DevPsy_2_Infancy (1).pdf

Developmental Psychology Infancy Source: Papalia...

Developmental Psychology Infancy Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) Physical Development o Cerebellum (maintains balance and motor o Cephalocaudal Principle – growth starts from coordination) grows the fastest during the first the top part of the body (i.e., brain to foot) year of life o Proximodistal Principle – growth proceed from o Lateralization – specialization of the the center of the body outward (e.g., Palm hemispheres (grasping) to fingers) o Children grow faster during the first 3 years o Teething usually begins around 3-4 months o Growth slows in the second year of life o Growth isn’t often smooth and continuous but rather is episodic, occurring in spurts Benefits of Breastfeeding o Babies are less likely to contract infectious illnesses o Lower risks of SIDS and of Post-neonatal death o Lesser risks of inflammatory bowel disease o Better visual acuity, neurological development, and long-term cardiovascular health o Less likely to develop obesity, asthma, eczema, o Left Hemisphere – concerned with language diabetes, lymphoma, etc. and logical thinking o Less likely to show language and motor delays o Right Hemisphere – concerned with visual and o Score higher on cognitive tests spatial functions o Fewer cavities and are less likely to need o Corpus Callosum – tough band of tissue that braces joins the two hemisphere which allows them to o Mothers can quickly recover with childbirth share info and coordinate commands o They are more likely to return to the pre- pregnancy weight o Reduced risk of anemia and lowered risk of repeat pregnancy while breastfeeding o Report feeling more confident and less anxious o Less likely to develop osteoporosis or ovarian and premenopausal breast cancer o Reduction in type 2 diabetes o The only acceptable alternative to breast milk is Iron-Fortified Formula based on either cow’s milk or soy protein o Babies should consume nothing but milk during the first 6 months of life o Occipital – smallest; concerned with visual Brain and Reflex Behavior processing o By age of 6, the brain is almost adult size but o Parietal – involved with integrating sensory some parts are still continuously developing info from the body; movement and manipulation o Brain Growth Spurts – brain’s growth occurs in of objects fits and starts o Temporal – interpret smells and sounds and o By birth, spinal cord and brain stem has nearly involved in memory run its course (responsible for breathing, heart rate, temp, and sleep-wake cycle)  Developmental Psychology Infancy Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) o Frontal Lobe – involved in high-order o Postural Reflexes – reactions to changes in processes such as reasoning and problem position or balance solving o Locomotor Reflex – resemble voluntary o Cerebral Cortex – outer surface of the movements that do not appear until months cerebrum; grows rapidly in the first few months after the reflexes have disappeared and are mature by age 6 months o Early Reflexes Disappear during the first 6-12 o Brain Growth Spurt begins at about the third months trimester of gestation and continues until at Early Human Reflexes least the 4th year of life Moro Extend o Neurons – send and receive info in the brain legs, arms, o Glia or Glial Cells – nourish and protect the and neurons fingers, o Axon – sends signals to other neurons arches o Dendrites – receive incoming messages back, draws back o Synapses – tiny gaps which are bridged with head the help of chemicals Darwinian Make o Integration – neurons that control various (Grasping strong first groups of muscle coordinate their activities ) o Differentiation – each neuron takes on a specific, specialized structure and function o Cell Death – pruning of cells which is a way to calibrate the developing brain to the local Tonic Fencer environment and help it work more efficiently, Neck Position beings during the prenatal period and continues after birth o Myelination – enables signals to travel faster and more smoothly by coating the neural Babkin Mouth pathways with myelin opens, eyes close, o Children who grew up in deprived environment neck may have depressed brain activity flexes, o Neuroconstructivist View – biological process head tilts and environmental conditions influences forward development, the brain is plastic, and the child’s Babinski Toes fan cognitive development is closed linked to out; foot development of the brain twist in ▪ Emphasized the importance of considering interactions between experience and gene expression in the brain’s development o Reflex Behavior – automatic, innate response Rooting Head turns, mouth to stimulation which are controlled by the lower opens, brain centers that govern involuntary sucking processes begins o Primitive reflexes – includes sucking, rooting, and the Moro reflex are related to instinctive needs for survival and protection or may support the early connection to the caregiver  Developmental Psychology Infancy Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) Walking Steplike o Rapid Eye Movement (REM Sleep) – the eyes motions flutter beneath the closed lids ▪ Usually appears 1 hr after non-rem (adults) ▪ Half of infant’s sleep is REM ▪ May provide infants with added self- stimulation Swimmin Swimming g movement ▪ Promote brain development in infancy s ▪ When adults wake up from REM Sleep, they