Down But Not Out Survival Manual PDF

# DOWN but not OUT ## National Defense Defence nationale B-GA-217-001/PT-001 ## Survival ## Canada ### Table of Contents | Chapter | Page | |:--------------------------------------|:----------| | Psychology | 11 | | Geography...

# DOWN but not OUT ## National Defense Defence nationale B-GA-217-001/PT-001 ## Survival ## Canada ### Table of Contents | Chapter | Page | |:--------------------------------------|:----------| | Psychology | 11 | | Geography | 19 | | Parachute Jumping | 27 | | First Aid | 35 | | Shelters | 51 | | Signals | 81 | | Fire Methods | 91 | | Hunting and Fishing | 101 | | Food and Water | 119 | | Care of Equipment | 145 | | Travel | 155 | | Sea Survival | 175 | | Desert Survival | 187 | | Tropical Survival | 195 | | Knots and Splices | 201 | ### Chapter 1 ## Psychological Aspects of Survival ### Introduction In recent years many advances have been made in the development of clothing, equipment and rations for survival, and in the techniques for their use. However, regardless of how good equipment is or how good the techniques for its use are, the man faced with a survival situation still has to deal with himself. Man's psychological reactions to the stresses of survival often make him unable to utilize his available resources. The information available in this field is far from complete but enough has been done to give an understanding of some of the major psychological factors involved in survival. While much of this information could be labelled common sense, it should be remembered that common sense is based on past experiences which have led to successful adjustments to various situations and that inability to use common sense under stress had led to the deaths of many very able, apparently sensible persons. One of the most important psychological requirements for survival is the ability to accept immediately the reality of a new emergency and react appropriately to it. Studies have demonstrated that survival information contributes to a feeling of confidence in one's ability to survive. Since self-confidence is important in handling fear and panic, survival information should serve to minimize fear and prevent panic. Survival training should have in it some elements of realism like "battle inoculation" but safeguards must be taken against the production of casualties. Men must feel that they have come through real danger but have escaped unharmed. ### Fear Fear is a very normal reaction for any man faced with an emergency which threatens any of his important needs. Fear influences man's behaviour and thus his chances for survival; fear may ruin his chances or may actually improve them. There is no advantage in avoiding fear by denying the existence of danger. There is always something that can be done to improve the situation. Acceptance of fear as a natural reaction to a threatening situation will lead to purposive rather than random behaviour and in this way will greatly increase chances for survival. How a person will react to fear depends more on himself than on the situation. It isn't always the physically strong or happy-go-lucky person who most effectively handles fear; timid or anxious persons may respond more coolly and effectively under stress with a resulting better chance for survival. Fear must be recognized, lived with, and if possible, utilized to advantage. Factors increasing fear are mainly helplessness and hopelessness. Some of the factors most frequently reported to decrease or help control fear are: - having confidence in your equipment; - having confidence in the technical ability of your immediate superior; and - concentrating on the job to be done. ### Seven Enemies of Survival Pain, cold, thirst, hunger, fatigue, boredom, and loneliness everyone has experienced these but few have known them to the extent that they have threatened survival. In the survival situation, the feelings of pain, cold, etc., are no different from those experienced elsewhere. They are only more severe and more dangerous. With these feelings, as with fear, the more you know about them and their effects on you, the better you will be able to control tem, rather than letting them control you. - **Pain**. Pain is Nature's way of making you pay attention to something that is wrong with you. But Nature also has ways of holding off pain if you are too busy doing something else to pay attention to the injury right then. Pain may go unnoticed if your mind is occupied with plans for survival. On the other hand, once given in to, pain will weaken the drive to survive. Pain can get the best of you if you let it, even if it isn't serious or prolonged. A special effort must be made to keep hopes up and to keep working. - **Cold**. Cold is a much greater threat to survival than it sounds. It not only lowers your ability to think, but also tends to lower your will to do anything but get warm again. Cold is an insidious enemy; at the same time that it numbs the mind and the body, it numbs the will. Because it is hard to move and you want to sleep, you can forget your goal to survive. - **Thirst**. Thirst is