Developmental Psychology Notes

Week One: Theories Name and explain the 6 theories of human development: -Biological & evolutionary -Psychoanalytic -Cognitive development -Learning -Social & anthropological -Ecological & development What is the difference between genotypes & phenotypes: Geno: Specific genetic material on an indi...

Week One: Theories Name and explain the 6 theories of human development: -Biological & evolutionary -Psychoanalytic -Cognitive development -Learning -Social & anthropological -Ecological & development What is the difference between genotypes & phenotypes: Geno: Specific genetic material on an individual’s chromosome. (DNA or genetic code) Pheno: Observed characteristic of the individual’s physical traits like hair or eye colour (physical appearance) Exam material: What are examples of dominant versus recessive traits: Dominant Recessive Dark hair Blonde hair Curly hair Straight hair Pigmented Skin Albino Type A blood Type O blood Facial dimples No dimples Farsighted Normal vision Dominant-recessive pattern of inheritance versus recessive pattern of inheritance: What is the difference between dominant & recessive? Dominant: a single dominant gene (1) is needed to influence someone’s physical appearance (geno); brown eyes Recessive: 2 recessive genes are needed to change someone’s physical appearance (geno); blue eyes Exam material: Punnett Square Examples: Let’s say your one parent has blue eyes (homogenous) and the other has brown eyes (heterogenous), what are the chances you will have blue eyes? Homo: sane two, hetero: one of each Parent One: bb (blue eyes) Parent Two: Bb (brown eyes) (hereto) if homo BB  b b B Bb Bb b bb bb 50% you will have blue eyes (hetero) b b B Bb Bb B Bb Bb 0% you will have blue eyes if one parent is BB dominant (homo) Think about your hair type or eye colour and that of your siblings. What does your hair suggest about parents’ genotypes? -I have blue eyes & brown hair -Sister has blue eyes & blonde hair -Parents have blue eyes & brown hair Eye Color: All of you (parents, you, and your sister) are bb for blue eyes. Hair Color: Your parents are likely Bb (brown hair, carrying blonde), you are also Bb, and your sister is bb (blonde hair) Explain Epigenetics: Epigenetic markers regulate gene expression (our phenotype) by signaling some genes to “turn on” and others to “turn off”. Essentially epigenetics are subjective to change and aren’t permanent. Really outlines the nature versus nurture debate, and is worth research because epigenetics can be changed. How DNA interacts with cells in the body & how interactions with the environment can alter genes. What can influence epigenetics: -Diet, chemical exposure, medication Evolutionary versus ethological theories: -Evolutionary theories: focus is on survival of genes and mating to reproduce and carry genes on. More so these theories attempt to explain our differences and similarities as species. -Example; attachment style or dependency for survival; man saving his kids from burning house (ethology or evolution) -Ethological: focus is on survival of self and on inborn behaviors, best studied in the natural environment. Why is it important to understand biological, evolutionary and ethological theories? -Insight to nature versus nurture -Adaptive behaviors/ functions -Understand human development Explain Freud’s 2 psychoanalytic theories: Three components of personality: -ID: innate drives (devil) -Ego: rationalization (conscious); decider -Superego: morals (angel) Freud’s psychosexual development: -Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital (permitting too little or too much gratification can cause fixation in future years like smoking-oral fixation) Explain Erik’s psychoanalytic theories: -Influenced by Freud; but was more diverse and accepting of cultural differences; viewed children as more active and adaptive in developmental process. More emphasis on social and cultural influences rather than sexual urges. Explain Maslow’s humanistic perspective (psychoanalytic theory): -The most important internal drive is each individual’s motivation to achieve one’s full potential-known as self actualization, his hierarchy of needs. Explain Carl Rogers humanistic perspective (psychoanalytic theory): -Focus is on the capacity for each of us to become a fully functioning person, based on potential for growth, even when growing up in an unideal environment. Exam material: Explain Piaget’s cognitive theory of development: What are the 4 stages: -Based on the development of thought and brain processes; 2 stages: assimilation & accommodation; more categories as child gets older and ages Sensorimotor Exploration using senses, motor coordination Preoperational Usage of symbols Concrete Operations Logical thought Formal operations Abstract thought (hypothetical) Explain