation. Humans are animals, and their motives reflect their animal heritage. According to Freud, humans, like other animals, are motivated by drives, internal tension states that build up until they are satisfied. He proposed two basic drives:: sex and aggression. The sexual drive includes desires for love, lust and intimacy, whereas the aggressive drive includes not only blatantly aggressive or sadistic impulses but desires to control or master other people and the environment. These drives may express themselves in subtle ways. Aggression, for example, can underlie sarcastic comments or enjoyment of violent movies. Initially, Freud had proposed self-preservation and sex as the two basic drives, much like the evolutionary concept of reproductive success, which includes survival and reproduction. His decision to change from self-preservation to aggression stemmed in part from living through World War I and witnessing the beginning of World War II in Europe. If aggression on such a massive scale kept breaking through in the most ‘civilised’ societies, he reasoned, it must be a basic motivational force. Psychodynamic views of motivation have advanced considerably since Freud’s death in 1939. In addition to sexual and aggressive desires, psychodynamic theorists now emphasise two other motives in particular: the need for relatedness to others and the need for self- esteem. Psychodynamic theorists have also moved away from his abstract notion of ‘drives’ to two concepts that seem closer to the data of clinical observation: wishes and fears. - A wish represents a desired state that is associated with emotional or arousal. - A fear represents an undesired state that is associated with unpleasant feelings The standardised Wish and Fear List, developed by Perry in 1997, is a list of 40 wishes and 40 fears. This list was organised according to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and has been used to investigate motives in people with borderline personality disorder, and to identify the role of motives in self-defeating (masochistic) behaviour. Unconscious Motivation A distinct aspect of the psychodynamic theory of motivation is the view that motives can be unconscious. Laboratory evidence now supports the distinction between unconscious motives and the conscious motives people can self-report. To study unconscious motives, researchers often use the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). TAT consists of a series of ambiguous pictures about which participants make up a story. Researchers then code the stories for motivational themes. Do the stories describe people seeking success or achievement? Power? Affiliation with other people? Intimacy in a close relationship? The motives researchers code from people’s TAT stories are highly predictive of their behaviour over time. Studies have found that the number of times an individual’s stories express themes of achievement predicts success in business over many years. Similarly, the number of intimacy themes expressed in stories at age 30 predicts the quality of marital adjustment almost 20 years later. Another way to measure motives is simply to ask people: ‘Is achievement important to you? Is power? Is intimacy?’ The correlation between conscious, self-reported motives and the inferred motives expressed in TAT stories is typically zero. People who demonstrate high achievement motivation in their stories, for example, do not necessarily report high motivation to achieve. Although the discrepancy could simply mean that one of the two assessment methods is invalid; in fact, each type of measure predicts different kinds of behaviour. How can both types of measure predict achievement behaviour but not predict each other? - McClellan et al (1989) found a solution to this paradox, making a distinction similar to that between implicit and explicit memory. The TAT taps implicit (unconscious) motives, whereas self-reports reflect explicit (conscious) motives. Implicit or unconscious motivation is expressed over time without conscious effort or awareness, whereas explicit or self-reported motivation becomes activated when people focus conscious attention on tasks and goals. Behaviourist Perspective Burton Chap 13 pp 604-605 Although behaviourists usually prefer to avoid terms such as motivation that suggest a causal role for internal states, the theory of operant conditioning offers one of the clearest and most empirically supported views of motivation. Humans are motivated to produce behaviours rewarded by the environment and to avoid behaviours that are punished. - Recognised that the internal state of the organism influences reinforcement - All biological organisms have needs such as food. Unfulfilled needs lead to drives, defined by these theorists as states of arousal that motivate behaviour Drive-reduction theories propose that motivation stems from a combination of drive and reinforcement, and is based on the concept of homoeostasis – a tendency of the body to maintain itself in a state of balance or equilibrium. According to this view, deprivation of basic needs creates an unpleasant state of tension; as a result, the animal begins producing behaviours. If the animal in this state happens to perform an action that reduces the tension (as when a hungry dog finds food on the dinner table), it will associate this behaviour with drive reduction. Hence, the behaviour will be reinforced. In this example, the drive is a primary drive – an innate or biological drive such as hunger. However, most human behaviours are not directed towards fulfilling primary drives. Especially in wealthier societies, people spend much of their waking time in activities such as earning a living, playing or studying. The motives for these behaviours are secondary, or acquired drives. A secondary drive is a drive learned through conditioning and other learning mechanisms such as modelling. - An originally neutral stimulus comes to be associated with drive reduction and thus itself