another enemy of survival. Even when thirst is not extreme, it can dull your mind. As with pain and cold, thirst can be almost forgotten if the will to survive is strong enough. It is also important to remember not to deprive oneself unnecessarily of water. Serious dehydration may occur in a survival situation even when there is plenty of water available. - **Hunger**. Hunger is dangerous because of the effects it can have on the mind, primarily in lessening the person's ability for rational thought. Both thirst and hunger increase a person's susceptibility to the weakening effects of cold, pain, and fear. - **Fatigue**. Even a very moderate amount of fatigue can materially reduce mental ability. Fatigue can make you careless-it becomes increasingly easy to adopt the feeling of just not caring. This is one of the biggest dangers in survival. The confused notion that fatigue and energy expenditure are directly related may be responsible for many deaths in survival situations. Certainly, there is a real danger of over-exertion, but fatigue may actually be due to hopelessness, lack of a goal, dissatisfaction, frustration, or boredom. Fatigue may represent an escape from a situation which has become too difficult. If you recognize the dangers of a situation, you can often summon the strength to go on. - **Boredom and Loneliness**. Boredom and loneliness are two of the toughest enemies of survival. They are bad mainly because they are unexpected. When nothing happens, when something is expected and doesn't come off, when you must stay still, quiet, and alone, these feelings creep up on you. ### Attitudes for Survival While some attitudes are actually essential for survival there are others which greatly endanger chances of survival. For example, the mental attitude that "it can't happen to me" can blind you to the reality of the situation and make appropriate reaction in the face of emergency impossible. Much of the available evidence demonstrates the importance of having a "preparatory attitude" for whatever emergency may occur. This leads to preparation and rehearsal for all emergency possibilities. Survival instructions, given through posters, movies, lectures, etc, have been found to produce preparatory attitudes for survival which later serve as guides to action. Either general or specific information may serve this purpose. Often knowledge of the experience of others has also served as preparation for action. A great number of incidents have been recorded which indicate that previous rehearsal, both mental and actual, of emergency procedures serves as preparation resulting in automatic action. The most frequently encountered attitude endangering survival is the "it can't happen to me" attitude. This is the opposite of the preparatory attitude. Failure to have an attitude for survival may also result in panic, even in persons who appear to be extremely calm under normal conditions. Knowledge and rehearsal of survival and emergency procedure not only bring about a feeling of confidence and preparation for survival, but they can operate even when the survivor is in a state of semi-consciousness during an emergency. ### Group Behaviour in Survival #### Group Organization A crew's chances of surviving depends largely on its ability to organize activity. An emergency does not weld a crew together; rather, the more difficult and disordered the situation, the greater are the disorganized crew's problems. This is particularly true in the face of common danger, when fear can result in panic rather than concentration. #### Group Morale High group morale exists when all crew members feel themselves part of the crew rather than individuals, and are proud to be members of that crew. High group morale has many advantages: - The individual feels strengthened and protected since he realizes that his survival depends on others whom he trusts. - The group can meet failure with greater persistency. - The group can formulate goals to help each other face the future. High morale must come from internal cohesiveness and not merely through external pressures. Under certain conditions, moods and attitudes become wildly contagious. Panic often may be prevented by conscious, well-planned organization and leadership on the basis of delegated or shared responsibility, combined with faith in the group and realization of the need for co-operation. #### Important Factors in Successful Group Survival - **Organization of manpower**. Organized action, when crew members know what to do and when to do it, both under ordinary circumstances and in emergencies, is one good way of combating panic. An important technique for achieving organized action in survival is to keep the crew well briefed. - **Selective Use of Personnel**. In well-organized groups, the person often does the job that most closely fits his personal qualifications. - **Acceptance of Suggestions and Criticisms**. Although some one person, such as the aircraft commander, must accept responsibility for final decisions, he still can make good use of others' suggestions and criticisms. - **Consideration of Available Time**. Hundreds