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FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS DBM-110 SURESH GYAN VIHAR UNIVERSITY Centre for Distance and Online Education Mahal, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302025 EDITORIAL BOARD (CDOE, SGVU) Dr (Prof.) T.K. Jain Dr. Manish Dwivedi Director, CDOE, SGVU...

FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS DBM-110 SURESH GYAN VIHAR UNIVERSITY Centre for Distance and Online Education Mahal, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302025 EDITORIAL BOARD (CDOE, SGVU) Dr (Prof.) T.K. Jain Dr. Manish Dwivedi Director, CDOE, SGVU Associate Professor & Dy, Director, CDOE, SGVU Ms. Hemlalata Dharendra Assistant Professor, CDOE, SGVU Mr. Manvendra Narayan Mishra Assistant Professor (Deptt. of Ms. Kapila Bishnoi Mathematics) Assistant Professor, CDOE, SGVU SGVU Mr. Ashphaq Ahmad Ms. Shreya Mathur Assistant Professor, CDOE, SGVU Assistant Professor, CDOE, SGVU Published by: S. B. Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. WZ-6, Lajwanti Garden, New Delhi: 110046 Tel.: (011) 28520627 | Ph.: 9625993408 Email: [email protected] | Web.: www.sbprakashan.com © SGVU All rights reserved. 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Printed at :  INDEX UNIT I FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN NATURE 5 UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO GROUP BEHAVIOUR 40 UNIT III ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE 71 UNIT IV ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND CREATIVITY 90 UNIT V ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND WORK STRESS 103  FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS SYLLABUS UNIT I UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN NATURE Introduction Individual Behavior, Personality and Attitude, Thinking and Learning Intelligence Perception UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO GROUP BEHAVIOUR Introduction Group Dynamics, Team Effectiveness, Power and Politics, Organizational Conflicts and Resolution UNIT III ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Introduction Organizational Culture, Motivation at Workplace UNIT IV ORGANISATIONAL CHANGES AND CREATIVITY Introduction Organizational Change and Creativity UNIT V ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND WORK STRESS Introduction Organisational Development, Physical Work Environment UNIT I FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN NATURE STRUCTURE 1.1 Learning Objective 1.2 Individual Behavior 1.3 Personality and Attitude 1.4 Thinking and Learning 1.5 Intelligence Perception 1.6 Chapter Summary 1.7 Review Questions 1.8 Multiple choice questions  6 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES 1.1 LEARNING OBJECT After completion of this unit, student will be able to: Understand meaning and definition of individual behavior. Know about the nature and significance of individual difference. Know about the factors affecting individual difference. Know about the influence of environment. 1.2 INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR Introduction Human nature has been a topic of great interest to managerial personnel, especially those who have to handle and manage human beings. Human being is a resource and when put to best use can increase the organizational multifield. If human resource are not well handled, an organization would face a number of problems ranging from conflict, power, politics, stress, absenteeism, lowered motivation among employees, increased job turnover etc. A man is a social animal. He always lives in a society. He cannot work, survive or live in a society in isolation. The way in which he interacts in the society influences his life. Society plays a vital role in his development. A person has to depend on others for satisfying his needs to have the ability to get his work done by others. This ability can be developed by thoroughly understanding human nature and developing his own human skill. “Human skill is the ability to work with. understand and motivate other people both individually and in groups”. for e.g., through human skill, a manager can take maximum advantage from other materials of organization such as money. technology and raw material. Human beings are not only an organic entity, but also possess certain values. In a particular way. human nature has certain cognitive processes which influence the way it works and the manner in which it make others act and react. It is a human tendency to determine human behaviour on the basis of generalizations. Our generalization provides a valid understanding into human behaviour. Study of human nature involves systematic study to improve predictions of human behaviour. It offers specific understanding to improve one’s own interpersonal skills. Study of human nature deals with personality, attitudes, intelligence, thinking, abilities, values, learning and perception. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES All individuals are not equal. They all differ from each other not only in physical characteristics but also in behavioural characteristics. Individual differ from each other in qualitative as quantitative ways. The science that studies these qualitative and quantitative differences among people is known as the study of individual differences (also called as differential psychology). The differences among people are not sharp but there is continuity. FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS Meaning: Individual differences means differences between individuals which makes UNDERSTANDING OF one a unique individual. HUMAN NATURE Foundation of Human Skills 7 NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE NOTES Democratically, all individuals are equal but physically and psychologically, all individuals are unequal and in other words, each individual is different from the other. Equal opportunity must be provided to every individual for drawing up the best that an individual has so that an individual achieves optimum development. It has been stated by Benjamin S. Bloom, an American educator. “A society which places such great value of education and schooling that it requires the individual to attend school for a long period of time must find the means to make education attractive and meaningful to the individual learner”. In the words of Charles E. Skinner. “Today, we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total personality.” No two learners are alike. Individuals differ in their physical characteristics, emotional characteristics. personality traits, interests, achievement etc. Mass procedures, no matter how well intentioned. fail to accomplish the objective unless they are supplemented by certain forms of guidance, guidance which must treat the individuals as individuals. Difference among individuals may be slight, moderate or extreme. It has also been observed that differences are not only found among different, but can be noticed with the same individuals too. INTER- AND INTRA-INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES There are two kinds of individual differences: (i) inter-individual differences and (ii) intra individal differences. Inter-individual differences: All differences among persons in their attitude, physical features, intelligence, personality, interest, learning etc. It refers to differences in a particular characteristics among various individuals, for e.g.. Intra-individual differences: Intra-individual differences refers to differences among various characteristics possessed by the same person. Different abilities are present in the same person, for e.g., a person may be good at painting but relatively less good at studies and bad at singing. FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE 1. Emotional Differences: Some people are calm most of the time. Some are generally irritable. Some are very peaceful and some become very angry very easily. It is true that the emotion of anger is common to all people but its intensity and depiction is different in different people. Differences in personality characteristics ranging from very slightly to extreme are noticed, for e.g., two children are scolded by the teacher for not doing their homework. One child decides to be regular with his homework next time. The other child cries a lot and refuses to go to school next day. 2. Differences in Intelligence: People differ immensely in intelligence. Intelligence refers to: Capacity to learn with speed and accuracy Capacity to solve problems FOUNDATION OF Capacity to adjust in the society HUMAN SKILLS UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN NATURE  8 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES Performance of individuals as a teacher, as person, as a citizen, as a worker and as a student largely depends upon the intelligence he possess. The testing of intellectual abilities lead to discovery that intelligence continues to increase from birth til! it reaches a peak about the middle of adolescence, for e.g., Mr. A goes to a computer class for studying basics. He needs two months to study basics of computer as compared to Mr. B who requires one month for the same. In this case, it is seen that Mi B has higher intellect than Mr. A. 3. Differences in Abilities, Attitudes and Achievement: Wide variety have been observed among individuals in the field of creative abilities, special aptitudes and personality traits. Through achievement test, it has been found that individuals differ in their achievement abilities. Difference in achievement is also found among those individuals who have the same level of intelligence, for e.g., sports siblings in the same family. 4. Differences in Social Behaviour: Differences in social class among individuals arise because they come from different socio-economic backgrounds, from different communities, from different religions, from different localities etc. These differences are reflected in their motivation, readiness and achievement, for e.g., there are some people who are timid and shy that as soon as a member comes from outside visit at home they go inside and avoid conversation but there are other kind of people who become friendly with strangers without any hesitation. 