becomes a motivator. Although drive-reduction theories explain a wide range of behaviours, they leave others unexplained. Why, for instance, do people sometimes stay up until 3am to finish a riveting novel, even though they ae exhausted? Such behaviour seems motivated more by the presence of an external stimulus or reward – called an incentive – than by an internal need state. Incentives control much of human behaviour. - Stimuli activate drive states rather than eliminate them - Drive reduction theories also have difficulty explaining motives to create stimulation, encounter novelty or avoid boredom, which are present to varying degrees in different individuals Cognitive Perspective Burton Chap 13 pp 605-609 Cognitive theories provide an alternative approach to motivation, such as expectancy-value theory. These theories view motivation as a joint function of the value people place on an outcome and the extent to which they believe they can attain it. That is, we are driven to attain goals that matter a lot to us but that we also believe we can accomplish. A considerable body of research has demonstrated the extent to which children’s beliefs about their abilities influence their motivation. Students of similar actual ability levels often differ tremendously in their success, depending on their perceived ability. Similarly, research finds that unemployed works’ expectancies about their likelihood of success in job seeking, together with the value they place on work, predict the probability that they will hold a job a year later. Research showed that motivational constructs – mastery goal and sense of competence – predicted educational outcomes in a sample of high school students. Yeung et al. (2014) showed that students’ sense of competence, or beliefs about their academic competence, predicted all three learning outcomes (i.e. achievement, classroom status and self-efficacy). In contrast, a mastery goal orientation predicted classroom status and self-efficacy but had little impact on achievement levels. The implication is that if the sole purpose of education is to improve academic achievement, then educators should pay more attention to enhancing secondary school students’ sense of competence. However, if the goal is to enhance long- term and more holistic personal outcomes, both a mastery goal orientation and a positive self-competence should be nurtured in secondary education. Goal-setting theories Cognitive approaches to motivation often focus on goals – desired outcomes established through social learning. A cognitive theory widely used by organisational psychologists interested in worker motivation is goal-setting theory. The core proposition of goal-setting theory is that conscious goals regulate much of human behaviour, especially performance on work tasks. - Goals represent desired outcomes that differ in some way from a person’s current situation. Goals activate old solutions that have worked in the past and courage efforts to create new solutions if the old ones fail. Researchers using this theory suggests that maximum job performance occurs only under certain conditions. People must: a. Experience a discrepancy between what they have and want b. Define specific goals rather than general ones c. Receive continuing feedback that allows them to gauge progress towards the goa, d. Believe they have the ability to attain the goal e. Set a high enough goal to remain motivated f. Have a high degree of commitment to the goal Self-determination theory and intrinsic motivation Edward Deci began exploring a paradox that has captured psychologists’ attention. Thousands of studies from a behaviourist point of view had shown that rewarding people for performing behaviours increases the likelihood that they will perform them in the future. But does reward increase people’s intrinsic motivation – their enjoyment of and interest in an activity for its own sake- or does it simply make them more likely to perform the behaviour when they can expect an external or ‘extrinsic’ reward? Deci offered a controversial and counterintuitive prediction – that reward can stifle intrinsic pleasure in learning. The most recent version of the theory called self-determination theory, suggests that people have three innate needs – competence, autonomy and relatedness to others – and that intrinsic motivation flourishes when these needs are fulfilled rather than compromised. Rewards (as well as threats, such as deadlines accompanied with consequences) tend to compromise people’s sense of autonomy. As a result, even though they may develop competence in a domain, they are likely to see the motivation as forced on them and hence to lose intrinsic interest. - Thus, the effects of a reward on motivation depend on how the individual perceives the situation. If the person views the reward as compromising their self- determination, intrinsic motivation will decline. If they perceive a reward a an indicator of their competence and not as a bribe or threat, the reward is likely to increase intrinsic motivation. Self-determination theory is a theory of human motivation and personality that focuses on the degree to which an individual’s behaviour is self-motivated and self-determined. Self- determination theory provides a useful theoretical framework for developing culturally appropriate Indigenous measures and interventions. Martin (2012) applied self- determination theory to develop the Motivation and Engagement Scale (MES) and the Motivation and Engagement Wheel. Both instruments are aimed at assessing motivation and engagement in educational, sport, music and employment settings, and have been proven valid in diverse samples and across cultures. For example, MES can be applied to assess educational programs and interventions designed to enhance students’ motivation and engagement in schools. Implicit motives: a cognitive perspective on unconscious motivation Another cognitive approach to motivation that ‘crosses theoretical lines’ like