the cognitive theories in terms of information processing: -Like a computer; receives input, performs operations, and outputs (long term versus short term storage) -Development is continuous, changes in hardware reflects brain and nervous system and software reflects changes in mental processes like planning, reasoning, concentrating Explain 2 learning theories; are learning theories continuous? -Yes they are continuous 1. B.F. Skinner: operant conditioning using reinforcers and punishers 2. Albert Bandura: Bobo doll, how our thoughts and actions are affected by social environment What are continuous societies versus discontinuous societies: -Continuous: children gradually and peacefully take on adult roles (Canada) -Discontinuous: abrupt and stressful transitions from children to adults What is the Bronfenbrenner ecological systems model: Similar to LERNER -Based on environmental influences on development (series of nested systems (5): -Microsystem (Closes to you): family, friends, teachers -Mesosystem: interactions between microsystem; school experience and home life -Exosystem -Macrosystem -Chronosystem (furtherst from you) Week One: Developmental Research: What is Developmental Psychology: -The scientific study of age related changes in our bodies, behavior, thinking, emotions, relationships; examine lifespan -Understands that inborn characteristics interact with environmental factors in complex ways What are the 3 components of development across the lifespan? -Cognitive domain; physical domain; social domain Learning versus Maturation: -Maturation: hereditary influences on aging process -Learning: change in behavior due to experience List the 3 aspects of research in developmental psychology:  1. Scientific Method: gathering data; literature 2. Theories: set of concepts used to interpret 3. Hypothesis: theoretical prediction What are the 2 types/elements of research: 1. Research Design; specific plan; experimental, correlational.. 2. Research Methods; specific activities of participants; questionnaires, interviews What is the self determination theory? -Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness What makes a good research question? -Falsifiable, heuristic value, clear and concise What are 3 common research designs? 1. Correlational: aims to determine if 2 things are related 2. Experimental: aims to determine whether a causal relationship exists using independent (manipulated) and dependent (depends) variables Examples: Does extra teachers in a classroom lead to better academic performance? IV-learning environment( with/without additional teachers) and DV-academic performance 3. Descriptive: aims to describe a specific phenomenon What is cross-sectional data collection? A limitation? -Data collected at one point in time, no manipulation-observing natural environment -Limitations b/c cannot draw conclusions, not that great, different ages What about longitudinal data? Limitations? -Same participants observed repeatedly over time (weeks, months, years) -Limitations in practice effects, people drop out, cohort effect (variations over time), better What is sequential data? Limitations? -Combination of cross-sectional & longitudinal -Different ages, repeatedly observed for a period of time (Example; government funded research) Limitations; expensive, takes a long time, attrition, controls for a lot of effects Exam material: quantitative versus qualitative research: what kinds of designs for each: -Quantitative: relies on natural science and numerical data, data is manipulated, quantitative designs include experimental, quasi-experimental (evaluate the effect of an intervention) and nonexperimental. Discovering facts through measuring things, statistical analysis -Mean, S.D -Qualitative: concerned with understanding human behavior, emotion, attitudes, and experiences. Qualitative designs use one-on-one interviews, ethnography, case studies and focus groups. Very rich data that is hard to capture with numbers. -Structured, unstructured interviews, focus groups and observational methods Participatory versus collaborative research: -Collaborative: involves a genuine partnership between researchers and community members. It’s characterized by mutual trust and cooperation throughout the entire research process.