5. Gender Differences: There is a general belief that motor skills requiring great endurance. muscular strength and persistence can be tackled by men than women. Women are supposed to excel in skills involving close co-ordination of small muscles and strict attention to details. For e.g., men learn driving faster than women. Girls are found high in fluency, memory and fine motor co-ordination Boys are found superior in numerical reasoning and spatial ability Girls have high interest in aesthetics, social service, domestic science and literary fields Boys have higher scientific, mechanical and theoretical interests Girls are more emotional, jealous and social Boys are more aggressive, dominant, ambitious and independent Girls show better performance in language, speech, art and music Boys are better in social sciences and mathematics 6. Physical differences: Among the physical differences, important differences are: Differences in chronological age Differences in physical maturity Differences in appearances For e.g., Person in different countries located in different geographical areas have different characteristics, for e.g., Indians, Americans, Germans etc. Difference in chronological age: There is general belief that children learn FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS better than adults. Many studies have been made on the relation between age and UNDERSTANDING OF learning. The results indicate that the ability to learn material increases until about HUMAN NATURE 16 years. Thereafter, it remains constant till 20s. After that, there is a slight drop. Foundation of Human Skills 9 Round about 50 years, the drop becomes sharper. Differences in speed of learning NOTES and retention do not depend upon age but on mental age or levels of intelligence. Variation in methods and motivation may make it possible for children to learn a given task even at an earlier or later age. Difference in physical maturity: It is noted that even though the children may be more or less of the same age, they may not necessarily have the same level of mental and emotional maturity of learning. This may be on account of different levels of physical emotional maturing of carning. Ims may con maturity. The capacity to learn is vitally connected with the growth and maturity of the nervous system, the development of muscles, body proportions and the functioning of the sensory organs. Physical maturity, thus, affects readiness to learn. It is also one of the reasons in interests in early and late matures. It must be remembered that adequate physical development is essential for satisfactory mental functioning Difference in appearances: Body built may influence the self-concept of an individual on account of the expectations of adults and other individuals. Some individual are good looking, some are ordinary, few are plain and some are ugly. These differences in looks do affect interrelationship among individuals. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT Environment plays a very important role. John Fuller, on the basis of his research studies on dogs. has demonstrated that these pups that are raised normally are good at learning when kept in group than those who were raised in isolation. are good at learning when kept in group man those who were raised in isolation. The way in which environmental factors influence individual’s development can be best explained with the help of research studies carried out by Wayne Dennis. Wayne Dennis has, for a number of years, been conducting a longitudinal study of the development of orphans who were infants and young children were adopted from the orphanage in Beriut, Lebanon, over a period of years. As long as the children remained in the orphanage, their IQ remained approximately 50, which is about the lowest ever reported for any group of institutionalized but otherwise, normal children. What a mean of IQ of 50 signifies is that the intelligence of children in this orphanage was developing at an extremely slow rate as compared to the pace at which the intelligence of normal children develops. Dennis found, however, that when children were adopted, their intelligence began to develop at a normal rate. Children adopted during the first year of life, therefore, had IQs within the normal range, whereas those who are adopted later improved their IQs over 50 but were unable to overcome the handicap incurred during the years they spent in orphanage. Dennis’ finding shows that the two different social environments, the orphanage and the adoptive home, made quite different effects on the intellectual development of children and that the environment plays an important role in shaping our physical and intellectual development. Somewhat however similar results had been obtained by Harlow (1962). He studied three group of monkeys. One group of monkeys were reared in natural conditions along with their parents and siblings. These group of monkeys could play and mix with each other in FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS natural environment. The second and third group of monkeys was in the partial and total UNDERSTANDING OF isolation condition. The monkeys who were in partial isolation could see other monkeys HUMAN NATURE  10 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES in play and other activities, but they themselves could not indulge in it as they were in the cages. The third group of monkeys belonged to total isolation condition locked in cages. Neither could they see other monkeys play and indulge in daily activities as the second group did not do nor could they themselves indulge in any activities. The results of Harlow’s study showed that both the isolation groups were retarded in their intellectual, social and emotional development. Not only did this, but the monkeys of the second and third group not learn normal sexual courtship behaviour. This study clearly indicates that environment plays an important role in shaping our intellectual, social and emotional development. The influence can be internal, i.e., family or the influence can be external, i.e., society at large. IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT Though heredity factors play an important role in influencing our development, the role of environment cannot be minimized. Since the heritability of a trait generally does not exceed 50 cent, there is great room for environmental influences. One’s family and peer group influences one’s development considerably. Researchers have also emphasized on the role of socio-economic environment and socio cultural factors influencing and shaping our development. Our intellectual development and specific cognitive abilities are considerably influenced by environmental factors. A stimulating enriched environment aids to cognitive development among infants. CONCLUSION We can conclude that many of our traits are determined jointly by unique and complex interaction of environmental factors. Human beings continue to develop through life and environment influence human development. Environment can contribute to individual differences. Environment dil naivar from the concention till death. 1.3 PERSONALITY AND ATTITUDE The term ‘personality’ is derived from the latin word ‘persona’. It means mask which actors used to put whenever they appeared on the stage in Rome. The mask served the purpose of a specific disguise. Later, persona was understood to be a specific role on the stage of Romans. In this way, ‘personality’ means the outward appearance of an individual. In popular sense, personality is understood as personal impressiveness. An individual with attractive and impressive features is believed to possess a good personality. In this sense, personality means the impression one makes on other through his external physical means but in such assumption internal aspects of the individual will not be considered. Sometimes personality may be defined as spiritual self of an individual. The concept of personality differs widely among different people. Some people consider that personality is that which permeates all his actions. The other people regard an individual’s FOUNDATION OF personality as a person himself. They use the terms personality and it is because the HUMAN SKILLS concept of personality is so widely different among different people that to give a concise UNDERSTANDING OF definition of personality is extremely difficult. HUMAN NATURE Foundation of Human Skills 11 DEFINITION NOTES Warren defines personality as the entire Personality is “the entire mental organization of human heinos at any stage of his develonment” Dashiell defines personality as “his system of reactions and reaction possibilities in total viewed by fellow members of society. It is the sum total of behaviour trends manifested in his social adjustments”. PERSONALITY TRAIT THEORY Cattel’s Theory: Based on the trait approach, Cattel’s theory of personality is the most recent advanced theory. Cattel defined trait as the structure of the personality inferred from behaviour in different situations. The approach to the theory describes the readily observable as ‘Surface traits’ and the deeper ones as ‘Source traits’. The source traits are assumed to be basic influence on personality and are mostly derived by factor analysis. Trait theories assume that personality can be characterized by knowing person’s trait. The trait profile indicates an individual’s standing on each of the primary traits which emerges from his or her source. Eysenek’s Theory of personality: Eysenek’s approach for the implantation of the theories of personality was “type-cum-trait” approach. According to him, there are four levels of behavior organization. At the lower level are the specific responses. The secondary level comprises the habitual responses. The third level consists of organization of habitual acts into traits. The fourth level is the organization of these traits into general type. Type is a group of Correlated Traits. His definition leads to form an opinion that personality is fixed and cannot be changed. It is truc that personality should be evaluated on the basis of the generality of behaviour, but on the other hand, changes cannot be denied. A person who is an extrovert may turn into introvert depending upon so many intervening factors. Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality: The psychoanalytic approach to personality was undertaken and advocated by Sigmund Freud. He viewed the people as being engaged in a common struggle to fame their biological urges. His theory is based on the assumption that personality and personality development are determined conflicts and events that are largely unconscious in nature and which can be understood only by its denth in the study. Frued believed that the anatomy of our personality is built aron Ene SUPEREGO. In short, personality is a three tier system. ID is totally in conscious, EGO is partly conscious and SUPEREGO is totally conscious. Frued theory is indeed helpful to understand the individual’s personality as well as its development. His theory is a comprehensive theory which lays more stress on the functioning of the individual as a whole emphasizing more importance to early childhood experiences. Freud’s theory gives adequate attention to FOUNDATION OF the role of environment in the development of personality. His theory is based on the HUMAN SKILLS UNDERSTANDING OF concepts of instincts. HUMAN NATURE  12 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES Alfer Adler’s Theory of Personality: According to Adler, self-assertion is the major drive. Every individual strives to develop a unique style life. Alder gave more importance to ‘life span’ of the goal or purpose. According to Alder, a person is self-conscious person capable of planning and guiding a person, knows about his or her inferiorities and is conscious about the goal for which he or she drives. Alder believed that ‘Will to power’ is essential for superiority revealed through his or her style of life. The style of life is the principle by which the personality of the individual functional and style of life is shaped by two factors innerself and the forces within the environment Experiences of early life have great influence on the style of life of an individual. Alder believed that each individual creates a self-structure out of his or her heredity endowment and the impression that is received from the environment. Alder stated that there is an impact of social interaction. Working for the welfare of others compensate one’s weakness and inferiority complex. It helps to express the superior’s feelings. Carl Jung’s Theory: Jung’s emphasis was the racial origin of personality. He believed that the total personality consists of a number of differentiated but interacting systems. According to Jung. mental activity takes four dominant forms: sensation, thinking, intuition and feelings. Thinking and feeling are polar opposites and both tendencies are always present in human at the same time. Finally, there is self, which is the centre of the whole personality. According to Jung, the ego is the conscious mind and is made up on conscious, perceptions, memories, thoughts and feelings. The personal unconscious is a region adjoining the ego, and it consists of forgotten experience. The collective unconscious is the storehouse of the latent memory traces inherited from the man’s ancestral past. Jung has placed great emphasis on the forward going character of the personality development. Jung considered that the goal of development is self-realization and self-realization to Jung means complete differentiation and harmonious blending of all aspects of man’s total personality. Erickson’s Theory: Erickson visualizes personality development as a series of turning points. These turning points he describes as a series of dichotomies of desirable qualities and dangers. In the development of personality, it is not necessary that only positive qualities emerge, dangerous traits may also be there. The difficulties in development arises when positive quality is outweighed by the negative. According to his principle, during feotal development, certain organ of the body appears at specified times and eventually combine to form a child. Erikson considers that personality develops in a similar manner. Erickson believes that the personality of an individual forms through a series of interrelated stages. The ego progresses through those stages. No doubt, all these ego stages exist in the beginning in same form, each has a critical period of development. DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY Personality is dynamic in nature. Personality develops through social interaction. 3. Personality has organized an FOUNDATION OF integrated system. HUMAN SKILLS Personality is necessarily unique and specific in nature. UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN NATURE Personality refers to the process of adjustment to the environment. Foundation of Human Skills 13 Personality is self-conscious and it includes everything of a person. NOTES Personality is more than its overt expression in behaviour and it is not just a collection of traits. Every personality in general well built and health of an individual. Personality gives complete nature of human behaviour patterns. 10. Personality is complex in nature, but the learning experiences contribute towards the growth and development of personality. Personality is usually fixed and cannot be changed. Every personality is the product of heredity and environment. Every person’s personality has more distinguishing feature and that is aiming to an end towards some specific goals. PERSONALITY TRAITS IMPORTANT FOR ORGANIZATION Locus of Control: Locus of control is a concept introduced by Jullian Rotter. It refers to generalized beliefs and expectancies about whether rewards and punishments are based internally (under one’s control) or externally (under eternal factors central). Locus of control, in other words is defined as the degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate. Locus of control is of two types: a. Internal Locus of Control: Trying to influence one’s fate is called as internal locus of control. An individual who has internal locus of control believes that hard work and one’s ability can influence the course of one’s life. b. External Locus of Control: Those who have external locus of control feel that they are mere puppets in the force of nature. Their life and events are controlled by fate, luck or forces outside them. Such people also believe that influence and external pressure is more important than one’s ability and hardwork. Machiavellianism: The personality characteristics of Machiavellianism are named after Niccolo Machiavelli who in his book “The Prince” described how a king could retain power by having double It can ha defined as the degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that end justify means. The term Machiavellianism do well on jobs that require bargaining skills such as labour negotiation or that offer substantial rewards for winning. Individuals who are high on Machiavellianism also have the following characteristics: They tend to be rational and non-emotional. They may be willing to lie to maintain their personal goals. They do not believe in loyalty and friendship. They enjoy manipulating other’s behaviour. Self-esteem: Self-esteem refers to an individual’s attitude about himself or herself involving self-evaluation along a positive-negative dimension. It is also defined as individual degree FOUNDATION OF or liking or disliking of themselves. One’s self-esteem influences many areas of our life HUMAN SKILLS and functioning including one’s performance at work. Individual with high self-esteem UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN NATURE  14 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES will take more risks in job selection and more likely to choose unconventional jobs than people with low self-esteem. Those who have low self-esteem are more susceptible to external influence and often seek positive evaluation from others. Self-monitoring: The concept of self-monitoring was proposed by Synder. It can be defined as personality disposition that ranges from the tendency to regulate one’s behaviour on the basis of lete and’s hahaviour on the basis of internal factors (low self- monitors). In other words, it is defined as the personality trait that measures an individual ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external situational factors. High self-monitoring individuals show considerable adaptability and easily adjust their behaviour to external situations. They are also capable of demonstrating striking contradictions between their public and private self. It has been found that high self-monitoring managers tend to be more focused in their careers and receive more promotions. High self-monitors are more likely to be successful in management positions in which individuals are required to play multiple and even contradictory roles. Self-efficacy: The concept of self-efficacy was introduced by Bandura. It refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher your self- efficacy score the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a given task. In difficult situations, people with low self-efficacy will try harder to master their challenge. Individuals with high efficacy respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, whereas those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their efforts when given negative feedback. Type A and B Personality Patterns: The term Type A was introduced by Friedman and Rosen man to describe an individual’s set of personality characteristics. The Type A behaviour pattern is a pattern of behaviour consisting of high level of