of survival stories indicate that there is rarely unlimited time in which to make decisions. On-the-spot decisions which must be acted upon immediately usually determine survival success. - **Checking Equipment**. In many more cases than will ever be known, failure to check equipment resulted in failure to survive. - **Surveying the Situation**. The necessity for surveying the situation is widely recognized in problem solving. Frequently, the things most feared are those involving the unknown. Surveying the situation serves to remove those unknowns and to set in readiness powers of adjustment. - **Survival Knowledge and Skills**. Research has shown that confidence in one's ability to survive is increased by acquiring survival knowledge and skills. - **Reaction Speed**. In survival emergencies, previously established reaction patterns are important in enabling the group to react quickly. It is claimed that one main purpose of survival training is to afford an opportunity for knowing and understanding the responses persons and groups need to acquire. Well established patterns of response may operate even when there is shock and panic. ### Personality Requirements of Survival Survival may depend more upon personality than upon the danger, weather terrain, or nature of the emergency. Whether fear will lead to panic or act as a spur to greater sharpness, whether fatigue will overcome the person or leave him able to take the necessary action to survive, even whether or not he will have frost-bitten feet, all are, to a large extent, dependent more on the person than on the situation. Qualities in a man important to survival are as follows: - **He can make up his mind.** - **He can improvise.** - **He can live with himself.** Some people can't stand being alone, have to be entertained, etc. Others can take care of themselves, make a good thing out of a bad one, keep their own and others’ spirits up. - **He can adapt to the situation.** Some people can't change themselves, no matter how much their stubbornness costs. - **He can keep cool, calm, and collected.** - **He hopes for the best, but prepares for the worst.** - **He has patience.** Some people must do everything right now. Others are able to wait until they have a surer chance. - **He can take it.** Few people know how much they can really take, but expecting things to be tough or unpleasant helps any of us to be prepared to meet the worst that can happen. - **He can figure out the other ma**n. Some men step on everybody's toes, while others manage to keep practically everybody happy. The principal reason that this second group of men is so successful is that they are always aware of the feelings and moods of other people. This ability to understand other people and to predict what they are going to do is important to survival. - **He knows where his special fears and worries come from.** All of us had accidents, scares, and worries when we were children that still bother us. Under dangerous survival conditions, these may cause trouble, but if a man knows where they came from, he can do something to control them. ### Chapter 2 ## Survival Geography ### Introduction Geography in the survival sense must be somewhat restricted in scope. This is because a survivor will be interested only in the aspects of geography that directly pertain to him. The survival concept of geography may differ also from that of the botanist or the cartographer. For example, the Arctic is commonly considered to include everything north of the Arctic circle, i.e., everything above latitude 66°32′ whereas the survival definition of the Arctic includes everything north of the tree-line. The aim of survival geography is to teach the survival student what to expect from the land, wherever he may be. A survivor who knows what to expect will find that his problems are greatly reduced, for he should then know what to do. Once a survivor settles down to improving his situation, he will also improve his morale and strengthen his will to live. Topography affects temperature, humidity, and watersheds which in turn influence the plant growth. The plant growth largely determines the animal life which can exist in any geographic region. The carnivorous predators, in their turn, depend on the seed and plant eaters and they consequently live a somewhat precarious existence which may be terminated by a change in any one of a number of factors. The following map shows a simplified division of Canada's forested and non-forested regions. The break-down is made into eight parts, four of which are particularly important from a survival point of view. The remaining four parts are covered in order to fill in the background with additional information that may be useful. The emphasis is on northern survival because of the strategic and economic development of and the ever increasing amount of flying being done over Canada's northland. It may be readily seen that the Boreal Region is the largest forest region in Canada. This region occupies a major part of the Canadian Shield, a massive formation of eroded palaeozoic rock, sparsely covered with a poor