(homeless research) -Participatory: focuses on involving the people who are directly affected by the research. The goal is to create partnerships that ensure the research benefits those who are intended to be the end-users of the findings. Indigenous Perspective: 3 R’s: -Relationality (what is my role?), -Reciprocity (acknowledge & honoring), -Respect (working together to foster new knowledge) Define Indigenous Perspective Further (4 Spirtual words): -Ontology: ways of being -Epistemology: ways of knowing -Methodology: ways of connecting -Axiology: how we work together in a good way Why is cross-cultural research important to developmental psychology (2 reasons): 1. Identifies universal change 2. Identifies specific variables that explain cultural differences that can be used to improve people’s lives -Expand out of WEIRD populations (western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic) Week Two: Pregnancy Prenatal Development & Birth: Explain conception in detail: Since the cells in a female’s body contain only X chromosomes, all her ova carry X chromosomes Half of a male’s sperm contain X chromosomes; the other half contain Y chromosomes Consequently, the sex of the new individual is determined by the sex chromosome in the sperm -Parent’s sperm & parent’s ovum affect zygote (46 chromosomes; 23 from each parent) Explain 3 different conception options: Who protects these options/procedures: Assisted Human Reproduction (AHR) ⚬Canadian legislation protects the health and safety of those undergoing AHR and the children born from such procedures  1. ⚬Fertility drugs is one of the many AHR techniques available to couples who have trouble conceiving 2. ⚬Cryopreservation freezes the multiple embryos created in IVF (In vitro fertilization) labs, using vitrification protocols to speed the cooling 3. ⚬Artificial insemination injects sperm directly into the uterus What is prenatal development or gestation: 3 stages Prenatal development, or gestation, is the process that transforms a zygote into a newborn 1) Begins with zygote; 14 days 2) Period of the embryo; most important 3-8 weeks 3) Period of the fetus (9 week until birth mark) Explain the 3 different stages of trimesters: What are the two patterns of prenatal development: Cephalocaudal pattern—development that proceeds from the head downward Proximodistal pattern—development that proceeds from the middle of the body outward What are the 4 support systems for the zygote? 1. Amnion 2. Chorion 3. Placenta 4. Umbilical cord Explain the 3 layers of development for the embryo? When does everything start developing? 1. Ectoderm: spinal cord, brain, skin, hair 2. Mesoderm: muscles, bones, circulatory system 3. Endotherm: digestive system, lungs, organs, ears The fetal brain: -Neuronal proliferation: neural formal really picks up during week 10-18 -Neurons start to develop synapses The presence of what signals the development of gonads in males and ovaries in females: -Androgens; influences structural regions and brian behavior What an abnormality at birth called: -Congenital anomaly; transferred through sex linked disorders What are some examples of genetic disorders: Name a chromosomal disorder: A trisomy is a condition in which a child has three copies of a specific autosome ⚬The most common is trisomy 21, or Down syndrome, in which the child has three copies of chromosome 21 ⚬The risk of bearing a child with trisomy 21 rises with maternal age What are maternal characteristics (who is mommy?): -Nutrition, emotional well-being, age -Lower emotional wellbeing leads to more stress, which means lower weight which means more implications What are maternal diseases AKA sexually transmitted diseases/infections: -Syphilis: eye, ear, brain damage, death for baby -Gential herpes: most infectious at birth; death, blindness, neurological damage -HIV/AIDS If mommy drinks alcohol what are the 3 effects on child: -FAS-syndrome; heavy drinking -FASD-Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder -FAE-effects; moderate social drinking, poor motor skills, below-average intelligence & attention problems Anomalies associated with the sex chromosomes: ⚬Klinefelter  ⚬Turner What is an environmental influence on prenatal development? -Teratogens: viruses, drugs, WEED, chemicals, radiation & pollutants What is the most preventable cause of intellectual disabilities in Canada: -FAE-fetal alcohol effects Describe the effects of smoking while pregnant for baby: -Slows growth of fetus, low birth weight, cleft lip, risk of miscarriage, ADHD Explain the effects of weed, cocaine, heroin and opioids on the baby: How much weight should you gain when your pregnant: -24lbs-30lbs (11-14 kg) Who had trouble accessing healthcare while pregnant: -immigrants and refugee women What are 2 parental characteristics: Males pass on roughly 55 genetic mutations to their children compared to a mother’s 14 mutations -Physical abuse of mother affects fetus and if dad works in a profession around teragons he can cause indirect effects on fetus from pollutants List some birthing options or choices: -Natural birth -Hospital labour -Birthing centre -Home delivery: midwife & doulas There are three types of drugs commonly used during labour and delivery, what are they ⚬Analgesics ⚬Sedatives or tranquilizers ⚬Anaesthesia Analgesics and anesthetics to reduce pain, sedatives to