competitiveness, time urgency and hostility. The Type A behaviour pattern is distinguished from Type D pattern and non ha defined as a pattern consisting of the absence of characteristics associated with the Type A behaviour pattern. Type A personalities are nighty competitive, achievement-one au always worried about time. They took too many activities at hand and always work against the pressure of time.. Type A individuals are hostile because aggressing against others is useful for reaching goals, such as furthering one’s career or winning in athletic competitions. This is called instrumental aggression. Type A individuals also engage in hostile aggression whose prime purpose is that of inflicting pain and suffering on the victims. Research studies have also found that Type A individuals are more likely than Ty * l ^ x B individuals to experience conflict with others in work settings. They are more likely to experience severe stress associated with work. It is important that they learn to relax in order to preven hypertension and heart attacks. THE JOHARI WINDOW Luft and Ingram were researching human personality of the University of California in the 1950s when they devised their Johari Window. Rather than measuring personality, the window offers a way of looking at how personality is expressed. Luft and Ingram observed that there are aspects of our personality that we are open about and other elements that FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS we keep to ourselves. At the same time. there are things that others see in us that we are UNDERSTANDING OF not aware of. Finally, there are aspects of our personality that are unknown to others as HUMAN NATURE Foundation of Human Skills 15 well as ourselves. These different dimensions of our personality can be presented in the NOTES form of four windows. OPEN SELF BLIND SELF (known to others and self) (known to others but not self) HIDDEN SELF UNKNOWN SELF (known to self but not to others) (not known to others or self) 1. Open Self: The open self refers to that aspects of our life that is known to oneself as well as to others. It includes not only factual information, but also information on a person’s feelings, motives, behaviour, wants, needs and desire or any other information that a person intentionally conveys to people. This is basic public personality. The public area contains things that are publicly known and which may be seen as strengths or weakneses. This is the self that we choose to share with others. When we first meet the person, the size of the window is not very large, since there has been little time to exchange information. As the process of getting to know each other continues, the size of this window increases. 2. Hidden Self: This part of the window is also known as private areas. It contains aspects of our self that we know about but are kept hidden from others. The hidden pane of the window is a collection of those things that we keep to ourselves. These are those parts of ourselves that we choose not to share with others but we consider them private. Our hidden self cannot be known to others unless we disclose it. 3. Blind Self: The blind self represents things that others know without us but we are unaware of. It includes things that others have observed in us but we don’t know about. They could be positive and negative behaviours and they effect the way that act towards us. The blind area includes things about ourselves which we do not know but others can see, it also includes things that we imagine to be true e, it also includes things that we imagine to be true for ourselves for a variety of reasons but those others do not see at all. This part of the window is occasionally called the ‘bad breath’ window. Others know this about it, but we don’t know about it. 4. Unknown Self: The unknown area contains things that nobody knows about us including ourselves. It includes those aspects of our personality that are hidden from others as well from ourselves. The unknown self shows that we are richer and more complex than which we and others Know. However, from time to time, something happens is felt, read, heard, dreamed and something from our unconscious is revealed. Then we ‘know’ what we never ‘known’ before. ATTITUDE Definitions 1. Travers: “An attitude is a readiness to respond in such a way that behaviour is given a certain direction.” According to this definition, attitude is responsible for FOUNDATION OF behaving in a particular way. HUMAN SKILLS 2. Makeachie and Doyle: We define an attitude as “an organization of concept, UNDERSTANDING OF beliefs, habits and motives associated with a particular object”. According to HUMAN NATURE  16 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES this definition, all concepts. Beliefs, habits and movies are taken into account associated with the object. 3. Sorenson: “An attitude is a particular feeling about something. It, therefore, involves a tendency to behave in a certain way in situations which involve that something, whether person, idea or object. It is partially relational and partially emotional and as acquired not inherent, in an individual”. This definition explains why an individual behaves in a certain way when he is needed to respond to a particular object for which he or she has developed a positive or negative attitude. He or she has somewhat a definite set of feelings, likes or dislikes for that object which partly stand on rationale and partly on emotional footings. 4. Whittaker: “An attitude is a predisposition or readiness to respond in a predetermined manner to relevant stimuli. This definition accepts attitude as a predisposition or tendency to behave in a particular way to a particular situation. NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDE 1. Attitude have a subject-object relationship. 2. Attitude are learned. 3. Attitude are relatively enduring states of readiness. 4. Attitude have motivational characteristics. 5. Attitude are numerous as the stimuli in which they refer. 6. Attitude range from strongly positive to negative. 7. Attitude strongly influence our thinking about the social world even if our outward behaviour does not reflect them. 8. Attitude are never fixed they can be changed. 9. Attitude result in behaviour or action. 10. Attitude once formed is difficult to change. 11. Attitude help to maintain and enhance our feeling through self-worth. 12. Attitude helps in organizing and interpreting social information. 13. Attitude help us to create impression on others. Attitudes are acquired dispositions and are formed on the basis of: Integration of experiences Differentiation of experiences Dramatic experiences Whereas, factors influencing for the formation of attitude are mainly two: 1. Factors within the individual himself or herself 2. Factors within the individual environment. Factors within the individuals are: Individual’s physical development FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS Individual’s emotional development UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN NATURE Individual’s social develonment Foundation of Human Skills 17 Individual’s ethical (moral) development NOTES Factors within the individual’s environment are: Individual’s home and family Individual’s social environment Attitudes are never fixed. Therefore, they can be changed and they can be changed through acquisition of new experiences. An individual attitude considerably influence not only his work behaviour but also his/her interpersonal relationship as well as important decisions that individual takes with his work and while at work. Attitudes are also an important component of social behaviour and thought. Attitudes are limited. They are hypothetical construct. They cannot be directly observed. They could be inferred only on the basis of observation or observable responses. Attitudes are sometimes defined as conditioned emotional responses. They are learned through classical or operant conditioning. Attitude can be learned through observational learning. A person’s attitude decides his or her response to a particular stimulus. FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE Attitude are of great use to us as they perform variety of functions. Some of the important functions are as follows: 1. Ego-defensive Function: People often form and maintain certain attitude to protect their own self-images. For example, students in a particular class may feel threatened by the admission of the bright students in their class, they feel they may lag behind. They may develop prejudice against the newcomers. They may develop an attitude that such newcomers are not only trying to impress the teachers and are not that brilliant and they may start ill-treating these newcomers. This kind of ego defensive attitude is formed and used to cope with the feeling of guilt or threat. Hence, attitude serves as ego-defensive function. 2. Self-esteem: Another important function of the attitude is to maintain or enhance our feelings of self-worth. For example, many people feel good and happy out of believing that the attitude they hold are the ‘right ones’ the ones that intelligent, cultivated and sensitive people should hold. Expressing one’s attitude sometimes helps people to feel superior to others. Attitude help us to maintain or enhance our feeling of self-worth. 3. Knowledge Function: Attitudes perform knowledge function. Attitude help in organizing and interpreting social information. Attitude is often replaced for knowledge about a particular person or object we use our attitude to organize and make sense of what is perceived. For example, in the absence of knowledge about the person, we may use stereotyped attitude for judging the person. In this case since we do not have the knowledge, we use our attitude in place of knowledge. 