topsoil, which is unsuitable for agriculture but highly satisfactory for the growth of certain trees. A large portion of Canada's forest wealth occupies the Canadian Shield and this great forest region shows remarkably little variation from one coast to the other. This is because the factors which influence forest growth and development, such as soil, temperature, humidity, and sunlight, remain relatively constant across this entire region. When one factor, e.g., temperature, does vary, it will be found that another factor, e.g., humidity, tends to compensate and the net result is the same or a similar type of growth. Local variations will be found, however, and changes will occur, in the plant life within regions. The changes may be caused by such things as fire, disease, cutting, and even normal growth. In any event, the plant eating insects, birds, and animals will be affected by such variations, and the predator population will also vary according to the increase or decrease in the number of the various types of plant eaters. Bearing in mind, then, that local variations are inevitable, the following generalized information which necessarily omits much detail, is offered as a guide to survival geography. ### Acadian (Maritimes and Newfoundland) Topography and soil includes part of the Appalachians; picturesque, rolling hills; wide river valleys Watersheds scattered small lakes well drained by extensive networks of moderately flowing streams and rivers Climate and humidity averages 140 cm of rain a year; temperatures moderate; few extremes except in inland areas Plant life spruce, balsam, yellow birch, maple, and pine; very similar to the Boreal Region Wild life trout, salmon, shad, ale-wife, eel, sucker, and chub; red squirrel, varying hare, porcupine, muskrat, beaver, weasel, mink, otter, fox, lynx, panther, black bear, deer, and moose; pheasant, partridge, grouse, duck, hawk, owl, eagle, gull, crow, and raven. ### Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Topography and soil mostly peneplain; Canada's biggest fruit and vegetable growing district Watersheds short, moderately flowing rivers drain into the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Climate and humidity quite humid, mostly over 125 cm of rain a year; temperatures not very extreme Plant life white and red pine, spruce, yellow birch, and maple Wild life deer, grey and black squirrel, cotton-tail rabbit, jack rabbit, porcupine, fox, racoon, and musk-rat; hawk, owl, and pheasant; turtle, pike, smelt, perch, walleye, bass, catfish, and carp. ### Prairie Grassland Topography and soil the Great Plains are mostly very flat and have, except for broken up bad lands, in the south-west corner, extremely deep soil. Watersheds innumerable scattered sloughs and small lakes; slow flowing rivers in deep coulees; often wide valleys. Climate and humidity dry climate, 25 cm of rain in the west to 50 cm in the east; the temperature varies to extremes. Plant life grasses, sedges, bullrushes, and bushes. Wild life porcupine, gopher, prairie dog, rabbit, badger, coyote, deer, antelope, and elk; prairie chicken, hawk, owl, duck, and geese; pike, jackfish, trout, and white-fish ### Rocky Mountains Topography and soil mountainous with some plateaus in the interior; rocky with thin sandy soil. Watersheds snow-fed lakes and streams; rapid run off in the spring; swiftly flowing rivers Climate and humidity precipitation as high as 250 cm in the higher areas; extreme variance in temperatures and humidity Plant life Engelmann spruce, lodgepole pine, cedar, hemlock, larch, and poplar Wild life porcupine, hoary marmot, squirrel, rabbit, sheep, goat, moose, deer, panther, and grizzly and black bear; trout, and no birds. ### West Coast Topography and soil wide fertile river valleys surrounded by mountainous topography. Watersheds well drained by rivers flowing into the Pacific which tend to flood during the spring run off. Climate and humidity very humid; high rainfall; mild climate; maritime. Plant life Douglas fir, western hemlock, western red cedar, and Sitka spruce. Wild life porcupine, marmot, rabbit, grouse, mule deer, red deer, and bear; trout, salmon, various cod, and flounder. ### Boreal Region Topography and soil lies on the Canadian Shield; shallow, poor soil; overlying rock; rolling terrain; hummocky Watersheds extensive muskeg; innumerable lakes; fairly fast flowing streams; most drainage to the north. Climate and humidity precipitation variable 25 cm in the west to 25 cm in the east; cold winters; short hot summers Plant life spruce, balsam, white birch, poplar, jack-pine, and tamarack. Wild life fish in most lakes and streams; mice, red squirrel, varying hare, porcupine, musk-rat, white tail deer, moose, weasel, mink, marten (fisher), otter, wolverine, fox, wolf, lynx, and black bear; partridge, ruffed grouse, duck, hawk, owl, and eagle. ### Northern Transitional Topography and soil the same as the Boreal Region except for some permafrost; considerable muskeg. Watersheds the same as the Boreal Region. Climate and humidity somewhat less precipitation than in the Boreal Region and colder, with