self- determination theory is the work of Jonathan Bargh (1997) on implicit motives, motives that can be activated and expressed outside of awareness. According to Bargh, just as well- learned cognitive procedures can become automatic and occur without conscious awareness, so, too, can well-learned goals. Drawing upon principles of association, Bargh argues that if an individual frequently chooses the same goal in a certain situation (e.g. trying to look smart in school), that goal will become associated with the situation. As a result, whenever that situation arises, the goal state will be activated and guide behaviour, whether or not the person has any conscious awareness of the intention. Bargh suggests that motives, like other psychological processes, can be activated either implicitly or explicitly and can guide our behaviour even when we have no idea how (or whether) they became active. Humanistic Perspective Burton Chap 13 pp 609-611 An alternative approach to motivation was advanced by Abraham Maslow (1962, 1970). Humanistic psychologists such as Maslow emphasise dignity, individual choice and self- worth as playing key roles in explaining human behaviour. Maslow believed that people are motivated by the desire for personal growth, and will often overcome many obstacles in order to achieve personal fulfilment. He developed a needs hierarchy explaining why people strive to reach their full potential. A hierarchy of needs According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, lower-level needs, beginning with basic survival, must be fulfilled before higher-level needs guide a person’s behaviour. At the highest level are self-actualisation needs, motives to express oneself and grow or to actualise one’s potential. Self-actualisation needs differ from all the previous levels in that they are not deficiency needs; that is, they are not generated by a lack of something. Rather they are growth needs – motives to expand and develop one’s skills and abilities. Many behaviours reflect multiple needs. E.g. going to work fulfils a lower-level need as well as satisfies needs for esteem affiliation and self-actualisation. According to Maslow, however, people can spend their lives focused on motives primarily at one level and not develop beyond it. In contrast, self-actualised individuals are no longer preoccupied with where they will get their dinner or who will hold them in esteem and are thus free to pursue moral, cultural or aesthetic concerns. Maslow believed that few people reach this level of self-actualisation. Clayton Alderfer refined and applied aspects of Maslow’s model to motivation n the workplace. His observations led to ERG theory, which essentially condenses Maslow’s hierarchy to three levels of need: existence, relatedness and growth. According to ERG Theory, worker satisfaction and motivation vary with the extent to which a job matches a given worker’s needs. Workers whose primary concern is pay are unlikely to appreciate attempts to give them more training to expand their skills. In general, however, the best job provides good pay and working conditions, a chance to interact with other people and opportunities to develop one’s skills, thus satisfying the major needs. ERG theory offers testable hypotheses, although the empirical evidence for it remains imprecise. Evolutionary Perspective Burton Chap 13 pp 611-613 In the early part of the twentieth century, psychologists assumes that most motivated behaviour in humans, as in other animals, was a result of instincts, relatively fixed patterns of behaviour produced without learning. Most psychologists eventually abandoned instinct theory and came to argue that learning, not instinct, motivates behaviour in humans. Maximising inclusive fitness Contemporary evolutionary psychologists contend that motivational systems, like other psychological attributes, have been selected by nature for their ability to maximise reproductive success. For some motives this claim is unremarkable. Nature has thus designed humans and other animals with intricate systems for maintaining basic life-support processes. Some evolutionary explanations, however, are much more controversial. Evolutionary psychologists are generally careful to distinguish the theory that evolution favours organisms that maximise their inclusive fitness from the assumption that organisms deliberately seek to maximise their inclusive fitness, as if they carry inclusive fitness calculators in their pockets. Nevertheless, some basic motivational mechanisms presumably evolved to help organisms select courses of action that foster survival, reproduction and the care and protection of kin. These mechanisms should guide their behaviour so that their degree of investment is roughly proportional to their degree of relatedness. Multiple motivation systems From an evolutionary point of view humans and other animals are likely to have multiple motivational systems – innate response tendencies, many with their own distinct neural circuitry – that evolved to solve particular problems of adaption. - The motives that shape the ways we think and behave have developed over millions of years in response to evolutionary pressures. Central to evolutionary accounts is the notion that organisms evolve through natural selection in directions that maximise survival and reproduction and this should be no less true of motives than any other psychological functions. The primary motives that emerge in cross-cultural research are power and love. - Power allows animals to dominate potential rivals, establish status and protect their ‘turf; - Love is a basic motive across cultures also. Love is involved in caring for offspring, mates, kin and friends who can be counted on. Psychosocial Motives Burton Chap 13 pp 623-624 Psychosocial needs (personal and interpersonal motives for achievement, power, self- esteem, affiliation, intimacy and the like) are strongly influenced by evolved tendencies rooted in our biology. Two major