4. Value Expression Function: Another function that attitudes perform is expressing our values and beliefs. Our attitudes express our value systems and beliefs and our value expressive attitudes are closely related to our self-concept. When we express our attitudes, we are expressing our beliefs and value system which provide us with a distinct identity. For example, one whose central value is FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS freedom, the individuals may express very positive attitude towards flexible work UNDERSTANDING OF schedules and relaxation of dress code in the organization. HUMAN NATURE  18 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES 5. Impression Motivation Function: Sometimes we make use of attitudes to impress other people. We often wish to make a good impression on others by expressing the right view or opinions. In an interesting study, Neinhuis, Manstead and Spears (2001) demonstrated that we use attitudes to make good impression on others. In their study, they observed that participants whose impression motivation are highly generated more new arguments in support of their attitude than did participants whose impression motivation was moderate and low. The finding of this study indicate that the greater the extent to which attitude serves as an impression motivation function, the more they lead to formulate arguments forcing their views. WAYS OF CHANGING ATTITUDE Various efforts are made to influence our attitude with the use of messages. Radio and television commercials, newspapers and magazine ads, hoardings, political speeches, use of internet etc., various kinds of messages are used through which attitudes are made to change our attitude. We can say that they try to persuade our attitudes. Persuading means efforts to change other’s attitude through the use of various kinds of messages. Persuasion by Communicators: Communicators who are attractive in some way are more persuasive than communicators who are low in attractiveness and expertise. Attractive communicators easily attract the attention of people. For example, if the communicator is physically attractive, i.e., he has good personality and his gestures show that he has good knowledge about the topic or the issue he is dealing in, then people like to listen to him and easily get persuaded by him. Messages: Some people are easily persuaded when they are distracted by some external factors than when they are playing complete attention to what is being said. For example, nowadays, advertisements are shown in parts, initially first part is shown and after some days second part is shown and so on. This leads to distraction and we are easily attracted towards these advertisements. This finally leads to persuasion which ultimately will lead to change in our attitude. Emotions: Messages that arouse strong emotions in the audience, increase the level of persuasions, especially when the communication suggests different ways in which fear- producing events are discussed during the course of communication can be avoided or prevented. For example, advertisement which show that smoking is injurious to health. Initially, they show that smoking leads to various disease. Here, strong emotions are aroused in the audience which leads to persuasion and this leads to change in attitude in the mind of the customer. They develop a negative attitude toward such harmful products like cigarettes, drugs, liquor etc. Changing Employee Attitude: changing employees attitude is not an easy and simple task. By applying the principle of behavioral change employee attitude can be changed. Some of the important ways in which employee attitude can be changed are as follows: 1. Develop a positive attitude towards employee, enhance his/her self-respect and FOUNDATION OF remove doubts as well as prejudices that he may have towards certain managerial HUMAN SKILLS issues. UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN NATURE Foundation of Human Skills 19 2. Involve the employees in the decision-making process by encouraging participative NOTES decision-making. 3. Motivate the employee for a better output, appreciate them for their good work and reward them accordingly. 4. Conduct development training programmes for the employees which will help the employees to improve their skills and have a positive attitude towards their work. 5. Emotions: Emotion can be defined as a complex feeling, expressions, psychological changes that has the power to motivate us. The term emotion is derived from Latin word ‘emovere meaning ‘to move out’. Emotion is a complex state. This state is also influenced by our present situation, our past experience, the way we process information and functioning of our body. Thus, it is a complex state in which many different system are and factors act to produce a given emotion. 6. Reading Emotion: It is very difficult to read emotions because human behaviour vary from person to person and it is complex but still researcher has found that emotion can be read in many ways. Some of the ways in which we can read emotions are as follows: Facial Expression: We can understand the emotion of the person by his or her facial expression. Facial expression showcasing disappointment, ignorance and irritation are negative emotions. For example, a person who is disappointed will have a dull facial expression. Facial expression denoting smile on the face, laughter shows positive emotions. For example, sportsman winning a match will have happiness in his face. Certain emotions such as guilt, joy, anger etc., can be perceived fairly accurately through facial expression. Body Language and Gestures: A person’s body language and gestures also help us to understand his emotions. For example, when one person is talking to another person. the other person is also leaning to listen to that shows that he is interested in the conversation. :( Sad about the :) Wink at those >:( Satanic horns for :O Appalled with the tragedies and flirtations and the those nasty and crude atrocities revolving difficulties yet to face puns you intend. comments around the natter :) Laugh on all the :X Sealed lips to keep :'( Cry for the sad hurt jokes and gags you've the gossip-mongrels or gloomy tales of life played at bay 1.4 THINKING AND LEARNING Thinking Introduction General definition of thinking states that ‘Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect”. It is an activity of the human mind. It is a complex process and the most difficult FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS concept to define. In our day-to-day speech, we label thinking indiscriminately to different UNDERSTANDING OF kinds of psychological activities. For instance, when I hear someone saying during an HUMAN NATURE  20 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES informal introduction that he is thinking of the days when he was a student of the college, he is using the term ‘thinking’ for a proper psychological term ‘recollecting’. Similarly, when we hear a boy saying that he is thinking about the type of bunglow he would have for himself, he is simply imagining. Also, while looking at the distant vague object, one girl says “I think it is a taxi”, it is nothing but simple interpretation of one’s perception. Thinking is not a simple process as thought ordinarily. It can be defined in different ways. Certain definitions given by renowned personalities to clear the concept: According to Ross, “Thinking is a mental activity with regard to psychical objects”. According to Garret, “Thinking is an implicit behaviour in which symbols (images, ideas and concepts) are ordinarily employed. According to Glimer,”thinking is a problem-solving process in which we use ideas or symbols in the place of overt activity”. According to Collins and Drever, “Thinking may be described as the conscious adjustment of an organism to situation and thinking may obviously take place at all levels of mental life, perceptual. Ideational or conventional”. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF THINKING a. We start thinking whenever we are faced with a difficulty or a problem. The problem governs our thinking activity. It provides the framework within which our ideas are more or less manipulated. Thinking, thus, implies an organization of ideas in order to reach a goal is set by the problem. b. Thinking also involves an integration of ideas. We try to organize our ideas into pattern. A symbol is anything which stands for something else. These are various kinds of symbols such as maps, images, sketches and concepts. We make use of all of them. Hence, thinking is sometimes described as symbolic behaviour. THINKING SKILLS The term skill can be defined as an ability or proficiency in a specific area. Thinking skills are considered as the ‘building block’ of thinking. In today’s information age, thinking skills are viewed as an essential for educated person to cope with the rapidly changing world. Thinking skills are set of basic and advanced skill. For effective thinking, we need to develop all the below mentioned thinking skills. 1. Focusing Skills: “Focusing skills are thinking skills that focus one necessary information and ignore information that is irrelevant “. There are two types of focusing skills. They are: a. Identifying Problems: Identifying problems is a focusing skill that defines needs, differences or confusing situations. b. Setting goals: Setting goals is a focusing skill that develops the purpose and direction for solving problems. 2. Information Gathering Skills: Information gathering skills are thinking skills that collect together relative information needed for thinking. There are two types FOUNDATION OF of information gathering skills. HUMAN SKILLS UNDERSTANDING OF a. Observing: Observing skills is an information gathering skills that acquire HUMAN NATURE information from various senses. Foundation of Human Skills 21 b. Forming questions: Forming questions is an information gathering skill NOTES which collects new information through inquiry. 3. Remembering Skills: Remembering skills are thinking skills that store and bring back information when needed. There are two types of remembering skills. a. Encoding: Encoding skill is remembering skill that stores information in long-term memory. b. Recalling: Recalling skill is remembering skill that brings the information from long-term memory. 