relax the mother, and stimulants to induce or intensify uterine contractions Epidurals do not lead to the negative outcomes for the mother or infant that were observed in earlier research What are the 3 processes of birth/labour: 1. Contractions 2. Fetus’s head passes thru cervix 3. Placenta is expelled What is Anoxia: -Anoxia is the greatest risk during childbirth. It occurs when the placenta separates prematurely, interrupting the oxygen to the fetus. - Anoxia is more likely to occur if the fetus is in the breech position, which is when the child is feet first versus head first before delivery or lack of protein in the diet of mom Preterm versus small-for-date birth: -Preterm: born 3+ weeks before due date -Small-for-date: slow growth and small size Week Two: Infancy Development: What are standards we use to ensure healthy development: When does the most physical change happen? What is fully developed AT birth? -Growth, height, weight are the standards -The greatest degree of physical change happens within the first 7 months to 2 years of life while cortex is still developing in brain, brain’s weight doubles in size -At birth the reproductive system is fully developed, midbrain and medulla and majority of neurons are developed The brain and the nervous system; 3 important brain components: Synaptogenesis: formation of connections (synapses) among neurons ⚬proceeds rapidly during the brain growth spurt (synapses denser at birth rather than in adolescence) Synaptic pruning: refinement and elimination of neurons ⚬Begins near the time of birth and completed near end of sexual maturation Plasticity: capacity for change; a developmental state that has the potential to be shaped by experience (more plasticity when ur young versus older-more impressionable) Describe the function of the lower subcortical & cerebrum and cerebral cortex: -Lower subcortical: Control consciousness, inborn reflexes, and vital biological functions (digestion, respiration, and elimination) -Cerebrum and cerebral cortex: body movements, language, learning etc. Explain what myelination is and the purpose? -Myelin gradually covers individual axons and electrically insulates them from one another, improving the conductivity of the nerve -Myelination is most rapid during the first two years after birth, and continues throughout childhood and adolescence -The part of the brain that regulates attention, called the reticular formation, isn’t fully myelinated until the mid-20’s Explain what newborn reflexes are: involuntary, automatic responses to stimuli What are survival reflexes: Examples below: inborn responses such as breathing, sucking, swallowing that enable newborn to adapt to environment What are primitive reflexes: reflexes controlled by subcortical areas of the brain that gradually disappear over the first year of life such as Babinski; fanning and curling toes, palmar; curling fingers around objects, moro, swimming, stepping If such reflexes persist past this age, the baby may have some kind of neurological problem When do babies cry the most? What can reduce future crying? -Cry the most within the first 3 months of life Prompt attention to crying in the first three months leads to less crying later Name the 3 types of cries and what does it mean if a baby is colic? Cries: ⚬Basic cry – signals hunger; rhythmical pattern ⚬Anger cry – louder and more intense ⚬Pain cry – very abrupt onset Colic: an infant behaviour pattern of unknown cause, involving intense daily bouts of crying, totalling 3 or more hours a day for several months; could be tummy ache pain Developing bones: When do certain formations happen: ⚬Prenatal: soft cartilage that gradually hardens into bony material (ossification) ⚬Birth: most of infant’s bones are soft, pliable, and difficult to break When is the skull formed? What develops last? Skull is formed by age 2, with pliable points at the seams where skull bones join (sutures) Ankles, feet, wrists, and hands develop as child matures When does an infant develop muscle fibers: By age 2 should have: -They are born with all the muscle fibers they will ever have, as the fibers grow so does the muscle this can be from intake of protein, salt -By age 2, should have impressive array of motor skills What is the difference between Locomotor skills and manipulative skills: Locomotor skills (gross motor) – crawling, sitting, rolling over -Indigenous infants have better gross motor skills at a young age compared to western culture Manipulative skills (fine motor control) – use of hands and fingers; stacking blocks Describe the gender differences in the rate of physical development: -The sequence of motor skill development is virtually the same for all children, even those with serious physical or mental anomalies -Male infants display a clear preference for rough-and-tumble