clusters of goals pursued everywhere are: - Relatedness ‘communion’ ‘connectedness with others’ - Agency ‘achievement’ ‘autonomy’ ‘ mastery’ ‘ power’ ‘self-orientated goals’ Relatedness motives Humans have a number of interpersonal needs: - Attachment ▪ Desire for physical and psychological proximity to another person so they experience comfort and pleasure in the other person’s presence - Intimacy ▪ A special kind of closeness characterised by self-disclosure, warmth and mutual caring - Affiliation ▪ Interaction with friends or acquaintances Achievement and other agency motives Burton Chap 13 pp 624-6226 Motives for power, competence, achievement, autonomy and self-esteem form a cluster of motives to humans everywhere. According to some theorists , humans have an innate need to know and understand the world around them and to feel competent in the exercise of their knowledge. Pleasure is knowing and displeasure is feeling uncertain may have evolved as mechanisms that foster exploration of the environment. - People high in achievement motivation tend to choose moderately difficult tasks over very easy or very difficult tasks. Enjoy being challenged and take pleasure I accomplishing a difficult tasks, often motivated to avoid failure - People with high achievement tend to work more persistently than others to achieve a goal and take more pride in accomplishments. Consequently, more likely to succeed within those limits. Tend to attribute their past successes to their abilities and their past failures to forces beyond their control, which increases confidence and persistence in the face of adverse feedback. - As with other motives, people do not express achievement motivation in every domain. From a cognitive perspective, motives may be expressed selectively because they are hierarchically organised, with some sections of the hierarchy carrying more motivational weight than others - Achievement goals themselves appear to reflect a blend of at least three motives: performance-approach, performance-avoidance and mastery ▪ Performance goals are motives to achieve at a particular level, usually a socially defined standard. The emphasis of a performance goals is on the outcome – on success or failure in meeting a standard ▪ Performance-approach goals motivated to attain a goal ▪ Performance-avoidance goals motivated by the fear of not attaining it ▪ Mastery goals motives to increase one’s competence, mastery or skills. Interest is developing skill to enjoy an activity more quickly or competently not to brag about exploits The three types of goals underlying achievement actually predict different outcomes. - Children with high performance-approach goals tend to get good grades, but they may or may not develop intrinsic interest in the material - Students with high performance-avoidance goals tend to get both low grades and less intrinsic pleasure from what they are doing, presumably because of their preoccupation with fears of failure - Children motivated by mastery goals often get good grades as well as develop an intrinsic interest in the material Differences in child-rearing practices are based on different assumptions and beliefs of the cultural group towards the nature of children. Based on the theory that cultures teach motives through the stories they tell, one hypothesis is that a culture’s myths, folktales and children’s stories should be related to its child-rearing practices and level of economic development Emotion Burton Chap 13 pp 627-628 Emotion: An evaluative response comprising physiological arousal, subjective experience, and behavioural expression. Affect: Observable behaviours expressing emotions, varying in response to emotional states. Mood: Longer-lasting, more general emotional states, often internal and unobservable. Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory Emotion originates in the peripheral nervous system's responses (e.g. visceral reactions, voluntary behaviours). - Bodily arousal leads to the subjective experience of emotion (e.g. running from a dog causes fear). - Criticised for slow autonomic responses and generalised arousal not translating to specific emotions. Cannon-Bard Theory Emotion-inducing stimuli elicit simultaneous emotional experiences and bodily responses. - Addresses the immediate nature of emotional responses compared to slower autonomic reactions. - Recognises different emotions are linked to specific patterns of autonomic activity (e.g. heart rate, skin conductance). Research Findings - Distinct autonomic patterns for different emotions, such as greater heart rate acceleration for anger and fear. - Physiological responses to emotions appear consistent across cultures, indicating a biological basis.  Subjective Experience Burton Chap 13 pp 628-630 Emotional Disclosure Talking about emotions can improve health. - Holocaust survivors who discussed their traumatic experiences showed better health outcomes (Pennebaker et al., 1989). - Patients with arthritis discussing stressful events experienced better emotional and physical health (Kelley et al., 1997). - Writing about stressful events improves immune function, reduces autonomic reactivity, and enhances cognitive processing of traumatic experiences (Pennebaker, 1997a, 1997b; Pennebaker & Seagal, 1999). Burton Chap 13 pp 630 Happiness and Wellbeing Happiness is studied in terms of momentary feelings and longer-lasting subjective wellbeing. - The PERMA model (Seligman, 2011) includes Pleasure, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment as components of happiness. - Increasing positive emotions can help reduce negative emotions and address mental health issues like depression (Seligman et al., 2005; Lyubomirsky & Layous, 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). Cultural and Demographic Influences Happiness levels vary by culture, with individualistic cultures reporting higher happiness than collectivist ones. - Political stability, particularly long-term democracy, correlates strongly with life satisfaction (Inglehart, 1991). - Economic prosperity correlates with happiness across cultures, though within cultures, the correlation between income and happiness is weaker (Myers, 2000). Measuring Happiness - Psychometric tests like the Steen Happiness Index (SHI) and the Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) assess self-reported happiness (Seligman et al., 2005; Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999). - Validity of self-reported happiness remains debated, though some researchers argue it is a reliable measure (Abdel-Khalek, 2006). Positive Psychology Interventions Programs aimed at increasing happiness, such as the Happiness 100 Index, show significant improvements in participants' overall happiness (Grant, 2011a, 2011b). - Interventions need further research to resolve conflicting findings on their effectiveness (Woodworth et al., 2016).  