4. Organising Skills: Organising skills are thinking skills that arrange information in a particular order so that it can be used properly. There are four types of organizing skills. a. Comparing: Comparing skills is organizing skills that sequences things according to a given standard by which it may be judged. b. Classifying: Classifying is organizing skills that classifies entities into various categories on the basis of the features that they have in common. c. Ordering: Ordering is a skill that sequence things according to a given standard by which it may be judged. d. Representing skills: Representing skills is an organizing skill that changes the structure of the information, but not the matter of information. 5. Analysing Skills: Analysing skills are thinking skills that examine information into parts and relationships. There are four types of analysing skills: a. Identifying Features and Components: Identifying features and components is an analysing skill that analyses the features or the particular entity. b. Identifying Relationships and Pattern: Identifying relationships and pattern is an analysing skill that identifies ways in which elements are related. c. Identifying Main Ideas: Identifying main ideas is an analysing skill that identifies main ideas or the main element. I d. Identify Arguments: Identifying arguments is an analysing skill that generate arguments and logical errors and corrects them. 6. Generating Skills: Generating skills are thinking skills that produce new information or ideas. There are three types of generating skills. a. Inferring: Inferring is a generating skill that looks beyond available information to determine what is true. b. Predicting: Predicting is a generating skill that look forward to next events which may happen or the results of situations. c. Elaborating: Elaborating is a generating skill that builds on other ideas, relevant information and details required. Types of Thinking Style FOUNDATION OF Different people have different thinking styles. An individual thinking style is his/her HUMAN SKILLS UNDERSTANDING OF characteristic way of processing information. It is the way in which the individual acquires HUMAN NATURE  22 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES knowledge about a given object/event/situation etc. it organises one’s thoughts, forms one’s view and opinion, applying one’s value, solving problems, making decision, plans and expresses oneself to others. Thinking style refers to a manner as to how an individual processes information. Executive Style: They are the ones who like to follow a certain pattern of rules and regulations. They try to solve the problem by applying rules to the problem. They like to fill in the gaps within the existing structure rather by recreating the whole structure. The occupation these executive thinkers prefer are legal profession like that of lawyer, police or any government or executive workers. Legislative Style: Legislative people are creative in thinking. They like to create their own rules and try to solve the problems by their own rules formulated by them. They do not prefer pre-structured or pre-fabricated pattern. They prefer to make their own decision and carry out activities according to their decisions. They deal with creative activities like writing for books, magazines or journals. These kind of people are often seen designing new projects or creating new business. These legislative thinkers prefer occupation such as creative writers, artist, sculptors, architect, scientist, poet etc. Judicial Style: Judicial people are very judgemental. They come to conclusion only by evaluating and judging things properly. They are mostly engaged in analysing and evaluating rules and procedures. They try to solve the problems by evaluating the existing things and then they come to a conclusion. They are mostly found engaged in activities like writing critics, evaluating programmes and all. The kind of occupation which judicial people are mainly like judge, programme evaluator, consultant, admission officer etc. THINKING HATS The six thinking hats method was invented by Dr. Edward de Bono in early 1980s. The ‘Six Thinking Hats’ represents six ways of thinking. These thinking hats have a powerful technique that helps the person to make important decision from various points of view. These six hats represent six modes of thinking and are directions to think rather than labels for thinking. The hat is used proactively rather than reactively. The purpose of thinking hats is to direct thinking, not to classify either the thinking or the thinker. In ‘six thinking hats’, every hat represents a way of thinking which is identified by a color following are the six thinking hats. 1. White Thinking Hats: When we use white thinking hats, we focus on the data available. We look at the information that we have and see what we learn from it. While using this hat, we attempt to answer the following questions like: What are the facts? What information is available? What is relevant? It should be remembered that when we are wearing a white hat we are neutral in our thinking. We look for gaps in our knowledge, we either try to fill them or consider them while taking decision. FOUNDATION OF HUMAN SKILLS 2. Black Thinking Hat: It is a most valuable hat. It is not in any manner, inferior UNDERSTANDING OF or negative hat. It is a logical hat when we use black hat. This hat is also called HUMAN NATURE as the caution hat. We think cautiously and defensively. It helps us to know the Foundation of Human Skills 23 weak point in a plan while taking actions. Black thinking hat is one of the greatest NOTES benefits of this technique. It deals with the risks or danger involved and helps us to identify difficulties and problems. Black hats help us to eliminate weak points, change our approach and make proper planning to face and tackle problems. 3. Red Thinking Hats: It covers intuition, feelings and emotions. When we use this hat, we try to think how other people will react emotionally and we also try to understand the intuitive responses of people who do not know our reasoning. Usually, feelings and intuition can only be introduced into a discussion if they are supported by logic. Usually, the feeling is genuine but the logic is questionable. The red hat gives full permission to a thinker to put forward his or her feelings on the subject. 4. Yellow Ilat Thinking: This hat represents values and benefits. This is the logical positive. It can be used in looking forward to the results of the proposed action. It helps us to see all the benefits of the decision and the values in it and recognise the opportunities that arise from it. It is called as sunshine hat which is very positive and constructive. It helps us to think positively and get our job done effectively. It deals with the following question like “What are the benefits and advantages”? always thinking from positive sides. 5. Green hat Thinking: This hat is of creativeness, alternatives, idea generation and solution, provocations and changes, and proposals. This hat represents a creative mode of thinking. It enables us to generate ideas on how things can be handled effectively. It helps to develop creative solution to a problem. In this way of thinking, there is little criticism of ideas. It represents growth and movement. Lateral thinking wears a green hat which looks into new ideas and solutions. 6. Blue Flat Thinking: It is a meta hat. It ensures that each hat gets effectively used. This hat thinks about thinking, overall process. It looks not at the subject itself but at the thinking about the subject. This hat is called as control hat; it is concerned with organizing thinking itself. It sets the focus and monitors on the thinking process used. It controls the thinking process. It focuses and formulate on the next steps to be taken. Benefits of Thinking Hats It helps in focusing on the problem and solving the problem accordingly. It enhances creativity and develop creative and innovative solution. It eliminates ego from performance which results in productive output. It helps to examine, evaluate and execute in a constructive manner. It focus and monitors on the thinking process It aids to help in proper decision making. CONCLUSION Green Hats are used by creative thinkers known as synthesists thinkers. They make new and original things out of their own views and always try to come up with something new and innovative ideas. White hats and Yellow hats are worn by realist thinkers. They FOUNDATION OF always rely on facts and information collected before taking an important decision. HUMAN SKILLS They believe in corrective and result oriented methods which also denotes that they are UNDERSTANDING OF optimistic towards their work. At times when needed, they also wear yellow hats also HUMAN NATURE  24 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES which encourage them to do positive and constructive work in the organization. These thinking hats are used in meetings in the organization. In meetings, it helps to avoid disagreement that takes place when people with different thinking styles discuss the same problem. In organizations, when thinking hats are used by everyone, focuses on the same type of thinking. At the same time, this helps in reducing conflicts and promotes progress. Organizations such as Prudential Insurance, IBM, Federal Express, British Airways, Pepsi Company, Nippon Telephone and many other multinational companies use Six Thinking Hats for effective and smooth functioning in the organization. LEARNING Introduction Learning is very complex and complicated, but it is a comprehensive process. Many attempts have been made to define learning. However, the following example will help us to understand in a better manner. For example, while approaching a burning match stick, the child gets burnt and he or she withdraws. Now, next time, when the child sees a burning match stick, he or she does not waste anytime to withdraw himself or herself from it. It means the child has learnt to avoid not only the burning things. The child has learnt that if a burning flame is touched, he or she will get burned. Such change in behaviour brought by the past experience is commonly known as learning. Definitions Gardner Murphy: “The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet the environmental requirement”. Kingsley and Gary: “Learning is the process by which an organism is satisfying its motivations and adjust its behaviour in order to overcome obstacles or barriers.” Henry. P. Smith: “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as a result of experience”. Learning, in simple terms, may be also defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour, which occurs as a result of experience of practice. The three important elements are: Learning is a change of behaviour, for better or worse. Learning is a change that takes place through experience or practice. The change must be relatively permanent. This rules out changes due to motivation, fatigue, illness, brain injury etc. NATURE/CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING 1. Learning is a fundamental process of life. Without learning, life cannot exist and no progress can take place. It is the basics of civilisation. 