shorter summers Plant life scrubby spruce and jack-pine. Wild life fish; red squirrel, varying hare, fox, polecat family, and wolf; spruce partridge, ptarmigan, and arctic owl. ### Arctic Topography and soil - **Eastern Arctic** high rocky, shallow soil, permafrost, long fiords by the coast; - **Mainland Barrens** low lying terrain; - **Western Arctic** low lying but rolling terrain; and - **Arctic Islands** eastern islands mountainous, western islands flat. Watersheds - **Eastern Arctic** glacier-fed rivers which dwindle in summer; - **Mainland Barrens** extensive muskeg, innumerable shallow lakes, slow shallow rivers; - **Western Arctic** few lakes or rivers except north of the mainland barrens. Climate and humidity long winters of darkness, surprisingly little snowfall, extreme dry cold; sea frozen from mid October to June; short summers of complete daylight, seldom hotter than 10°C and lasting through July and early August. Plant life scrub willow in stream beds and protected places; mosses, lichens, and berries. Wild life abundant in fish; lemming, ground squirrel, arctic hare, fox, wolf, polar bear, seal, walrus, whale, caribou and musk-ox; duck, geese, ptarmigan, and sea birds on the coast. ### Chapter 4 ## First Aid ### General **Definition** First aid is immediate assistance rendered to the injured or suddenly ill person in the absence of adequate medical care. **Purpose** To prolong life, to preserve existence and vitality, and to prevent further injury. **General Rules** - Check bleeding and breathing. - Do not get excited but act quickly after you decide which of the injuries needs attention first. - Do not move the patient unless he is certain to benefit as a result. - Keep the patient comfortable and warm; reassure him and avoid having him see his injuries if possible. - Do not touch open wounds or burns with your fingers or other objects. - Do not give unconscious patients liquids. ### Shock **Definition** Shock is a condition which is caused by the loss of an effective volume of blood circulating in the patient's blood vessels. It may be caused by different factors, such as: - actual loss of blood from wounds; - loss into the tissues such as in a broken thigh-as much as 2.2 ℓ may pool in the fractured leg; - internal bleeding into body cavities; - loss of other fluids such as serum and plasma in burns; and - massive loss of fluid through sweating, vomiting, and diarrhoea. **Signs of Shock** - The skin is pale, cold, and clammy; the pulse is fast and weak, and the breathing is fast and shallow. **Treatment of Shock** - **Control bleeding:** - **external signs** - arterial-bright red spurting, - venous dark red-rapid flowing, and - capillary-steady oozing; and - **internal signs** - lungs chest pains-bright frothy blood from the mouth, and - abdomen-stomach injury-vomiting blood of coffee ground colour. - **Stop bleeding** by a pressure bandage at the site. Complete rest is essential. - **Facilitate or restore breathing:** - by artificial respiration; or - by giving oxygen if the aircraft supply is available. - **Control pain**. Severe pain must be relieved. Pain can often be eased by keeping an injured person quiet and warm, carefully changing his position to keep him comfortable, splinting an injured arm or leg, and handling him gently at all times. Give 222s in accordance with instructions when a severely injured person, suffering acute pain, has to be transferred to a safer location, or when severe pain cannot be controlled by any other means. Never give them to a patient who is unconscious or sleeping, who has a severe head injury, or whose rate of breathing is twelve respirations or less a minute. - **Prevent additional injury:** - protect the injury; - splint any fractures before moving; and - handle gently. - **Replace fluids**. Give hot sweetened drinks. - **Prevent exposure:** - protect under the patient as well as on top; and - do not overheat. - **The head should be lower than the feet.** - **Reassure the Patient** **Preliminary Treatment** **WOUNDS** - **Expose to determine the extent of the injury.** - **Stop bleeding:** - apply a firm pressure dressing and in extreme bleeding cases apply a tourniquet (the tourniquet should be used only as a last resort); - if the patient is coughing blood as from a damaged lung, sit him up with his head supported; and - if the patient is vomiting blood as from a damaged stomach, bend his knees, make him as comfortable as possible, and ensure that his air passage is clear. - **Protect the wound:** - remove foreign bodies from the surface; - do not probe the wound; - apply a sterile dressing; - dress and splint fractures; and - apply hot sterile compresses to combat infection. ### Complicated Wounds - **Chest wounds**. Make the wound air-tight. - **Abdominal wounds:** - place the patient in a comfortable position; - give nothing by mouth; and - apply a large binder type dressing. ### Fractures **Indications of Fracture** - an audible snap; - pain at the site; - loss of power of the affected limb; - deformity; - tenderness; - swelling; - discoloration; and - crepitus. **General