Emotional Expression Burton Chap 13 pp 631-632 Emotions are expressed through facial expressions, posture, gestures and tone of voice. Facial Expression and Emotion Theories Some theorists argue that facial expressions are central to emotions (Tomkins, 1962, 1980), contrasting William James' peripheral hypothesis. - They propose that emotions result from facial muscle movements. Universality of Facial Expressions Research shows that different emotions correspond to distinct facial expressions (Ekman, 1992a; Izard, 1971, 1997). - Facial expressions are consistent across individuals and cultures, allowing psychologists to assess emotions by monitoring facial muscle movements (Tassinary & Cacioppo, 1992). - Colours associated with emotions are similar across cultures, such as anger being linked to the colour red (Hupka et al., 1997). Facial Feedback Hypothesis Facial expressions not only reflect but also influence emotions. - In a study, participants who adopted specific facial expressions showed changes in heart rate and finger temperature corresponding to emotions like fear, anger, sadness, happiness, surprise, and disgust (Ekman et al., 1983). - Imitating positive and negative expressions can alter one's emotional state (Kleinke et al., 1998). - EEG studies show distinct brain activity linked to different posed emotions (Ekman & Davidson, 1993; Izard, 1990; Lanzetta et al., 1976). Nonverbal Expressions Other nonverbal expressions also influence emotions. For example, positive feedback received while standing upright increases feelings of pride compared to receiving the same feedback while hunched over (Stepper & Strack, 1993). True vs. Fake Smiles Genuine and fake smiles use different sets of muscles. True smiles engage eye muscles, which are not used in fake smiles (Ekman, 1992a; Ekman & Keltner, 1997). - Children can detect these differences from preschool age (Banerjee, 1997). Indicating an early development of emotional intelligence - Facial expressions can causally affect autonomic responses, suggesting a deep connection between our facial muscles and emotional experiences. Culture and Emotional Display Rules Burton Chap 13 pp 632-634 Psychologists and sociologists debated whether facial expressions had the same meaning across cultures before physiological and anatomical differences among emotions were documented. Cross-Cultural Studies Research shows some facial expressions are universally recognised (Ekman & Oster, 1979; Scherer & Wallbott, 1994). - In a classic study, participants from various cultural backgrounds, including a preliterate tribe in New Guinea, could recognise emotions like fear, anger, happiness, and others from photographs of North American actors (Ekman, 1971). Six Universal Emotions Surprise, fear, anger, disgust, happiness, and sadness are universally recognised (Ekman & Oster, 1979). - Shame and interest might also have universal expressions (Izard, 1977). These findings suggest emotions are biologically linked to distinct autonomic states and specific facial movements, recognisable across cultures. Primary emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear) are more easily identified across cultures than complex, socially constructed emotions (shame, embarrassment, guilt, pride) (Consedine et al., 2003). People learn to control their emotional expressions according to culturally appropriate patterns, known as display rules (Ekman & Friesen, 1975). Southerners are generally more emotionally expressive than Northerners, both within and across countries (Pennebaker et al., 1997). Gender Differences in Emotion Females tend to experience and express emotions more intensely and are better at reading emotions from others' faces and nonverbal cues than males (Brody, 1999; Brody & Hall, 2000). - Males and females show different emotional expressions and autonomic arousal while watching emotional films, indicating gender differences in emotional experience (Kring & Gordon, 1998; Hall & Matsumoto, 2004). - Girls show more empathetic facial expressions and are better at describing emotions verbally than boys (Strayer & Roberts, 1997). - Even at age 3, children recognise gender differences in emotional expression: females with fear, sadness, happiness, and males with anger (Birnbaum, 1983). Gender differences may stem from historical roles: women are more comfortable with emotions fostering affiliation and caretaking (love, happiness, warmth, shame, guilt, sympathy), while men avoid "soft" emotions to compete and assert dominance (Brody & Hall, 2000). Consistent gendered responses to crying across countries, with men less likely to express such vulnerability (Sharman et al., 2019). - Current research does not yet fully explore non-binary emotional displays, indicating a need for further study. Both boys and girls at 18 weeks produce more positive facial expressions and gaze more often at mothers than fathers (Colonnesi et al., 2012). - Infants can manipulate adult emotions, with smiling children receiving more attention and nurturing (Aradhye et al., 2015). - Adults with higher feminine qualities are