Introduction to Developmental Psychology PDF

PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. PSY 432...

PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. PSY 4329: Developmental Psychology ASYNCHRONOUS REVIEWER PART I Asynchronous Review Developmental Psychology Part 1 Review the following topics: 1. Perspective on Nature and Nurture 2. Ethics on Research Methods in Developmental Psychology 3. Developmental Theories 4. Developmental Principles 5. Biological and environmental foundations of human development 6. Physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development in: Infancy and toddlerhood Early childhood (two to six years) Middle childhood (six to eleven years) Adolescence Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood 7. Developmental Issues Across the Life Span 8. Developmental Tasks Across the Life Span 9. Developmental Challenges Across the Life Span 10. Developmental Milestones Across the Life Span 11. Research approaches in human development |Page 1 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Asynchronous Review Developmental Psychology Part I (Introduction to Birth) The Study of Human Development Introduction HOW THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT EVOLVED Human development: Scientific study of processes of change and stability throughout the human life span. Early Approaches Baby biographies: Journals kept recording the early development of a child, early forerunners of the scientific study of development. Studying the Life Span Life-span development: Concept of development as a lifelong process, which can be studied scientifically. Interdisciplinary: Study that draws on many fields, or disciplines. The study of life-span development is interdisciplinary. Development: the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span Traditional Approach: emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence, little to no change in adulthood, and decline in old age Life-Span Approach: emphasizes developmental change throughout childhood and adulthood Life Span: based on oldest age documented o Currently 122 years Life Expectancy: average number of years that a person can expect to live o Currently 78 years The Life Span Perspective as: 1. Lifelong – no age period is dominant 2. Multidimensional – biological, cognitive, and socio-economic dimentions 3. Multidirectional- dimensions expand and shrink 4. Plastic-capable of change Life-Span Perspective views development as: |Page 2 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Contextual – occurs within a setting o Three types of contextual influences: § Normative age-graded influences: similar for individuals in a particular age group § Normative history-graded influences: common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances § Non-normative life events: unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual’s life Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss Development is a co-construction of biology, culture, and the individual § Multidisciplinary – shared by psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers Some Contemporary Concerns o Health and Well-Being Parenting and Education Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity o Culture, Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, and Gender Social Policy Life-Span Perspective views development as: Biological: changes in an individual’s physical nature Cognitive: changes in thought, intelligence, and language Socioemotional: changes in relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality |Page 3 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TODAY: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FIELD Describe: Goal in the study of human development in which scientists observe behavior in order to describe what happens in the lives of children and adults. Explain: Goal in which scientists attempt to understand, or explain, why observed behavior occurs—the cause of observed behavior. Predict: Goal in which scientists make educated guesses about what might happen in the future to behavior. Modify: Goal in which scientists use the knowledge of causes of behavior to change or control behavior. Developmental Processes: Change and Stability Quantitative change: Change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, or size of vocabulary. Qualitative change: Change in kind, structure, or organization, such as the change from nonverbal to verbal communication. Stability: Constancy of personality and behavior that most people show. |Page 4 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. The Nature of Development Periods of Development Prenatal period: conception to birth (9 months) Infancy: birth to 18-24 months Early childhood: 2 to 5-6 years; play years Middle and late childhood: 6-11 years Periods of Development Adolescence: from 10-12 to 18-21 years Early adulthood: early 20’s through the 30’s Middle adulthood: 40-60 years Late adulthood: 60’s-70’s to death Domains of Development Domain: A dimension, such as physical, cognitive, or psychosocial. Physical development: Growth of body and brain and change or stability in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health. Cognitive development: Change or stability in mental abilities, such as learning, memory, language, thinking, moral reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development: Change and stability in emotions, personality, and social relationships. Four “Ages” of Development First Age: Childhood and adolescence Second Age: Prime adulthood (20’s through 50’s) |Page 5 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Conceptions of Age Chronological age Biological age Psychological age Social age Third Age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of age Fourth Age: Approximately 80 years and older |Page 6 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Developmental Issues Nature and Nurture Stability and Change Continuity and Discontinuity Periods of the Life Span Social construction: Concept about the nature of reality, based on societally shared perceptions or assumptions. INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT Individual differences: Differences in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes. Heredity, Environment, and Maturation Heredity: Inborn characteristics inherited from the biological parents at conception. Environment: Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development. Maturation: Unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes, including readiness to master new abilities. Milestones: Landmarks of development, or the average ages for the occurrence of certain events such as walking and talking. Environmental: Experiential factors that affect people, such as socioeconomic status or culture. Major Contextual Influences Family Nuclear family: Kinship and household unit made up of one or two parents and their natural, adopted, or stepchildren. Extended family: Kinship network of parents, children, and other relatives, sometimes living together in an extended-family household. Socioeconomic Status and Neighborhood Socioeconomic status (SES): Combination of economic and social factors describing an individual or family, including income, education, and occupation. Risk factors: Conditions that increase the likelihood of a negative developmental outcome. Culture and Race/Ethnicity |Page 7 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Culture: A society’s or group’s total way of life, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products—all learned behavior passed on from parents to children. Ethnic group: Group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, and/or national origins, which contribute to a sense of shared identity. Ethnic gloss: An overgeneralization