report dreaming o There is a positive link between infant sleep and cognitive functioning o Brain is Plastic, they are living, changeable Motor Development organs which responds to environmental o Denver Developmental Screening Test – used influences (Plasticity) to chart progress between ages 1 month and 6 Early Sensory Capacity years and to identify children who are not o Touch is the first sense to develop, the most developing normally mature sensory system for the first several ▪ Measures Gross Motor Skills (using large months muscles), Fine Motor Skills (using small o Newborns can and do feel pain muscles), Language Development, o Sense of smell and taste begin to develop in the Personality, and Social Development womb First Month o Newborns strongly dislike bitter flavors Infants can turn their Head from side to side o Auditory Discrimination develops rapidly after Grasping Reflex birth Second-Third Month o At 4 moths, infant’s brain responds Babies can life their heads preferentially to speech Can grasp moderate sized things until they will be o Vision is the least developed sense at birth able to grasp one thing using right hand and o Binocular Vision (the use of both eyes to focus) transfer it to their left hand does not develop until 4-5 months Babies can now hold their head still to find out o Infants like attractive faces whether the object is moving Sleep They can already match the voice to faces Distinguish female and male o Sleep restores, replenishes, and rebuilds our Discriminate between faces of their own ethnic brains and bodies group and those of other groups o Evolutionary Perspective: all animals sleep and Size constancy this sleep is necessary for survival (to protect Infants develop the ability to perceive that themselves at night) occluded objects are whole o Restorative Perspective: sleep replenishes and Fourth Month rebuilds the brain and the body such as clearing Babies can keep their heads erect while being out neural tissues held or supported in a sitting position o Plasticity Perspective: sleep is critical for brain Can now roll-over, accidentally plasticity, i.e., increases synaptic connections Begin to reach objects between neurons which is linked to improved Sixth Month consolidation of memories Babies cannot sit without support o Newborns sleep approx. 18 hrs/day Can start creeping or crawling o Non-REM Sleep – no eye movement and sleep Could successfully reach for objects in the dark is more quiet faster than they could in the light  Developmental Psychology Infancy Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) They can now localize or detect sounds from their o Perceptual Constancy – sensory stimulation is origins changing but perception of the physical world Seventh Month remains constant Pincer Grasps could already manifest ▪ Allows infants to perceive that their world Can start standing as stable Can now sit independently ▪ Size Constancy – recognition that an object Eighth Month remains the same even though the retinal Babies can assume sitting position without help image of the object changes as you move Infants can now learn to pull themselves up and toward or away from the object hold on to a chair ▪ Shape Constancy – an object remains the Tenth Month same shape even though its orientation They can now stand alone changes Eleventh Month Ecological Theory of Perception Babies can let go and stand alone well o Locomotor movement depends on infants’ Thirteenth Month Toddlers can now pull a toy attached to a string increasing sensitivity to the interaction and use their hands and legs to climb stairs between their changing physical Eighteenth to Twenty-Fourth Month characteristics and new and varied Toddlers can now walk quickly, run, and balance characteristics of their environment on their feet in a squatting position o Babies learn to continually gauge their abilities o Crawling – helps babies learn to judge and adjust their movements to meet the distances and perceive depth demands of their current environment o Social Referencing – babies learn to look at o Baby is somewhat a small scientist testing out caregivers for clues as to whether a situation new ideas in each situation is secure or frightening o Gibson’s Ecological View: we directly perceive o Sensory Perception – enable infants to learn info that exists in the world around us about themselves and their environment so o Affordances – opportunities for interaction they can make better judgements about how to offered by objects that fit within our capabilities navigate in it to perform activities o Visual Guidance – the use of eyes to guide the o Newborns cannot see small things that are far movements of the hands away o Clumsy corrective movements are more likely Thelen’s Dynamic Systems Theory to be illustrating immature cerebellar o Behavior emerges in the movement from the development self-organization of multiple components o Depth Perception – the ability to perceive o Opportunities and constraints presented by the objects and surfaces in three dimensions infant’s physical characteristics, motivation, o Kinetic Cues – produced by movement of the energy level, motor strength, and position in the object or the observer or both environment at a particular moment in time o Haptic Perception – ability to acquire affect whether and how an infant achieves a information by handling objects rather than just goal looking at them o A solution emerges