treatment:** - administer sedatives; - immobilize the fracture and neighboring joints; and - avoid contamination. ### Special Fractures - **Fracture of the Spine:** - **Indications**. Pain, tenderness, or deformity at the site of the fracture and possible paralysis or loss of sensation below the site of the fracture. - **Treatment**. Fractures of the spine should be treated with great care because of the danger of injury to the spinal cord. If the back is allowed to hump, the broken bone may cut the spinal cord. ### Fractured Ribs - **Indications**. Pain, especially on breathing or coughing. The broken rib is tender and the break can sometimes be felt. The patient usually holds his hand tightly over the break. If the lung is punctured he may cough up bright red frothy blood. - **Treatment**. Tie a firm bandage round the lower ribs. ### Fracture of the Skull - **Indications**. Unconsciousness, swelling, or laceration of the scalp; bleeding or leakage of spinal fluid from the nose, mouth, or ears; a difference in the size of the pupils of the eyes, blackening of the tissues under the eyes, and paralysis or twitching of the muscles. - **Treatment**. Treat as for shock. Keep the patient at rest in a semi-prone position. ### Fracture of the Lower Jaw - **Indications**. There may be pain on movement of the jaw; irregularity of the teeth, inability to talk or swallow in some cases, and bleeding from the mouth. - **Treatment**. Clear the nose and keep the mouth closed. Immobilize using bandages. ### Fracture of the Collar Bone - **Indications**. The injured shoulder Is at a lower level than the uninjured one. The patient is unable to lift his arm above his shoulder, and he supports the elbow of the involved side with the opposite hand. The fractured ends can usually be felt under the skin. - **Treatment**. Use a T splint or figure eight bandage with the centre of the eight between the shoulder blades, and small arm sling to support the shoulder on the injured side. ### Dislocations, Strains, and Sprains Damage to ligaments, tendons, and muscles. Treat as for fractures. ### Burns: Burns are extremely painful and the resultant shock is more severe than that encountered in most other injuries. - **Treatment:** - treat for shock; - give 222s; - avoid contamination of the burned surface; - cover the injury with sterile vaseline impregnated gauze; - over this place a thick layer of sterile gauze dressing or similar sterile padding; and - bandage firmly. ### Asphyxia This is unconsciousness from lack of oxygen. **Treatment:** - remove the cause or the patient from the cause (protect yourself); - clear air passages, loosen clothing, and remove false teeth; - administer artificial respiration and give oxygen if available; - give no sedatives (depressants) or alcohol; and - treat for shock. ### Heat Stroke - Sun Stroke The temperature regulating mechanism of the body fails and the body temperature rises to dangerously high levels. **Signs and symptoms of heat stroke:** - skin flushed, hot, and dry; - headache; - dizziness; - irritability; - visual disturbances; and - nausea and vomiting. **Treatment:** - cool the patient quickly, particularly about the head area; - give salt solutions by mouth; and - give no stimulants. ### Frost Bite **Signs and symptoms:** - the skin assumes a dull whitish pallor; - there is a feeling of numbness or prickling associated with the formation of ice crystals in the tissues; - with deep freezing the tissues are solid and immovable; and - prolonged exposure to cold causes the person to become numb and drowsy, his eyesight fails, he becomes unconscious, and his respiration may cease. **Treatment** - Do not rub. - If the frozen part is on the face, ears, or trunk, cover it with the warm ungloved hand. If a hand is involved, insert it within the shirt, up against the body. If a foot is involved, remove the shoe and sock and place the foot within the shirt and against the body of another man. - Treat as a burn, wrap in sterile dressing, cover warmly, and put at complete rest. - Remove the patient from exposure and give warm drinks, food, and clothing. Artificial respiration, stimulants, and oxygen may be necessary in cases of prolonged exposure. ### Foreign Bodies #### Ears To dislodge a foreign body from the ear, syringe the ear canal with lukewarm water. Be sure to direct the flow of the water along the side of the canal. If the object does not come out, do not try to dislodge with pins, wire, etc. #### Nose This usually presents no immediate danger. The object can generally be dislodged by stopping the unaffected nostril and blowing the nose. Any attempt to dig the object out will cause more swelling and lodge the object more securely. #### Eyes Do not attempt to remove the foreign object with the fingers or to rub the eye. - Close the eye for a few minutes until the spasm of irritation is over, then grasp the lashes of the upper lid, and raise the lid. Repeat this process a few times. In many cases the object will be washed out by tears. - When this method fails, a search must be made under the lower lid. Place the thumb below the eye and pull down.