that obscures cultural differences within a group. The Historical Context Normative and Nonnormative Influences Normative: Characteristic of an event that occurs in a similar way for most people in a group. Normative age-graded influences: Event or influence that is highly similar for people in a particular age group. Includes biological (puberty, menopause) and social (marriage, retirement) events. Normative history-graded influences: Event or influence common to a particular cohort. In this section, the concept of historical generations is defined as a group of people who experience the event at a formative time in their lives. Cohort: Group of people growing up at about the same time. Nonnormative: Characteristic of an unusual event that happens to a particular person, or a typical event that happens at an unusual time of life. Timing of Influences: Critical or Sensitive Periods Imprinting: Phenomenon in which newly hatched birds will instinctively follow the first moving object they see, the result of the readiness of the nervous system of the organism to acquire certain information during a brief critical period in early life. Critical period: Specific time when a given event, or its absence, has the greatest impact on development. Sensitive periods: Times in development when a person is particularly open to certain kinds of experiences. Five Theoretical Orientations to Development Psychoanalytic Cognitive Behavioral and Social Cognitive Ethological |Page 8 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Ecological Theories of Development Psychoanalytic Theories Freud’s Theory: Focus of sexual impulses changes throughout development Five stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) |Page 9 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Psychoanalytic Theories Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: o Focused on our desire to affiliate with other people Believed that developmental change occurs throughout the life span Proposed eight stages of development o Each stage comprises a crisis that must be resolved |Page 10 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. In 1930, he had married Canadian-born Joan Mowat Serson, who was vitally interested in education, as well as the arts and crafts, and deeply shared his interest in writing. The development of their three children, Kai, Jon, and Sue, as well as Erikson's work in Anna Freud's school, may have contributed much to his eventual thinking about the "epigenetic schema" of development and the vocabulary of health, in which he described the contributions of successive psychosexual stages to ego strengths. EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE We develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time, in a certain order, which nature, through its genetics, has determined. If we interfere in the natural order of development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower. |Page 11 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 12 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 13 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 14 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Theories of Development Cognitive Theories Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory: Emphasizes the processes of organization and adaptation Four stages of cognitive development in children |Page 15 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. JEAN PIAGET |Page 16 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE STAGES 1. Sensorimotor Stage 2. Preoperational Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage |Page 17 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 18 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 19 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 20 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 21 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 22 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 23 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 24 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 25 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 26 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 27 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 28 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 29 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 30 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Theories of Development Cognitive Theories Information-Processing Theory: o Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information Development is not stage-like |Page 31 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 32 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 33 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 34 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. |Page 35 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Theories of Development Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories: Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: o Consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence A reward increases likelihood of behavior A punishment decreases likelihood of behavior Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories: Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: o Behavior, environment, and cognition are key factors in development Observational learning: learning through observation People cognitively represent the behavior of others Ethological Theory Ethnology: stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology and is tied to evolution o Brought to prominence by Konrad Lorenz Bowlby stressed the importance of human attachment during the first year of life Ecological Theory Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory: development reflects the influence of five environmental systems: o Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem |Page 36 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory |Page 37 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Eclectic Theoretical Orientation: No single theory can explain all of development Every theory has contributed to our understanding Eclectic orientation selects from each theory whatever is considered its best features Research in Life-Span Development Methods for Collecting Data: Observation – must be systematic and controlled o Laboratory o Naturalistic Survey and Interviews o Standard sets of questions are used to obtain people’s attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic Methods for Collecting Data: Standardized Test Case Study Physiological Measures o e.g Hormone levels and neuroimaging such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Research Designs Descriptive: aims to observe and record behavior Correlational: describes the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics using a Correlation Coefficient o Ranges from +1.00 to -1.00 |Page 38 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Research Designs Experiment: one or more factors are manipulated while all other factors are held constant o Can demonstrate cause and effect Independent Variable: manipulated, influential, experimental factor Dependent Variable: a factor that can change in response to changes in the independent variable Research Designs Experimental Group: a group whose experience is manipulated Control Group: a comparison group whose experience is not manipulated Random Assignment: researchers assign participants to experimental and control groups by chance Time Span Research: Cross-Sectional: simultaneously compares individuals of different ages Longitudinal Approach: studies the same individuals over a period of time, usually several years or more Cohort Effects: Differences due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation, but not to actual age