more likely to nurture children, regardless of the child's emotional expression. A Taxonomy of Emotions Burton Chap 13 pp 634-638 Basic Emotions Basic emotions are common across the human species with distinct physiological, subjective, and expressive components (Ekman, 1999; Izard & Buechler, 1980). - These emotions are akin to primary colours in perception, serving as the foundation for all other emotional blends. Typical lists include five to nine emotions, with some debate on their exact number and even existence (Ortony & Turner, 1990; Russell, 1990). - Commonly listed emotions: anger, fear, happiness, sadness, disgust. Sometimes included: surprise, contempt, interest, shame, guilt, joy, trust and anticipation (Plutchik, 1980; Shaver et al., 1987; Tomkins, 1980). - Similar lists have been compiled in ancient texts, such as in India and China, indicating a long-standing recognition of these basic emotions (Lynch, 1990; Russell, 1991). Cultures differ in how they elaborate and distinguish emotional states. For example, the Tahitian language has many words for anger but none for sadness or emotion itself. Some African languages use the same words for anger and sadness (Kitayama & Markus, 1994; Mesquita et al., 1997). Positive and Negative Affect Emotions can be broadly classified into positive affect (pleasant emotions) and negative affect (unpleasant emotions). - This distinction emerged from factor analysis, suggesting these two factors underlie self-reported emotions across cultures (Watson, 2000; Watson & Clark, 1992; Watson & Tellegen, 1985). - People who frequently experience one negative emotion tend to experience others (e.g., guilt, anxiety, sadness). Positive and negative affect are correlated with specific cognitive and physiological responses (Harmon-Jones et al., 2013). - Positive and negative affect are largely neurologically distinct but share some neural pathways (Lane et al., 1997). Behavioural Motivation – Approach and Avoidance Positive affect motivates pleasure-seeking, approach-oriented behaviour, whereas negative affect leads to avoidance. Different brain regions process these feelings: the left frontal lobe for approach and the right frontal lobe for avoidance (Davidson, 1992; Gray, 1994; Lang, 1995).  - By age 4, children showing greater left frontal activation tend to be more socially competent (Fox et al., 1995). Recent fMRI studies suggest that fronto-limbic-striatal networks are involved in both approach and avoidance learning (Schlund et al., 2011). - Different neurotransmitter systems regulate positive and negative affect. Fear- driven individuals may have higher norepinephrine reactions, while reward-driven individuals are influenced by dopamine (Cloninger, 1998). - Heritability studies indicate genetic influences on the tendency to experience positive or negative emotions (Gabbay, 1992; Watson & Tellegen, 1985). Anger Anger does not fit neatly into positive or negative affect. - It can feel unpleasant but also has pleasurable components (e.g., fantasies of revenge). - Anger is usually approach-oriented, leading to confrontation (Veling et al., 2012). People prone to anger show greater left frontal lobe activity, similar to positive affect (Harmon-Jones & Allen, 1998). - This suggests that the asymmetry between left and right frontal functioning is more related to approach or avoidance tendencies than the emotion itself (Kelley et al., 2013). Emotion Hierarchy Emotions can be organised hierarchically. The most universal categories are positive and negative affect, recognised across all cultures (Fischer et al., 1990). - Basic emotions follow next, universally applicable, while more specific emotions are culturally constructed. Different cultures have unique distinctions for emotions. Western culture distinguishes various forms of love, while Indian culture has specific categories like maternal and erotic love (Lynch, 1990). Development of Emotion Knowledge As individuals mature, they develop a more sophisticated understanding of emotions and coping strategies. - Young children recognise basic emotions and have limited knowledge of controlling them. By ages 10-12, they recognise a wider range of emotions and develop strategies for managing them (Shaver et al., 1987). The Neuropsychology of Emotion Burton Chap 13 pp 638-641 Emotion is distributed throughout the nervous system and is not confined to a single area. Key brain regions involved in emotion include the hypothalamus, limbic system, and cortex. The Hypothalamus Converts emotional signals from higher brain levels into autonomic and endocrine responses. Links the brain to the pituitary gland, influencing other glands in the endocrine system. - Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus can induce attack, defence, or flight reactions, corresponding to emotions like rage or terror. The Limbic System Central to emotional responses, particularly learning and reacting to stimuli. The amygdala is crucial for associating sensory information with emotional significance. - Lesions in the amygdala impair the ability to understand emotional significance, though recognition remains intact (Kluver & Bucy, 1939). - Lesions on amygdala connections to specific senses (e.g., vision, hearing) prevent emotional responses to those senses (LeDoux, 1989). - The amygdala helps in associating stimuli with emotional reactions, crucial for behaviour adjustment based on emotional experiences. Neuroimaging suggests the amygdala is vital for detecting emotions, especially from facial expressions (Scott et al., 1997). Activation of the amygdala to emotional faces increases between ages three and nine (Zuddas, 2012). Two Systems for Processing Emotion Primitive Circuit involves the thalamus sending sensory information directly to the amygdala, eliciting immediate emotional responses (e.g., fear). - Conditioning occurs through this thalamo-limbic circuit even without cortical involvement. Complex Circuit, the thalamus sends sensory information to