play, even during the first few months of life -Throughout infancy, girls are ahead of boys in some aspects of physical maturity. For example, the separate bones of the wrist appear earlier in girls than in boys : This means that female infants may have a slight advantage in the development of manipulative skills such as self-feeding. What types of experiences do you think would positively or negatively influence motor development? -The amount and intensity of play -Exposure to structured play like swimming, sports -Social interaction will positively influence motor development to play together -Exposed to different environments; water, sand, playground, different terrains When do the lungs become most efficient: Increasing lung efficiency and strength of heart muscles leads to? By infancy children can sustain short or long periods of motor activity: The lungs grow rapidly and become more efficient during the first two years Improvements in lung efficiency and increasing strength of the heart muscles = more stamina or ability to maintain activity End of infancy, children are capable of engaging in fairly long periods of sustained motor activity without rest Health and wellness for baby: Getting the right nutrients: -Breastfeeding is better for the baby in terms of nutrition and vitamins of breast milk based on environmental factors of the milk (sometimes the milk is not vitamin dense) -Improves infant immunes system by making them less susceptible to common illnesses -Some moms can’t produce enough milk to sustain baby, just important baby is receiving vital nutrients and vitamins from formula Over half of babies in Canada in during what phase do they die: -Neonate and between 4 weeks to 1 year Babies in daycare, twice as likely to have?, infants with chronic ear infections more likely to have what: -Babies in daycare centres have about twice as many infections as those reared entirely at home -Infants who have chronic ear infections are more likely than their peers to have learning disabilities, attention disorders, and language deficits during the school years What can decrease these odds? What age should infants get necessary needles/shots? Routine immunization should commence at two-months of age and continue through childhood and adolescence A full set of immunizations includes chickenpox, hepatitis, diphtheria/tetanus/pertussis, influenza, polio, pneumonia, meningitis, and measles, mumps and rubella virus vaccine What group in Canada still has the worst determinants of health? -Indigenous people in terms of obesity, nutrition and lifestyle-related chronic disease; barriers to food, challenges to accessibility to care (living in a remote community) What is preterm and low birth weight infants: Explain key differences: Preterm infants are those born before 37 weeks gestation, if they’re born before 32 weeks will not have adaptive reflexes (must be fed with a tube going down throat); need kangaroo care -Born preterm or at a low birth weight will influence speed of developmental milestones, by age 2 or 3 they should catch up to peers that were born normal What kind of birth is most at risk for a preterm birth or low birth weight: -Most triplets are born preterm and same with twins, single babies are at the lowest risk -Risk goes up when there are multiple babies What are post term births? Who is most at risk? -Babies born after 42 weeks of conception or later, increased chance of dying as a newborn -High rates of post term births in Yukon and Manitoba and among lower income families & Indigenous people Sensation versus Perception: Sensation: a mental process resulting from the external information experienced through the sensory organs and transmitted to the brain Perception: the interpretation of sensory input Describe vision acuity and tracking: -How well someone can see details at a distance -Tracking just involves following an object with your eyes, babies prefer big patterns Visual acuity for a baby versus an adult? -Visual acuity for a baby is 40 times worse than a normal sighted adult (legally blind when born) -It improves through processes of pruning, synapses and myelination processes -Children reach the visual acuity of an adult by age 7 What colours are most present by month 1: -Red, green, blue by first month, can sense a colour like an adult just trouble distinguishing colour Explain hearing acuity in terms of infants & adults: ⚬Newborns hear nearly as well as adults do; they hear in womb ⚬High-pitched noises need to be loud to be heard ⚬Infants can locate the direction of some sounds at birth; but gets better with ages Explain the smelling and tasting in terms of infants & adults: ⚬Smell has nearly unlimited variations; they know the smell of mom ⚬Newborns react differently to each basic taste -Preference for sweets smells because of breast