2. Learning is a creative process. FOUNDATION OF 3. Learning is a continuous process. HUMAN SKILLS UNDERSTANDING OF 4. Learning is purposive or goal-oriented. HUMAN NATURE 5. Learning is a change in response or behaviour may be favourable or unfavourable. Foundation of Human Skills 25 6. Learning is growth. NOTES 7. Learning is organization of experience. 8. Learning is always active. 9. Learning is intelligent and creative. 10. Learning is specific to specific species. 11. Learning is a result of individual activity. 12. Learning takes place within an organization. 13. Learning is determined by conscious as well as unconscious behaviour. 14. Learning is transferable. 15. Learning is both - individual and social. 16. Learning affects the conduct of the learner. 17. Learning is pervasive. It reaches to all aspects of human life. 18. Learning is always concerned with goals. 19. Learning is developmental. Time is one of its dimension. 20. Learning depends on readiness and motivation. THEORIES OF LEARNING 1. Classical Conditioning Simple classical conditioning is usually witnessed. Fear, love and hatred, phenomenon or events are created through conditioning. For example, a father who after arriving home from the office is in the habit of rebuking and punishing his son without even trying to understand the basic cause. The son starts fearing the father or develop anxiety reactions at the time of father’s return. The son may also develop later on a feeling of hatred towards his father or even discontent and a hostile attitude towards his home. On the contrary, affection, loving attitude and sympathetic treatment given to his child by the parents at home will produce a desirable impact of the child through the process of conditioning. Pavlov’s work on classical conditioning is considered as landmark contribution to educational psychology. Pavlov explained learning in terms of psychological changing by adopting an objective method of study. A child learns through conditioning. A child who fears a particular object on subject can be made to seek pleasure from it. Through conditioning, we can dispel fear and hatred and create love towards subjects.Use of audiovisual aids in the teaching-learning process. The principles of classical conditioning are very useful in developing food habits in children, habits of cleanliness, punctuality, respect for others etc. Most of the learning is acquired through social environment. Principles of classical conditioning can also be used in reconditioning bad habits like fear and anxiety in children. Classical conditioning can also be used for developing favorable attitude. Stimulus Response Association: Pavlov was basically who is interested in studying the digestive processes among dogs. As a result of his work on digestive processes on dogs he accidentally discovered the phenomenon of classifying conditioning. In Pavlov’s experiment, a fistula or a tube is attached to the salivary FOUNDATION OF gland of the dog and the amount of saliva secreted by the dog is measured to study HUMAN SKILLS the phenomenon of learning and associated phenomenon. Some important terms UNDERSTANDING OF in the Pavlov’s experiment are as follows: HUMAN NATURE  26 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES a. Conditioned Stimulus is that stimulus which in the beginning is neutral in the sense that it does not show any specific response. It only leads to generating alerting. For example, bell in Pavlov’s classic experiment. It is also called as a learned stimulus because the subject learns to respond to this stimulus. b. Unconditioned Stimuli’s is that stimuli’s which always lead to a specific response. For example, food in Pavlov’s experiment. It is also defined as a stimulus which automatically show response without prior conditioning. c. Unconditioned Response is the response generated by the unconditioned stimulus. This response is not a learned response. For example, saliva in response to food. d. Conditioned Response is a learned response. As a result of consistent pairing of conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus the previously neutral stimulus comes to highlight the specific response when it is presented along with the unconditioned stimulus. Operant Learning Conditioning: Skinner approach to learning is known as theory of operant conditioning. It makes very little use of concepts representing events and state, which are not observable or directly manipulability. This theory believes that the reinforcing stimulus occurs not simultaneously with or preceding the response but following the response. Skinner labelled his theory as ‘Operant Conditioning’ because it is based on certain operations or actions, which an organism has to carry out. The term operant stresses that behaviour operate upon the environment to generate its own consequences. An operant is a set of acts which conditions an organism in doing something. In the process of operant conditioning, operant’s response are modified or changed by reinforcement. Reinforcement is a special kind of conditioning within which the tendency to evoke response on subsequently occasions is increased by reduction of a need. In operant conditioning the learner possess control to get conditioned. In operant conditioning, the activities of the subject become instrumental to effect the final responses. Therefore, it is known as instrumental conditioning, Skinner had explained this theory with the following experiment conducted. Skinner placed a rat in a puzzle box. When it felt hungry, it raised to get food by pushing a lever in the box and he gets food. In the simple experiment, he demonstrated that we see only the response and we should not try to discover the cause. He called it as eliceted response. He explains further that the cause. He called it as enceted response. He expiams fuerat since the rat gets the food by pressing the lever, it leans to press level and this tendency is strengthened because he get reinforcement. According to him, reinforcement is of two types: (a) Positive reinforcement and (b) Negative reinforcement. Both types of reinforcement, strengthens the probability of occurring events. In another experiment, Skinner kept a hungry pigeon in his box known as ‘Skinner box’. The pigeon has to raise his head to a particular height and peck at a particular sport in order to get his food, which is automatically released on pecking. The process of operant conditioning is the change in frequency with which the head is lifted to a given height. The reinforce is the food and the reinforcement is the FOUNDATION OF process of food presentation, where the response is emitted and when the head HUMAN SKILLS is raised to a particular height and particular spot is pecked. The operant is the UNDERSTANDING OF behaviour upon which the reinforcement is contingent, i.c., the height to which HUMAN NATURE the head must be raised. In operant conditioning, the important stimulus is the Foundation of Human Skills 27 one immediately following the response, not the one preceding it. Any emitted NOTES response which leads to reinforcement is thereby strengthened. 