both the amygdala and the cortex. - The cortex processes the information thoroughly and sends feedback to the amygdala, producing a more nuanced emotional response. Dual Pathway Response, the initial response is quick and based on gross stimulus features (e.g., dark shadow in water). The second response is slower, involving detailed cognitive appraisal (e.g., realising the shadow is a buoy). The Cortex Interprets the meaning of peripheral responses, aiding in understanding one's emotions (e.g., recognising anxiety from physical symptoms). - Regulates facial displays for social purposes (e.g., amplifying, minimizing, or feigning emotions). - The right hemisphere is dominant in processing emotional cues and producing facial displays. - Left frontal cortex activation is associated with approach-related emotions, while right frontal activation is linked to avoidance-related emotions. People with more left-hemisphere activation tend to experience more positive emotions, whereas right-hemisphere activation is linked to negative moods. Emotion Regulation Refers to efforts to control emotional states, either before or after emotions occur. - Reframing events beforehand can reduce negative feelings; suppression after the fact can increase physiological arousal and impede other tasks. - Emotion regulation is a learned procedure, often developed implicitly through life experiences. Men often inhibit fear and sadness, while women more commonly inhibit anger. These differences align with gender-specific motivations for power and relationship maintenance. Moods are extended emotional states that serve as a background sense of well-being. Like emotions, moods can be targets for regulation strategies to maintain positive well- being.  Perspectives on Emotion Behavioural Perspective Explored in detail in Chapter 9. Emphasises conditioned emotional responses, such as fear when seeing a doctor with a needle. Psychodynamic Perspective Burton Chap 13 pp 641-642 Central idea: People can be unconscious of their own emotional experiences, and unconscious emotions can influence thought, behaviour, and health (Berridge & Winkielman, 2003; Singer, 1990; Winkielman & Berridge, 2004). Evidence suggests people often delude themselves about their abilities to avoid unpleasant emotions (Pratkanis et al., 1994; Vaillant, 1992). - Studies show that those with "illusory mental health" (who report happiness but have unpleasant early memories) exhibit physiological distress during anxiety- provoking tasks, despite reporting low anxiety (Shedler et al., 1993; Shedler et al., 2003). Cognitive Perspective Burton Chap 13 pp 645 Historical view: Emotion is seen as a disruptive force, with thinkers like Plato advocating for reason to control passions. Modern psychology studies the bidirectional influence between feelings and cognitive processes (Dalgleish & Bramham, 2001; Dalgleish & Power, 1999). Theory of Emotion: Interpretation and Emotion Schachter and Singer (1962) proposed that emotional experiences require physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation. - Their experiments with adrenalin injections and situational cues demonstrated that participants' emotions were shaped by their cognitive interpretations of their physiological states. - The theory has faced criticism for replication issues and findings suggesting emotions can occur without physiological arousal (Leventhal & Tomarken, 1986; Reisenzein, 1983). - Cognition and Appraisal - People's emotions often reflect their judgments and appraisals of situations (Lazarus, 1999; Scherer, 1999; Smith & Ellsworth, 1985). - Situational knowledge can influence the interpretation of emotions, such as misinterpreting a facial expression based on contextual information (Carroll & Russell, 1996).  - Robert Zajonc's "mere exposure effect" suggests that affective responses can precede cognitive evaluations, indicating that liking or disliking a stimulus can occur without conscious cognition (Zajonc, 1980). Influence of Emotion and Mood on Cognition Emotions and moods significantly affect thought and memory. Anxiety reduces working memory and problem-solving capacity by causing distraction (Eysenck, 1982; Richardson, 1996). Mood influences judgments, inferences, and predictions (Forgas, 1995; Mayer et al., 1992; Ochsner & Schacter, 2000). Depression leads to underestimation of success probabilities and overestimation of future negative events (Beck, 1976, 1991). Anger, contrary to other negative emotions, anger can lead to optimistic future judgments (Lerner & Keltner, 2000). Emotional states impact the encoding and retrieval of long-term memory - Positive Mood: Enhances storage and retrieval of positive information and facilitates memory in general (Isen, 1984, 1993; Levine & Burgess, 1997). - Negative Mood: Complex mechanisms affect encoding and retrieval, often facilitating recall of negative information due to associative links (Ochsner, 2000). People may counteract negative moods by retrieving positive information to regulate aversive feelings (Boden & Baumeister, 1997; Josephson et al., 1996). Evolutionary Perspective Burton Chap 13 pp 645-648 Darwin's Perspective Charles Darwin proposed that emotions serve adaptive purposes, particularly their communicative function. - Animals and humans signal readiness for actions like fighting or attending to needs through postural, facial, and nonverbal communications (Buck, 1986). - For example, a baby's cry signals a need to its parents, and bared teeth display anger. - Such communications regulate social behaviour and increase survival chances. - Basic emotional expressions are hardwired and recognized cross-culturally. - Brain-imaging studies show neural circuits, particularly in the amygdala, are designed to recognise emotions like fear and anger from faces. Evolutionary theorists view emotion as a source of motivation, signalling that action is required (Izard, 1977; Lang, 1995; Plutchik, 1980, 1997; Tomkins, 1962). - For example, fear in