milk, and sweet versus salty/sour food What is the best developed sense for babies? In terms of touch, babies are sensitive to: -Touch & motion is the most developed sense -Temperatures & pain, -Need gentle, social touching for early brain development, babies are very sensitive to touching and it's beneficial (massaging) What does umbilical cord do for babies? -It’s for Blood flow and taking out deoxygenated blood and give oxygenated blood Vitamins important for birth: -Folic acid/ vitamin B important for babies What do babies do with sensory information? -Young infants can make discriminations among sounds, sights, and feelings; they pay attention and respond to patterns; understanding the physical world -They can start pick up on interactions, repeat things, how they engage with environment around them-no consciously What are the 3 different methods researchers may use to ask infant about their experiences: -Preference technique: longer time spent looking at one picture or object compared to another reveals something about babies attention (staring longer-more attention grabbing) -Hibutation: Shown the same thing over and over, and they get bored, then they introduce something new (novel stimulus) to restart habitation (grab baby's attention again); is the infant able to notice something new known as dishabituation -Operant: Pairing stimulus, after a learned response is well established, experimenter can vary stimulus to see how the baby responds or still responds What is stereopsis and when does it happen in an infant: What cues help with depth perception? -Develops by 3 months of age; use of both eyes top create one image (stereopsis); has to do with depth perception, by 4 months more complex and effective -Binocular and monocular cues helps with our depth perception and ability to locate things (like texture gradients, interposition, and shading) The closer the object, the more or less the view from 2 different eyes? -More closer the object the more view from 2 different eyes What is the point of early visual stimulation? -Babies should be exposed within the first 2 years of their life to a wide variety of visual stimuli so they can develop certain patterns, understand complexities, and use the visual part of their brain, this is so they can develop normal visual perception -If this doesn’t happen; later on they will be affected by sleeper effect (lays dormant for a while and see impact later) Studies have shown babies prefer to look at faces of? -Their mothers faces from the earliest hours of birth -By 6 months they will make continuous eye gaze with parents (direct eye contact) -They prefer adult attractive faces versus unattractive adult faces Babies and their listening patterns: -They can recognize mothers voice among female voices, not father’s though -Prefer mother’s voice and the sound; they also prefer higher pitched sounds -They recognize melody patterns by 6 months -The more parents reinforce cooing and certain songs in the future they will react to it; positive reward; reinforced sound What is intermodal perception: What is cross modal transfer of noises: -A single perception of a stimulus that is based on information from 2 or more sense; converge of senses; hear a dog barking and know the dog is barking; don’t need to see dog to know its barking though based on schemes and hearing sense -Cross modal transfer of noises; -The transfer of info from one sense to another -Older age comes with more intermodal perception, 6-9 months Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory: -Changes that occur in mental activities; memory, thinking, decision making, judgment, and learning First Stage: Birth to 2 years old: Sensorimotor Stage: -Based on schemas; organization of experiences and behaviour schemes and mental representations -Manipulate objects with motor capabilities and stimuli in environment, lot’s of touching and grabbing -General milestones include: Modeling, mimicking (smile back), object permanence (things will exist when not in view), A-not-B error; hiding stimulus and having trouble tracking object and where it actually is -By 12 months they will stop making A-not-B error How do babies show they're learning: -Denotes permanently changes in behavior that result from experience, based on organizing interactions in environment -Early on in life modeling is huge based on observational learning What are the 3 kinds of lenses that view language development as: Behaviourists: learned language from parental reinforcement, not always correct based on environmental perspective Nativists: called the language acquisition device, innately we have some processor that allows us to pick up on language development, ingrained with language and grammar; don’t need reinforcement based on nature and brain influences Interactionaist (most