2. Social Learning Theory (Social Cognitive Theory) Albert Bandura is an important representative of social learning. According to him, important aspects of our behaviour are learned from other persons in society, through imitatior. and modelling. In modelling, we copy the behaviour and action of others. It consists in doing or saying. It is defined as a ‘response that is similar to the stimulus that triggered it’. Bandura considers modelling to be an important demonstration of the role of cognition in learning. Modelling is of considerable use in our day-to-day learning. It not only teaches what we should do but it also teaches us what we should not do. Modelling is also called imitation. In modelling, we do not imitate anyone or everyone. We imitate only those individuals who have some significance in our life. The person whom we imitate is known as model. Hence imitation is also called as modelling. We generally imitate our parents, siblings, peers and teachers. Modelling is an important method of learning among children. Language, habits, values etc. are largely learned through modelling. Almost every aspect of human behaviour can be learned through modelling. Many forms of abnormal behaviour can be also learned through modelling. According to Bandura, our personality and our behaviour are greatly determined by our cognition. According to him our thoughts and believes considerably shane our interpersonal relationships. example, a person who thinks that other people consider nim to be interesting and active will generany be an extrovert and a person who believes that helping others make self-reliant and generally stingy. The social cognitive theory developed by Bandura is based on the concept of reciprocal determinism, not only is an individual influenced by his social behaviour, but he himself influences his social environment and changes it to satisfy his needs and to adapt to the environment in the best possible manner. According to him, personality is a learned behaviour and it influences our future learning experiences. CONCLUSION Learning is gradual progressive process which leads to skill development in the individual. It is very vital for the individual to develop his skill and also enhance his knowledge which will fulfill the requirement of the organization. Proper training and development programmes can be organized for the employee so that he can polish his skills and abilities. It has been observed that employees who are untrained and not that efficient does not get proper incentives, increment and promotion as desired. This leads to disappointment among the employees which can lead to increased absenteeism and labour turnover which in can turn affect the profitability and productivity of the organization. Therefore, it is essential to have trained and efficient employees for the overall achievement of goals and objectives of the organization. MANAGEMENT SKILLS AND DEVELOPMENT Management Skills FOUNDATION OF These are some of the vital skills required in management for effective and smooth HUMAN SKILLS UNDERSTANDING OF functioning of the organization. HUMAN NATURE  28 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES a. Technical Skills: Technical skills refers to the ability of a person to carry out a specific activity. In order to do so, one needs to have a knowledge of methods, processes and procedures. Engineers, computer specialists, accountants and employees in manufacturing departments all have the necessary technical skills for their specialized fields. Technical skills are essential for first level managers. For example, employees at the operational level work with tools, and their supervisors must be able to teach them how to perform the tasks assigned to them using these tools. First level managers spend much of their time in training subordinates and clarifying doubts in work-related problems. b. Human Skills: Human skills or interpersonal skills refers to the ability of a person to work well with other people in a group. It is the ability to lead, motivate and communicate with people to accomplish certain objectives. Human skills are paramount importance in the creation of an environment, in which people feel comfortable and are free to voice their opinion. These skills aid employees during interaction with their supervisors, peers and people outside the work unit such as suppliers, customers and the general public. These skills are important for all levels in the organization. c. Conceptual Skills: Conceptual skills refers to the ability of a person to think and conceptualise abstract situations. It is the ability to understand and co-ordinate the full range of corporate objectives and activities. These skills are important at the top management level as top managers have the greatest need to see the big picture to understand how the various parts of the organization with external environment. d. Design Skills: Design skills refers to the ability of a person to find solutions to problems in a to the aomy of a person to a solutions to problems in a way that benefit the organization. Top managers should only recognize the problem but also to suggest ways to overcome them. The managers at upper organizational level should be able to design a rational and feasible solution to the problem by considering the various internal and external factors. Management Development: Managers/executives constitute the most valuable assets of the organization. The success and growth of the organization depend on the performance of managers. Systematic education and training need to be given to them so as to raise the capacity to face adverse situations and new challenges. Such training programmes are called management programmes. Management development is an activity designed to perform the existing managers, provide a supply of managers to meet the the need of the organization in the future and extend the understanding of the management activity by drawing the following areas, i.e., knowledge and experience. Management development consists all means by which the executives learn to improve their performance it is design to improve the effectiveness of the managers in their present jobs and prepare them for higher jobs in the future. It aims at helping the managers to realize their full potential. Management development is a continuous process as there is no time for learning to occur. 1.5INTELLIGENCE AND PERCEPTION FOUNDATION OF Intelligence Introduction HUMAN SKILLS UNDERSTANDING OF In our day-to-day conversation, an individual is said to be intelligent in proportion as HUMAN NATURE he is successful in meeting his general life situations. What is there in intelligence that Foundation of Human Skills 29 contribute towards his success, is a question which has been attempted by various NOTES psychologists in different ways of resulting in so many varied definitions. Below are given some of these important definitions. Tearman says “Intelligence is the capacity for carrying on abstract thinking”. According to Spencer. “Intelligence is the capacity of an organism to adjust to an increasingly difficult environment”. According to Stern. “Intelligence is a general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust his thinking to new requirement. It is in general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life”. According to David Wechler. “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment”. All these definitions when taken separately give an incomplete picture because they partly emphasise that: Intelligence is the ability to learn. It is the ability to deal with abstraction. It is the ability to make adjustment or adapt to new situations. It enables to see relevant relationships between objects or ideas. It makes us conclude that intelligent behaviour is divided into two categories - (i) theoretical and practical and (ii) abstract and concrete. The theoretical operations make an individual capable to face and solve the actual life problems and make adjustment to the environmental situations. If we try to analyse the factor which determines the success of individual activities, we can by all means say that cognitive or mental activities have a dominant role to play in the success or failure. Intelligence consists of an individual’s those mental or cognitive abilities which help him in solving the actual life problems and leading a happy and contented life. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE With the help of definitions, we understand how intelligence operates - what type of behaviour of an individual makes him intelligent or unintelligent person. The theories of intelligence propagated by psychologists explain the theories and elements of intelligence. 1. Unitary Theory or Monarchic Theory: This theory holds that intelligence consists of one factor, simply a fund of intellectual competence which is universal for all activities of the individual. For example, a man who has vigorur can move so much to east as to the west. Similarly, if one has intelligence, he can utilise it to any area of his life and can be successful in one area as in other depending upon his intelligence capability. But in actual life situations, the ideas propagated by this theory do not fit well. For example, a child who is bright in Mathematics may despite serious interest and hard work not be so good in civics. This makes us FOUNDATION OF conclude that there is nothing like one single unitary factor in intelligence. HUMAN SKILLS 2. Anarchic or Multifactor Theory: The main propagator of this theory was E.L. UNDERSTANDING OF Thorndike. As the name suggests, intelligence is a combination of numerous HUMAN NATURE  30 Foundation of Human Skills NOTES separate elements or factors, each one being a minute element of ability. So, there is no such as general intelligence in single factory and there are only many highly independence specific abilities which on into different tasks. 3. Spearman’s Two Factor Theory: This theory was advocated by Spearman. According to him, every different intellectual activity involves a general factor ‘g’ which it shares with none. In this way, he suggested that there is something which might be called general intelligence a sort of general mental energy, running through all different tasks. But in addition to these general factors, there are specific abilities which make an individual performance in Hindi is partly due to his general intelligence and partly to some kind of specific ability in language in mathematics his performance will be due to g+S2, in drawing it will be will due to g+s3 and so forth. The total ability or intelligence of such an individual thus will be expressed in following equation: g+s1+s2+s3........=A. 4. Group Factor Theory: L.L Thurstone had propogated this theory. While working on a test of primary mental abilities, he came to the conclusion that certain mental operations have in common primary factor which gives them psychological and functional unity and which differentiates them from other mental operations. These mental operations constitute of a group factor. So, there are number of group mental abilities each of which has its own primary factor and have differentiated nine factors. They are: Verbal factor - concerned with comprehension of verbal relation, words and idea Spatial factors- involved in any task in which the subject manipulates an object imaginatively in space Numerical factor - ability to do numerical calculations, rapidly and accurately Memory factor