response to a threat leads to fight or flight. - Emotions can work with drives to motivate actions, such as excitement during sexual arousal (Tomkins, 1986). - Emotional reactions motivate survival and reproduction behaviours (Plutchik, 1980). Jealousy Jealousy in intimate relationships is examined from an evolutionary perspective. - Females have limited reproductive opportunities and thus seek resourceful partners to support offspring. - Infidelity and emotional commitment to another woman threaten a female’s access to resources. - Women's self-reported jealousy increases during their fertile menstrual phase (Cobey et al., 2012). - Jealousy can lead to violent behaviour in lesbian and queer women's relationships, often resulting in control and possessiveness (Kanuha, 2013). - Male jealousy focuses on preventing sexual access by other males to ensure paternity. - Male sexual jealousy is a leading cause of homicides and domestic violence globally (Daly & Wilson, 1988; Bagshaw & Chung, 2000). Evolutionary hypotheses suggest men are more distressed by sexual infidelity, while women are more concerned with emotional infidelity (Buss et al., 1992). Empirical Evidence and Criticisms - Critics argue cultural factors could also explain these sex differences (DeSteno & Salovey, 1996; Harris & Christenfeld, 1996). - Cross-cultural studies in diverse countries like Germany and China find similar sex differences, suggesting both cultural and evolutionary influences (Buunk et al., 1996; Geary et al., 1995; Brase et al., 2004). Lecture L3.1 Motivation - An internal process that gives direction to our lives - The force that leads us to approach or avoid - The process of starting, directing and maintaining activities Approach Motivation - Prompts us to seek out situations and activities - We anticipate positive outcomes, including positive emotions - Is associated with the Behavioural Activation System, which is related to sensitivity rewards and positive emotions Avoidance Motivation - Prompts us to withdraw from situations and activities - We anticipate negative outcomes, including negative emotions - Is associated with the Behavioural Inhibition System, which is related to sensitivity threats and negative emotions Lecture L3.2 Emotion - A response that generally consists of arousal, thought and behavioural expression  - Many, though not all, emotional responses are initiated by interpretation of an element of the environment Emotional Intelligence An individual difference characteristic that involves the ability to adaptively perceive, understand, regulate and harness emotions in the self and others Outcomes associated with emotional intelligence: - Better mental health - Greater well-being - Feeling more connected to nature - Greater relationship satisfaction - Workplace flourishing - More creativity - Greater optimism - Longer telomeres ▪ Telomeres are a protective casing at the end of a strand of DNA. Each time a cell divides, it loses a bit of its telomeres. An enzyme called telomerase can replenish it, but chronic stress and cortisol exposure decrease your supply. When the telomere is too diminished, the cell often dies or becomes pro- inflammatory. This sets the aging process in motion, along with associated health risks. Lecture L3.3 Interaction of Motivation and Emotion The Broaden and Build Theory (Fredrickson et al. 2004, 2008, 2017, 2022) According to the Broaden and Build Theory, positive emotions, such as joy, interest, contentment and love, lead to broadened mindsets. Negative emotions, such as fear and anxiety, lead to narrow mindsets - Broadened mindsets resulting from positive emotions increase motivation towards activities such as exploration, play and bonding with others - These activities in turn result in the building of resources that allow better adjustment and coping and enhance well-being Fredrickson et al (2008) found that increasing positive emotions resulted in increased purpose in life and social support and decreased illness symptoms (Schutte, 2014), using an intervention developed by Fredrickson, examined the effect of increasing positive emotions on changes in general self-efficacy and how this impacts well- being. The intervention (which involved loving kindness meditation) increased positive affect, work satisfaction, relationship satisfaction and mental health. Change in positive affect and change in self-efficacy were sequential paths connecting the intervention with an increase in work and relationship satisfaction as well as mental health. The motivating emotion of curiosity - Curiosity is a positive emotion that motivates people to want to know and learn  - Curiosity consists of related dimensions, including desiring exploration for its own sake and wanting to decrease gaps in knowledge Five Dimension Curiosity Scale (Kashdan et al. 2018) Exploration - I seek out situations where it is likely that I will have to think in depth about something - I enjoy learning about subjects that are unfamiliar to me - I find it fascinating to learn new information Decreasing Gaps in Knowledge - I can spend hours on a single problem because I just can’t rest without knowing the answer - I feel frustrated if I can’t figure out the solution to a problem, so I work even harder to solve it - I work relentlessly at problems that I feel must be solved PSYC101 Learning Topic 4 Learning Burton Chap 9 pp 406-407 Learning is essentially about prediction – predicting the future from past experience and using these predictions to guide behaviour. - A reflex is a behaviour that is elicited automatically by an environmental stimulus. - A stimulus is something in the environment that elicits a response. - Habituation refers to the decreasing strength of a reflex response after repeated presentations of the stimulus Theories of learning generally share three assumptions. 1. Experience shapes behaviour. Particularly in complex organisms such as humans, the vast majority of responses are learned rather than innate 2. Le