Conducting Ethical Research Informed Consent: all participants must know what their research participation will involve and what risks might develop Confidentiality: researchers are responsible for keeping the data completely confidential and, if possible, anonymous Conducting Ethical Research Debriefing: after the study, participants should be informed of the study’s purpose and methods that were used Deception: researchers must ensure that deception will not harm participants, and that participants are fully debriefed Minimizing Bias Gender Bias Cultural and Ethnic Bias |Page 39 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Other Theory and Research in Developmental Psychology Focus: Margaret Mead, Pioneer in Cross-Cultural Research BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES Theory: Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data. Hypotheses: Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research. Issue 1: Is Development Active or Passive? Tabula rasa: literally, a “blank slate,” philosopher John Locke’s view that society influences the development of the child. Mechanistic model: Model that views development as a passive, predictable response to stimuli. Organismic model: Model that views development as internally initiated by an active organism, and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages. Issue 2: Is Development Continuous, or Does It Occur in Stages? Quantitative change: Changes in number or amount, such as the frequency with which a response is made. Qualitative change: Changes in kind or nature, implying that development occurs in a series of distinct stages or steps. An Emerging Consensus Bidirectional: Referring to the fact that people change their world even as the world changes them. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Perspective 1: Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic perspective: View of development as shaped by unconscious forces. Psychoanalysis: A therapeutic approach aimed at giving patients insight into unconscious emotional conflicts. Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual Development Id: Part of the personality that governs newborns, operating on the pleasure principle. Pleasure principle: The drive to seek immediate satisfaction of needs and desires. Ego: Part of the personality that represents reason, operating on the reality principle. Reality principle: Finding realistic ways to gratify the id. Superego: Part of the personality containing the conscience, incorporating socially approved behavior into the child’s own value system. |Page 40 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Psychosexual development: In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of personality development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals. Fixation: In psychoanalysis, an arrest in development that can show up in adult personality. Oral stage: Stage in psychosexual development in which feeding is the main source of sensual pleasure. Anal stage: Stage in psychosexual development in which the chief source of pleasure is moving the bowels. Phallic stage: Stage in psychosexual development in which boys develop sexual attachment to their mothers and girls to their fathers, with aggressive urges toward the same-sex parent. Latency stage: Stage in psychosexual development in which the child is sexually calm, and becomes socialized, develops skills, and learns about self and society. Genital stage: Stage in psychosexual development which lasts throughout adulthood, in which repressed sexual urges resurface to flow in socially approved channels. Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development Psychosocial development: The socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, or self. Eight stages. Crisis: major psychological theme that is particularly important at that time and will remain an issue to some degree throughout the rest of life. Basic trust versus basic mistrust: Critical theme of infancy, in which the virtue of hope is developed. Perspective 2: Learning Learning perspective: View of development that holds that changes in behavior result from experience, or adaptation to the environment. Learning: A long-lasting change in behavior based on experience, or adaptation to the environment. Behaviorism Behaviorism: Learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment in causing observable behavior. Associative learning: The formation of a mental link between two events. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning: Learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning: Learning based on reinforcement or punishment. Reinforcement: In operant conditioning, a stimulus that encourages repetition of a desired behavior. Punishment: In operant conditioning, a stimulus that discourages repetition of a behavior. Positive reinforcement: Giving a reward, such as food, gold stars, or praise. |Page 41 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Negative reinforcement: Taking away something the individual does not like (an aversive event), such as the removal of a loud, raspy noise. Extinguished: Term referring to the return of a behavior to its original, or baseline, level after removal of reinforcement. Behavior modification: Also called behavior therapy, it is the use of conditioning to gradually change behavior. Social Learning (Social Cognitive) Theory Social learning theory: Theory that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models. Also called social cognitive theory. Observational learning (modeling): Learning through watching the behavior of others. Social cognitive theory: Bandura’s newest version of social learning theory, in which the emphasis on cognitive response to perceptions is increased. Self-efficacy: A confidence that a person has the characteristics needed to succeed. Perspective 3: Cognitive Cognitive perspective: View that thought processes are central to development. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive-Stage Theory Clinical method: Technique combining observation with flexible questioning. Organization: The tendency to create increasingly complex cognitive structures (schemes). Schemes: Organized patterns of behavior that a person uses to think about and act in a situation. Adaptation: How children handle new information in light of what they already know. Assimilation: Part of adaptation, taking in new information and incorporating into existing cognitive structures. Accommodation: Part of adaptation, changing one’s cognitive structures to include new information. Equilibration: The constant striving for a stable balance in the shift from assimilation to accommodation. Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural Theory: Focuses on the social and cultural processes that guide children's cognitive development. Collaborative: Vygotsky's view that children learn through social interaction. The Information-Processing Approach Information-processing approach: Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information. Computer-Based Models Computational models: Flow charts that analyze the specific steps people go through in gathering, storing, retrieving, and using information. |Page 42 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Perspective 4: Evolutionary/Sociobiological Survival of the fittest: Darwinian process in which the animal most capable of survival (the one with the most adaptable traits) survives to pass on its genes in offspring. Natural selection: Darwinian process in which the weak and those with maladaptive traits are removed from the gene pool, leaving only the healthiest and strongest to survive and continue the species. Ethology: Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species. Evolutionary psychology: application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior. Perspective 5: Contextual Contextual perspective: View of development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory Bioecological theory: Bronfenbrenner’s approach to understanding processes and contexts of development. Microsystem: Bronfenbrenner’s term for a setting in which a child interacts with others on an everyday, face-to-face basis. Mesosystem: Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more microsystems. Exosystem: Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more settings, one of which does not contain the child. Macrosystem: Bronfenbrenner’s term for a society’s overall cultural patterns. Chronosystem: Bronfenbrenner’s term for effects of time on other developmental systems. How Theory and Research Work Together RESEARCH METHODS Quantitative research: Research that focuses on “hard” data and numerical or statistical measures. Qualitative research: Research that focuses on “soft” data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs. Scientific method: System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry. The usual steps in the method are: Identifying a problem to be studied. Formulating hypotheses to be tested by research. Collecting data. Analyzing the data to determine whether or not they support the hypothesis. Forming tentative conclusions. Disseminating findings so that other observers can check, learn from, analyze, repeat, and build on the results. Sampling |Page 43 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Population: A group to whom the findings in research may apply. Sample: Group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study. Generalized: Application of results from a sample study to the population as a whole. Random selection: Method of selecting participants in a study so that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen. Forms of Data Collection Self-Reports: Diaries, Interviews, Questionnaires Diary: A log or record of activities. Parental self-reports: A log or record of activities kept by the parents of young children, concerning the children’s activities. Interview: Method in which researchers, either face-to-face or on the telephone, ask questions about attitudes, opinions, or behavior. Structured interview: Interview in which each participant is asked the same set of questions. Open-ended interview: Interview in which the interviewer can vary the topics and order of questions and can ask follow-up questions based on the responses. Questionnaire: Printed questions which participants fill out and return. Naturalistic and Laboratory Observation Naturalistic observation: Research method in which behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention or manipulation. Laboratory observation: Research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions. Observer bias: The researcher’s tendency to interpret data to fit expectations, or to emphasize some aspects and minimize others. Behavioral and Performance Measures Valid: A test that measures the abilities it claims to measure is said to be valid. Reliable: A test that provides consistent results from one testing to another is reliable. Standardized: A test that is given and scored by the same methods and criteria for all test-takers is said to be standardized. Operational definitions: Definitions stated solely in terms of the operations or procedures used to produce or measure a phenomenon. Cognitive neuroscience: Study of cognitive development that links brain processes with cognitive ones. Developmental cognitive neuroscience: Focuses on how cognitive growth occurs as the brain interacts with the environment. Social cognitive neuroscience: An emerging interdisciplinary field that bridges brain, mind, and behavior, bringing together data from cognitive neuroscience, social psychology, and the information-processing approach. Basic Research Designs |Page 44 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Case Studies Case study: Study of an individual. Ethnographic Studies Ethnographic study: In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation. Participant observation: Research method in which the observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed. Correlational Studies Correlational study: Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists. Correlation: A statistical relationship between two or more variables. Variables: Phenomena that change or vary among people or can be varied for purposes of research. Positive correlation: Variables that are related increase or decrease together. Negative correlation: Variables have an inverse relationship; as one increases, the other decreases. Experiments Experiment: Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. Replicate: Repeating an experiment in exactly the same way with different participants to verify the results and conclusions. Groups and Variables Experimental group: In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study. Treatment: The phenomenon the researcher wants to study. Control group: In an experiment, a group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment whose effects are to be measured. Treatment groups: In an experiment, groups that each receive one of the treatments under study. Dialogic reading: A method of reading picture books to very young children. Independent variable: In an experiment, the condition over which the experimenter has direct control. Dependent variable: In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable. Random Assignment Random assignment: Assigning the participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group. Confound: Contamination of an experiment by unintended differences between the groups. Laboratory, Field, and Natural Experiments |Page 45 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Laboratory experiments: Experiment in which the participants are brought to a special place where they experience conditions manipulated by the experimenter. Field experiment: A controlled study conducted in an everyday setting, such as home or school. Natural experiment: Study comparing people who have been accidentally “assigned” to separate groups by circumstances of life (a correlational study). Developmental Research Designs Longitudinal, Cross-Sectional, and Sequential Designs Longitudinal study: Study designed to assess changes in a sample over time. Cross-sectional study: Study design in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion. Sequential study: Study design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques. Ethics of Research Informed consent Avoidance of deception Harm and loss of dignity Privacy and confidentiality Right to decline or withdraw Correct any undesirable effects Three ethical principles that guide researchers in resolving ethical dilemmas: Beneficence Justice Respect Right to Informed Consent Avoidance of Deception Right to Privacy and Confidentiality |Page 46 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. The Evolutionary Perspective in Developmental Psychology Natural Selection: an evolutionary process by which those individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and reproduce Adaptive Behavior: behavior that promotes an organism’s survival in the natural habitat Natural Selection: an evolutionary process by which those individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and reproduce Adaptive Behavior: behavior that promotes an organism’s survival in the natural habitat Evolutionary Psychology The importance of adaptation, reproduction, and “survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior Fit: the ability to bear offspring that survive long enough to bear offspring of their own Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Perspectives Using