as the baby explores o Posture – dynamic process that is linked with various combinations of movements and sensory information in the skin, joints, and assembles those that most efficiently muscles which tell us where we are in space contribute to that end o Swaddling shows slight delays in motor o Infants modulate their movement patterns to fit development a new task by exploring and selecting possible configurations  Developmental Psychology Infancy Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) o Infant actively put together skill to achieve a o Early Intervention – systematic process of goal within the constraints set by the infant’s planning and providing therapeutic and body and environment educational services for families that need help Cognitive Development in meeting infants’, toddlers’, and pre-school Behaviorist Approach children’s developmental needs o Classical Conditioning – a person learns to Jean Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage make a reflex, or involuntary, response to a o The first stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive stimulus that originally did not bring about the development is Sensorimotor Stage response o Approx. from birth to 2 years old o Extinction – if the conditioned learning is not o Circular Reactions – an infant learns to reinforced by repeated association reproduce events originally discovered by o Operant Conditioning – focuses on the chance consequences of behaviors and how they affect o Schemes – actions or mental representations the likelihood of the behavior occurring again that can be performed on objects o Babies were able to use contextual cues (e.g., o Assimilation – occurs when children use their odor) to retrieve memories existing schemes to deal with new information o Infant memory is context-dependent and o Accommodation – occurs when children adjust appears to be strongly linked to the original their schemes to take new information and cues encoded during learning experiences into account Psychometric Approach o Organization – grouping of isolated behaviors o Intelligent Behavior – presumed to be goal- and thoughts into higher-order system oriented, meaning it exists for the purposes of o Disequilibrium – cognitive conflict attaining a goal o Children constantly assimilate and o IQ Tests – consists of questions or tasks that accommodate as they seek equilibrium are supposed to show how much of the o Equilibration – children shift from one stage of measured abilities a person has by comparing thought to the next that person’s performance with norms Substages o Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler 1. Use of Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month) Development – developmental test designed to Exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some assess children from 1 month to 3 ½ years control over them ▪ Cognitive, Language, Motor, Social- Practice their reflexes and control them (e.g., Emotional, and Adaptive Behavior sucking whenever they want to) ▪ Accompanied by Behavior Rating Scale 2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) taken from the caregiver Repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by o Home Observation for Measurement of the chance Begin to coordinate sensory information and Environment (HOME) – trained observers grasp objects interview the primary caregiver and rate on a They turn towards the sounds yes-or-no checklist the intellectual stimulation 3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) and support observed in a child’s home Repeat actions that brings interesting results ▪ Number of books and toys, parents Learns about causality involvement with the child, parental 4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12 emotional and verbal responsiveness, months) acceptance of the child’s behavior, Coordinate previously learned schemes and use organization of the environment, and previously learned behaviors to attain their goals opportunities for daily and varied Can anticipate events stimulation 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)  Developmental Psychology Infancy Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) Purposefully vary their actions to see results ▪ Familiarity breeds loss of interest Actively explore the world o Dishabituation – if a new sight or sound is Trial and error in solving problems presented, the baby’s attention is generally 6. Mental Combinations captured once again, and the baby will reorient Can think about events and anticipate toward the interesting stimulus and once again consequences without always resorting action sucking slows Can use symbols such as gestures and words, o Visual Preference – tendency to spend more and can pretend time looking at one sight rather than another Transition to Pre-operational stage o Visual Recognition Memory – ability that Learns about numbers depends on the capacity to form and refer to o Representational Ability – the ability to mental representations mentally represent objects and actions in o Babies like to look at new things memory, largely through symbols such as o Senses are unconnected at birth and are only words, numbers, and mental picture gradually integrated through experience o Infants develop the abilities to think and o Cross-Modal Transfer – the ability to use remember information gained from one sense to guide o Visible Imitation that uses body parts that