concepts of evolutionary psychology to understand human development e.g. Extended childhood period allows time to develop a large brain and learn complexity of human society |Page 47 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Connecting Evolution and Life-Span Development Why do humans live so long after reproduction? Perhaps older people improve the survival rate of babies Genetic Foundations of Development The Collaborative Gene Human life begins as a single cell Nucleus of each cell contains chromosomes Chromosomes: thread-like structures made up of DNA DNA: a complex double-helix molecule that contains genetic information Genes: short segments of DNA Humans have approximately 20,500 genes. Genes and Chromosomes Mitosis, Meiosis, and Fertilization Mitosis: reproduction of cells Meiosis: cell division that forms sperm and eggs (gametes) Fertilization: fusing of sperm and egg to create a zygote Creates one set of paired chromosomes (23 from each parent) |Page 48 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Genetic Foundations of Development Genes and Chromosomes Sources of Variability o Combining genes of both parents increases genetic variability Identical (monozygotic) vs. Fraternal (dizygotic) twins Susceptibility genes vs. Longevity genes Genotype vs. Phenotype Genetic Principles Dominant-Recessive Genes Principle Sex-Linked Genes Genetic Imprinting Polygenic Inheritance |Page 49 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Dealing with Genetic Abnormalities Every individual carries DNA variations, but most do not display a disorder Today, many genetic diseases can be detected prior to and immediately after birth o However, knowledge of genetic flaws leads to difficult choices about how to manage such information Genetic counselors help people make reproductive decisions Reproductive Challenges and Choices |Page 50 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Prenatal Diagnostic Tests Ultrasound Sonograph Fetal MRI Chorionic Villus Sampling Amniocentesis Maternal Blood Screening Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis (NIPD) Infertility and Reproductive Technology Infertility: the inability to conceive a child after 12 months of attempting In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): egg and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish; fertilized egg is transferred to woman’s uterus o Success depends on woman’s age o Increases risk of multiple births |Page 51 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Infertility and Reproductive Technology Adoption: a parent-child relationship established between persons unrelated at birth Increased diversity of adoptive children and adoptive parents More likely to experience psychological and school-related problems than non-adoptive children Adoptive children fare much better than children in long-term foster care or institutions |Page 52 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Behavior Genetics Twin vs. Adoption studies Shared vs. Non-Shared Environmental Experiences The Epigenetic View |Page 53 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Beginnings: Forming a New Life Forming a New Life Focus: Abel Dorris and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome CONCEIVING NEW LIFE · Animalculists: Early school of biological thought that claimed that fully-formed “little people” were contained in the heads of sperm, ready to grow in the nurturing womb. · Ovists: Early school of biological thought that claimed that a female’s ovaries contained tiny, already-formed humans whose growth was activated by the male’s sperm. How Fertilization Takes Place · Fertilization: Fusion of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote; also called conception. · Gametes: The sex cells, ovum and sperm. · Zygote: One-celled organism resulting from fertilization. · Follicle: Small sac in the ovary containing the immature ovum. · Ovulation: The rupture of a mature follicle and expulsion of the ovum. · Cilia: Tiny hair cells in the fallopian tubes that sweep the ovum along. · Cervix: The opening of the uterus. What Causes Multiple Births? · Dizygotic (two-egg) twins: Twins conceived by the union of two different ova (or a single ovum that has split) with two different sperm cells; also called fraternal twins. · Monozygotic (one-egg) twins: Twins resulting from the division of a single zygote after fertilization; also called identical twins. · Temperament: Characteristic disposition, or style of approaching and reacting to situations. MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY · Heredity: The inborn factors, inherited from the biological parents that affect development. The Genetic Code · Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): Chemical that carries inherited instructions for the formation and function of body cells. · Bases: Chemical units that make up DNA; adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. · Genetic code: Sequence of base pairs within DNA, which determine inherited characteristics. · Chromosomes: Coils of DNA that carry the genes. · Genes: Small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes. · Meiosis: Type of cell division in which each sex cell (gamete) ends up with only 23 chromosomes. |Page 54 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. · Mitosis: Type of cell division in which each cell divides in half over and over again, resulting in new cells with 46 chromosomes. What Determines Sex? ·Autosomes: The 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression. · Sex chromosomes: Pair of chromosomes that determines sex: XX in the normal female, XY in the normal male. · X-chromosomes: Chromosomes containing the genes for femaleness. · Y-chromosomes: Chromosomes containing the genes for maleness. Wnt-4: A signaling molecule that appears to control the development of female characteristics. Patterns of Genetic Transmission Dominant and Recessive Inheritance · Alleles: Paired genes (alike or different) that affect a trait. · Homozygous: Possessing two identical alleles for a trait. · Heterozygous: Possessing differing alleles for a trait. · Dominant inheritance: Pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives contradictory alleles, only the dominant one is expressed. · Recessive inheritance: Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait. · Polygenic inheritance: Pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes affect a complex trait. · Multifactorial transmission: Combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits. Genotypes and Phenotypes: Multifactorial Transmission Phenotype: Observable characteristics of a person. Genotype: Genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics. Genetic and Chromosomal Abnormalities Defects Transmitted by Dominant or Recessive Inheritance Incomplete dominance: Partial expression of a trait. Defects Transmitted by Sex-Linked Inheritance Sex-linked inheritance: Pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring. Carrier: Person who does not have an expressed genetic trait but can pass on the gene for it to offspring. |Page 55 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Mutations Mutations: Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes that may produce harmful characteristics. Genome (Genetic) Imprinting Genome (genetic) imprinting: The phenomenon in which some genes seem to be temporarily imprinted, or chemically altered, in either the mother or the father. When transmitted to offspring, these genes have different effects than do counterpart genes from the other parent. Chromosomal Abnormalities Down syndrome: Chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate-to-severe mental retardation and by such physical signs as a downward-sloping skin fold at the inner corners of the eyes. Trisomy-21: Down syndrome in which there is an extra twenty-first chromosome or a translocation of part of the twenty-first chromosome onto another chromosome. Genetic Counseling and Testing Genetic counseling: Clinical service that advises couples of their probable risk of having children with hereditary defects. Karyotype: Arranged enlarged photographic chart of the chromosomes in a cell. NATURE AND NURTURE: INFLUENCES OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT Studying Heredity and Environment Behavioral genetics: Quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences. Measuring Heritability Heritability: Statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population. Family studies: Study in which researchers measure the degree to which biological relatives share certain traits and whether the closeness of the familial relationship is associated with the degree of similarity. Adoption studies: Study in which researchers look at similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families, and also between adopted children and their biological families. Studies of twins: Study in which researchers compare pairs of monozygotic and same-sex dizygotic twins. Concordant: Term describing twins who share the same trait or disorder. How Heredity and Environment Work Together Developmental system: The combination of constitutional factors (related to biological and psychological makeup), social, economic, and cultural factors that help shape development. Reaction Range and Canalization Reaction range: Potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait. |Page 56 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Norm of reaction: Term used in the developmental system model in place of reaction range; the idea that the limits set by heredity are unknowable and their effects unpredictable because of the complexity of development. Canalization: Limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics. Genotype-Environment Interaction Genotype-environment interaction: The portion of phenotypic variation that results from the reactions of genetically different individuals to similar environmental conditions. Genotype-Environment Correlation Genotype-environment correlation (genotype-environment covariance): Tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive (evocative), or active. Passive correlations: The parents, who provide the genes that predispose a child toward a trait, also tend to provide an environment that encourages development of that trait. Reactive, or evocative, correlations: Children with differing genetic makeups evoke different responses from adults. Active correlations: Older children actively choose or create experiences consistent with their genetic tendencies. Niche-picking: Tendency of a person, especially after early childhood, to seek out environments compatible with his or her genotype. What Makes Siblings Different? The Nonshared Environment Nonshared environmental effects: The unique environment in which each child grows up, consisting of distinctive influences or influences that affect one child differently than another. Some Characteristics Influenced by Heredity and Environment Physical and Physiological Traits Obesity: Extreme overweight. Research suggests that as much as 80 percent of the risk of obesity is genetic. Intelligence and School Achievement Personality Psychopathology Schizophrenia: Mental disorder marked by a loss of contact with reality; symptoms include hallucinations and delusions. Autism: Pervasive developmental disorder of the brain, characterized by lack of normal social interaction, impaired communication and imagination, and repetitive, obsessive behaviors. Autistic spectrum disorders (ASD): Mild to severe disorders of the autistic type. Pervasive developmental disorder (PDD): A disorder related to classic autism. |Page 57 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Asperger’s disorder: The most common PDD, children with this disorder usually have normal or even high verbal intelligence, are curious, and do well in school; but they have limited, fixed interests, repetitive speech and behavior, and difficulty understanding social and emotional cues. Joint attention: The ability to point to an object to call attention to it or look at another person to see whether the two of them are paying attention to the same event, which is weak in individuals with Aperger's disorder. Theory of mind: Awareness of the mental processes of oneself and others. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Gestation: The approximately nine-month period of development between conception and birth. Gestational age: Age of the organism from conception. Zygote: A fertilized ovum. Morphogens: Molecules produced by certain genes. These molecules are switched on after fertilization and direct the differentiation of the various body parts. Stages of Prenatal Development Cephalocaudal principle: Principle that development proceeds in a head-to-tail direction; that is, the upper parts of the body develop before lower parts. Proximodistal principle: Principle that development proceeds from within to without; that is, that parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities. Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 Weeks) Germinal stage: First 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, increasing complexity and differentiation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus. Mitosis: Type of cell division and duplication. Blastocyst: A fluid-filled sphere of cells that will float into the uterus and implant in the lining. Embryonic disk: A thickened cell mass located on the blastocyst, from which the embryo begins to develop. Ectoderm: The upper layer of the embryonic disk that will form into the outer layer of skin, the nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs, and the nervous system. Endoderm: The lower layer of the embryonic disk that will form into the digestive system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands, and respiratory system. Mesoderm: The inner layer of the embryonic disk that will form into the inner layer of skin, muscles, skeleton, and excretory and circulatory systems. Placenta: Organ that provides oxygen and nourishment to the developing baby and removes its body wastes. Umbilical cord: Cord that connects the placenta to the baby and vice-versa. Amniotic sac: Fluid-filled membrane that encases the developing baby, protecting it and giving it room to move. Chorion: Outermost layer of the amniotic sac. Embryonic Stage (2 to 8 Weeks) |Page 58 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Embryonic stage: Second stage of gestation (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs. Trimester: A three-month period of pregnancy. Spontaneous abortion: Natural expulsion from the uterus of a conceptus that cannot survive outside the womb; also called miscarriage. Stillborn: Term for a baby that is dead at its birth. Fetal Stage (8 Weeks to Birth) Fetal stage: Final stage of gestation (from 8 weeks to birth), characterized by increased detail of body parts and greatly enlarged body size. Ultrasound: Prenatal medical procedure using high-frequency sound waves to detect the outline of a fetus and its movements, so as to determine whether a pregnancy is progressing normally. Environmental Influences: Maternal Factors Teratogenic: Capable of causing birth defects. Transforming growth factor alpha: A variant of a growth gene, this factor causes a fetus to have six times more risk than other fetuses of developing a cleft palate if the mother smokes while pregnant. Nutrition and Maternal Weight Physical Activity and Strenuous Work Drug Intake Medical Drugs Alcohol Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): Combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): Other, less severe alcohol-related conditions. Corpus callosum: Brain tissue that connects and coordinates signals between the right and left hemispheres of the brain. Fetal alcohol effects: A less severe condition that can include mental retardation, retardation of intrauterine growth, and minor congenital abnormalities. Nicotine Caffeine Marijuana and Cocaine HIV/AIDS |Page 59 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS): Viral disease that undermines effective functioning of the immune system. Other Maternal Illnesses Toxoplasmosis: An infection caused by a parasite harbored in the bodies of cattle, sheep, pigs, and in the intestinal tracts of cats. Maternal Age Outside Environmental Hazards Environmental Influences: Paternal Factors Monitoring Prenatal Development Prenatal Development Prenatal development is divided into 3 periods lasting approximately 38-40 weeks: Germinal period: first 2 weeks after conception o Implantation Embryonic period: 2 to 8 weeks after conception o Organogenesis Fetal period: 2 months after conception until birth |Page 60 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. The Brain: o Babies have approximately 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) at birth Birth defects related to the brain when neural tube fails to close o Anencephaly o Spina bifida In normal pregnancies, the neural tube closes creating o Neurogenesis: the generation of new neurons o Neuronal migration: cells move outward from their point of origin to their appropriate locations Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development Teratogen: any agent that can cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes o Prescription and Nonprescription drugs § Psychoactive drugs § Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) o Incompatible blood types o Environmental hazards |Page 61 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. o Maternal diseases o Other parental factors Prenatal Care Screening for manageable conditions and treatable diseases Educational, social, and nutritional services CenteringPregnancy: relationship-centered program provides complete prenatal care in a group setting Home visitation – Nurse Family Partnership Birth The Birth Process Stages of birth: o Stage 1: uterine contractions 15 to 20 minutes apart and last up to 1 minute |Page 62 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Stage 2: begins when the baby’s head starts to move through the cervix and birth canal and ends when the baby completely emerges from the mother’s body Stage 3: afterbirth – umbilical cord, placenta, and other membranes are detached and expelled Childbirth Setting and Attendants: In the U.S. 99% of deliveries take place in hospitals In the U.S. 8% of births are attended by a midwife In some countries, doulas provide continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for mothers before, during, and after childbirth Methods of ChildBirth: A. Medications: 1. Analgesia 2. Demerol 3. Anesthesia (Epidural block) 4. Oxytocin (synthetic hormone used to stimulate contraction) B. Natural Chidbirth C. Prepared Childbirth Birth Other Methods of Childbirth Waterbirth Massage |Page 63 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Acupuncture Hypnosis Music therapy Cesarean Delivery Assessing the Newborn Measuring neonatal health and responsiveness: Apgar Scale: assessed at 1 minute and 5 minutes after birth o A score of 0, 1, or 2 is given for each of the following: heart rate, body color, muscle tone, respiratory effort, and reflex irritability 10 is highest, 3 or below indicates an emergency Assessing the Newborn Measuring neonatal health and responsiveness: Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS): o Assesses newborn’s neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people and object Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS): o Assesses newborn’s behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities |Page 64 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants Preterm and Small for Date Infants Low birth weight infants less than 5 ½ pounds at birth. Preterm infants are those born three weeks or more before full term Small for date infants are those whose birth weights is below normal when the length of the pregnancy is considered. Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants Consequences of Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants o Language development delays Learning disabilities ADHD Asthma Enrollment in special education programs Kangaroo care and massage therapy Kangaroo Care: treatment for preterm infants that involves skin to skin contact Massage Therapy The Postpartum Period Postpartum lasts about six weeks or until the mother’s body has completed its adjustment and has returned or to a nearly pre-pregnant state. Physical Adjustments: 1. Fatigue 2. Loss of Sleep 3. Hormone Changes 4. Involution: the uterus return to its pre-pregnant size Emotional and Psychological Adjustments Emotional fluctuations are common o 70% of new mothers in the U.S. experience postpartum blues usually for 1-2 weeks |Page 65 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Postpartum Depression o Sadness, anxiety, and despair that lasts for two or more weeks Antidepressants, psychotherapy, and exercise are used as treatments Support by fathers is related to a lower incidence of postpartum depression in women The Postpartum Period Bonding: the formation of a connection, especially a physical bond, between parents and the newborn in the period shortly after birth Isolation of premature babies and use of drugs in birth process may harm bonding process Research does challenge the significance of the first few days of life as a critical period Physical Growth and Development in Infancy Patterns of Growth: Cephalocaudal Pattern: sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs from the top downward Proximodistal Pattern: sequence in which growth starts in the center of the body and moves toward the extremities |Page 66 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Height and Weight Average North American newborn is 20 inches long and 7 ½ pounds At 2 years of age, infants weigh 26 to 32 pounds and are half their adult height. Physical Growth and Development in Infancy The Brain: Contains approximately 100 billion neurons at birth Extensive brain development continues after birth, through infancy, and later Head should be protected o Shaken Baby Syndrome: brain swelling and hemorrhaging from child abuse trauma The Brain’s Development o At birth, the brain is 25% of its adult weight; at 2 years of age, it is 75% of its adult weight Mapping the Brain o Frontal, Occipital, Temporal, and Parietal Lobes o Lateralization § Left-brained vs. Right-brained Changes in Neurons o Continued myelination o Greater connectivity and new neural pathways |Page 67 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Changes in Regions of the Brain o Dramatic “blooming and pruning” of synapses in the visual, auditory, and prefrontal cortex |Page 68 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Early Experience and the Brain Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grow up in a deprived environment Repeated experience wires (and rewires) the brain Brain is both flexible and resilient Sleep Typical newborn sleeps 18 hours per day Infants vary in their preferred times for sleeping Most common infant sleep-related problem is night waking o Consistently linked to excessive parental involvement in sleep-related interactions with their infant REM Sleep – eyes flutter beneath closed lids o Sleep cycle begins with REM sleep in infants May provide infants with added self-stimulation REM sleep may also promote brain development We do not know whether infants