another – as when a person negotiates a dark babies can see develops first followed by room by feeling for the location of familiar Invisible Imitation (involves with parts of the objects body that babies cannot see) Cognitive Neuroscience Approach o Piaget believed that children under 18 months o Examines the hardware of the CNS to identify could not engage in Deferred Imitation what brain structures are involved in specific ▪ Reproduction of an observed behavior after areas of cognition the passage of time o Implicit Memory – refers to remembering that ▪ Children lacked the ability to retain mental occurs without effort or even conscious representations awareness o Infants under the age of about 8 months act as ▪ Habits and skills if an object no longer exists once it is out other ▪ Develop early and is demonstrated by such line of sight actions as an infant’s kicking o Object Permanence – the realization that o Explicit Memory – declarative memory; something continues to exist when out of sight conscious intentional recollection, usually of o Until about 15 months, infants use their hands facts, names, events, or other things that can to explore pictures as if they were objects be stated or declared o By 19 months, children are able to point at a o During the second half of the first year, the picture of an object while saying its name, prefrontal cortex and associated circuitry demonstrating an understanding that a picture develop the capacity of working memory is a symbol of something else (short-term storage of information the brain is o Dual Representation Hypothesis – proposal actively processing) that children under age of 3 have difficulty o Working memory may be responsible for the grasping spatial relationships because of the slow development of object permanence need to keep more than one mental Social-Contextual Approach representation in mind at the same time o Guided Participation – refers to mutual Information-Processing Approach interactions with adults that help structure o Habituation – a type of learning in which children’s activities and bridge the fap between repeated or continuous exposure to a stimulus, a child’s understanding and an adult’s reduces attention to that stimulus Language  Developmental Psychology Infancy Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) o Language – communication system based on o Aphasia – loss or impairment in language words and grammar processing o Infinite Generativity – the ability to produce and o Language Acquisition Device – biological comprehend an endless no. of meaningful endowment that enables the child to detect sentences using a finite set of words and rules certain features and rules of language o Pre-linguistic Speech – sounds that progress o The support and involvement of caregivers and from crying to cooing and babbling teachers greatly facilitate a child’s language o Crying – newborn’s first means of o Child-Directed Speech – language spoken with communication a higher-than-normal pitch, slower tempo, and o Between 6-3 months, babies start cooing exaggerated intonation, with simple words and o By 6-10 months, they start babbling sentences o Phonology – sound system of a language o Recasting – rephrasing something the child has o Morphology – system of meaningful units said that might lack appropriate morphology involved in word formation o Expanding – adding information to a child’s o Syntax – the system that involves the way incomplete sentence words are combined to form acceptable o Labeling – name objects that children phrases and sentences o Storybook reading especially benefits children o Semantics – the system that involves the Psychosocial Development meaning of words and sentences o Personality – the relatively consistent blend of o Pragmatics – the system of using appropriate emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior conversation and knowledge of how to that makes each person unique effectively use language in context Emotions o Infants start using gestures at about 7-15 o Subjective reactions to experience that are months associated with physiological and behavioral o As early as 5 months, infants recognize their changes name o During the 1st month, babies cries when they are o Receptive Vocabulary – words that the child unhappy and become quiet at the sound of understand human voice or when they are picked up o Spoken Vocabulary – words the child o Four Patterns of Crying of Infants: expresses/uses 1. Basic Hunger Cry – rhythmic pattern that o Overextension – tendency to apply a word to usually co sist of cry, followed by a briefer objects that are inappropriate for the word’s silence meaning by going beyond the set of referents 2. Angry Cry – more excess air is forced an adult would use (e.g. “Dada” not only for her through vocal cords Dad but also to other male strangers) 3. Pain Cry – sudden long, initial loud cry o Underextension – tendency to apply the word followed by breath holding too narrowly; occurs when children fail to use 4. Frustration Cry a word to name a relevant event or object o A higher pitch an a more monotonic o Children between 18 to 24 months, speak in vocalization is associated with autonomic two-word utterances system activity during stressful procedures in o Telegraphic Speech – the use of short and infants precise words without grammatical markers o Earliest smiles resulted from subcortical such as articles, etc. (“Momi give water”) nervous system activity o Regions involved in Language: Broca’s Area o Involuntary smiles appear during periods of (Speech Production) and Wernicke’s Area REM Sleep (Language comprehension, sounds)  Developmental Psychology Infancy Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) o Social Smiling – newborn infants gaze and o Maladaptive Tendency for Infancy: Sensory smile at their parents; smile that occurs in Maladjustment – overly trusting and gullible, response to external stimulus (2 months) unrealistic, spoiled o Reflexive Smile – a smile that does not occur in o Malignant Tendency: Withdrawal – never trust response to external stimuli and appear during anyone, paranoid, neurotic, depressive the first month after birth o Significant Individual: Mother o Anticipatory Smiling – infants smile at an object o Attachment – reciprocal, enduring emotional then gaze at an adult while continuing to smile tie between an infant and a caregiver, each of o Self-Conscious emotions arise only after whom contributes to the quality of the children have developed self-awareness relationship o Altruistic Behavior – acting out of concern with o Strange Situation – by Mary Ainsworth; no expectation of reward designed to assess attachment patterns o Mirror Neurons – underlie empathy and between infant and adult altruism o Secure Attachment – flexible, resilient Temperament o Avoidant Attachment – outwardly unaffected by o An early-appearing, biologically based a caregiver leaving or returning tendency to respond to the environment in o Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment – generally predictable ways anxious even before the caregiver leaves o Easy Children – generally happy, rhythmic in o Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment – lack a biological functioning, and accepting of new cohesive strategy to deal with the stress of the experiences strange situation; they show contradictory, o Difficult Children – more irritable and harder to repetitive, or misdirected behaviors; confused please and afraid o Slow-to-Warm-Up Children – mild but slow to o According to Bowlby, attachment styles adapt to new people and situations resulted from repeated interactions with a o Strong links between infant temperament and caregiver childhood personality at age of 7 o Stranger Anxiety – wariness of a person she o Goodness of Fit – the match between a child’s does not know temperament and the environmental demands o Separation Anxiety – distress when a familiar and constraints the child must deal with caregiver leaves her Developmental Issues in Infancy o Separation Protest – crying when caregiver o According Erik Erikson, as babies, our first leaves challenge involves forming basic sense of Trust o Babies react negatively to strangers by 8 or 9 versus Mistrust months o Ideally, babies develop a balance between trust o Mutual Regulation – the ability of both infant and mistrust and caregiver to respond appropriately and o If trust predominates, as it should, children sensitively to each other’s mental and develop Hope and the belief that they can fulfill emotional states their needs and obtain their desires o Social Referencing – seeking emotional Approximate Crisis Virtue information to guide behavior Age Developed Developmental Issues in Toddlerhood Infancy (0-18 Trust vs. Hope o Maladaptive Tendency for Toddler: months) Mistrust Impulsiveness – shameless willfulness that Toddler (18 Autonomy vs. Will leads to jump into things without proper months – 36 Shame/Doubt consideration months)  Developmental Psychology Infancy Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) o Malignant Tendency for Toddler: whereas they desire to obey rules and avoid Compulsiveness – perfectionism, rule follower being punished o Sphincter Muscle is developed o Self-Concept – our image of ourselves; it describes what we know and feel about ourselves and guides our actions o By at least 3 months, infants pay attention to their mirror image o Pretend Play – an early indication of the ability to understand other’s mental states and their own o Usage of person pronouns (me, mine) usually at 20-24 months o Socialization – process by which children develop habits, skills, values, and motives that make them responsible and productive members of the society o Children obey societal or parental dictates because they believe them to be right and true o The eventual goal is the development of conscience end o Situational Compliance – extra assistance provided by their parents reminder and prompts to complete the task o Committed Compliance – they were committed to following request and could do so without their parents direct intervention o Receptive Cooperation – eager willingness to cooperate harmoniously with a parent, not only in disciplinary actions, but in variety of daily interactions Maltreatment in Infancy and Toddlerhood A. Nonorganic Failure to thrive – slowed or arrested physical growth with no known medical cause, accompanied by poor developmental and emotional functioning B. Shaken Baby Syndrome – baby has a weak neck muscles, and a large, heavy head, shaking makes the brain bounce back and forth inside the skull Moral Development o According to Kohlberg, children in Infancy stage is at the first level of Moral Development which is the Pre-Conventional Level o Infants or children from 0-2 yrs old is in Pre- conventional Level, specifically in Stage 1