dream or not Shared Sleeping o Varies from culture to culture American Academy of Pediatrics discourages shared sleeping Potential benefits: o Promotes breast feeding and a quicker response to crying |Page 69 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Allows mother to detect potentially dangerous breathing pauses in baby SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome): infants stop breathing and die without apparent cause o Highest cause of infant death in U.S. annually Highest risk is 2-4 months of age Many other risk factors associated with SIDS Nutrition Nutritional Needs and Eating Behavior o 50 calories per day for each pound they weigh Fruits and vegetables by end of 1st year Poor dietary patterns lead to increasing rates of overweight and obese infants Breast feeding reduces risk of obesity Breast Versus Bottle Feeding o Consensus: Breast feeding is better American Academy of Pediatrics strongly endorses breast feeding throughout the first year Numerous outcomes for child and mother |Page 70 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Malnutrition in Infancy o Early weaning can cause malnutrition Two life-threatening conditions resulting from malnutrition o Marasmus: a severe protein-calorie deficiency resulting in a wasting away of body tissues Kwashiorkor: a severe protein deficiency that causes the abdomen and feet to swell with water Severe and lengthy malnutrition is detrimental to physical, cognitive, and social development The Dynamic Systems View: Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting o Motor skills represent solutions to goals Development is an active process in which nature and nurture work together as part of an ever-changing system Motor Development Reflexes are built-in reactions to stimuli, autonomic or inborn. Rooting reflex Sucking reflex Moro Reflex Grasping Reflex Some reflexes continue all throughout life, others disappear several months after birth Gross Motor Skills: large-muscle activities The Development of Posture o Posture – a dynamic process linked with sensory information in the skin, joints, and muscles, which tell us where we are in space Learning to Walk o Occurs about the time of their first birthday Infants learn what kinds of places and surfaces are safe for locomotion Gross Motor Skills: large-muscle activities |Page 71 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. The First Year: Motor Development Milestones and Variations o Some milestones vary by as much as two to four months Experience can modify the onset of motor accomplishments Some infants do not follow the standard sequence of motor development Gross Motor Skills Development in the Second Year o Toddlers become more skilled and mobile By 13-18 months, toddlers can pull a toy or climb stairs; by 18-24 months, toddlers can walk quickly, balance on their feet, walk backward and stand and kick a ball Even when motor activity is restricted, many infants reach motor milestones at a normal age Fine Motor Skills: finely tuned movements |Page 72 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Using a spoon, buttoning a shirt, reaching and grasping Palmer grasp: grasping with the whole hand Pincer grip: grasping with the thumb and forefinger Perceptual-motor coupling is necessary for infants to coordinate grasping Sensory and Perceptual Development What are Sensation and Perception? Sensation: occurs when information interacts with sensory receptors (eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin) Perception: the interpretation of what is sensed Ecological View: we directly perceive information that exists in the world around us Affordances: opportunities for interaction offered by objects that fit within our capabilities to perform activities Visual Perception Visual Acuity and Human Faces Newborn’s vision is about 20/240 but 20/40 by 6 months of age Infants show an interest in human faces soon after birth o Spend more time looking at their mother’s face than a stranger’s face as early as 12 hours after being born o A 2-month-old scans much more of the face than the 1-month-old Color Vision |Page 73 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Sensory and Perpetual Development Visual Perception Perceptual Constancy refers to sensory stimulation is changing but perception of the physical world remains constant. Size Constancy: recognition that an object remains the same even though the retinal image of the object changes. Babies as young as three months old show size constancy. Shape constancy refers to recognition that an object remains the same in shape even though its orientation to us changes. Depth Perception o Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk studied development of depth perception using a “visual cliff” Infants 6-12 months old can distinguish depth Nature, Nurture, and the Development of Infants’ Visual Perception Sensory and Perceptual Development |Page 74 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Other Senses Hearing o Fetuses can hear and learn sounds during the last two months of pregnancy and can recognize their mother’s voice at birth Touch and Pain o Newborns do respond to touch and can also feel pain Intermodal Perception: the ability to integrate information from two or more sensory modalities Perceptual–Motor Coupling: perception and action are coupled o Action educates perception Physical Development during the First Three Years The Study of Human Development Focus: Helen Keller and the World of the Senses CHILDBIRTH AND CULTURE: HOW BIRTHING HAS CHANGED THE BIRTH PROCESS Labor: Contractions of the uterus during childbirth. Parturition: Process of uterine, cervical, and other changes, usually lasting about two weeks, preceding childbirth. Stages of Childbirth First stage: Usually the longest stage, may last 12 hours or more, in which regular and increasingly frequent uterine contractions widen the cervix. Second stage: Lasting up to one hour, this stage begins when the baby’s head moves through the cervix and into the vaginal canal, and ends when the baby emerges completely from the mother’s body. Third stage: Lasting only about 5 to 30 minutes, this stage is the expulsion of the placenta and remaining tissues from the uterus. Methods of Delivery Vaginal versus Cesarean Delivery |Page 75 Private Use Only  PSY 4329 CORREL: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 433) Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2017). Human Development (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Santrock, J. (2019). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. Cesarean delivery: Delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the uterus. Electronic fetal monitoring: Mechanical monitoring of fetal heartbeat during labor and delivery. Medicated versus Unmedicated Delivery Natural childbirth: Method of childbirth that seeks to prevent pain by eliminating the mother’s fear through education about the physiology of reproduction and training in breathing and relaxation during delivery. Prepared childbirth: Method of childbirth that uses instruction, breathing exercises, and social support to induce controlled physical response to uterine contractions and reduce fear and pain. THE NEWBORN BABY Neonatal period: First 4 weeks of life, a time of transition from intrauterine dependency to independent existence. Size and Appearance Neonate: Newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old. Fontanels: Places on a baby’s head where the bones have not yet grown together. Lanugo: The birth hair, a fuzzy prenatal hair that will eventually drop off. Vernix caseosa: An oily protective covering of the skin against infection, which dries and sloughs off within the first few days. Body Systems Anoxia: Lack of oxygen, which may cause brain damage. Meconium: Fetal waste