endorsed): Based on biological perspectives and reinforcement; environment and brain both influence language development (nature and nurture play a role) What is infant directed speech: -Simplified and higher pitch sound that helps infant develop sounds, helps child pick out repeating grammatical forms -Example; baby talk (high; you’re so cute) effective way of getting baby to engage with you Influences on language development: -Being read to at a young age is incredibly important for sentence structures and moving throw stages, if parents talk to them more, quicker language development and if you have siblings -All based on exposure to experiences of language (variety of languages) -Cultural differences in child rearing may underestimate children’s language skills (different hearing) When does cooling take place, babbling? -Cooing; usually to signal pleasure happens first when young -Babbling; vowel and consonant sounds, happens around 6 to 7 months, based on maturation of the brain When do gesture and sound combinations happen? -Happens around 10 months, trying to communicate what they want (put up hands, point fingers, and so on) When does expressive language happen, produce and respond to speech: -By 12 months, 1 year What is telegraphic speech: -Children will speak, short and straight to the point (condensing point down); dog eat or ball there; due to production constraints and processing time/rate List some individual differences in language development: -Even if they are a bit behind, they will catch up! -Can have a word explosion and be okay -Some people take longer even if there is no actual issue or learning disability By what age does it become difficult to learn a new language: -Before age 3, by age 3 it’s difficult List 3 advantages to being bilingual: -Cognitive advantages -Better language proficiency -Nonverbal intelligence Week Three: Social & Personality Development What were Freud and Erikson’s objective reasoning for their theories: -infant social personality development and psychoanalytic, ethnological perspective (human cultures) Describe the difference between Freud’s psychosexual stages and Erikson’s psychological stages Psychoanalytic theories: Freud’s psychosexual stages: ⚬Oral stage (from birth to two): infants derive satisfaction through the mouth -Fixation leads to oral behaviours like nail biting and swearing, too much or too little oral fixation Erikson’ psychosocial stages: ⚬Emphasized the importance of responding to the infant’s other needs by talking, comforting ⚬The first two years: the trust versus mistrust stage -Trust world; further development -Don’t trust world; more negative attachment styles to parents, fewer experiences ⚬A period during which the infant learns to trust the world around them or become cynical about the social environment’s ability to meet needs What Is Attachment: Attachment Theory and internal models: Attachment: the emotional tie to a parent experienced by an infant, from which the child derives security, happens from mutual affection and desire to maintain proximity, it's a reciprocal relationship Attachment theory: the view that the ability and need to form an attachment relationship early in life are genetic characteristics of all human beings Internal models include: -Child’s confidence concerning availability of the attachment figure -Child’s expectation of rebuff or affection -Child’s sense of assurance in the safe base -infants create internal models of their relationships that become better established by age 5 and affect behaviours in future relationships What is Synchrony? Synchrony is like a conversation. The baby signals his needs by crying or smiling; he responds to being held by quieting or snuggling; he looks at the parents when they look at him. The parents, in turn, enter into the interaction with their own repertoire of caregiving behaviour. -a mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment behaviours shared by a parent and child (Contributes to safety and security) The parents attachment to infant based on Bowlby’s 4 stages: -Long term bonds form from synchrony The infant exhibits a distinctive set of attachment-related behaviours and interaction patterns in each phase: ⚬Non-focused orienting and signalling (not a lot of attachment going on) ⚬Focus on one or more figures (attention more narrowed down to people who care for them) ⚬Secure base behaviour (go to one specific care giver; mother oftentimes; who is around the child the most- this is the strongest relationship/bond) ⚬Internal model; allows children older than 2 years to imagine how an anticipated action might affect the bonds they share with their caregivers, daycare, grandparents, friends (they understand different types of relationships and how they are reciprocal) List 3 different types of infant attachment to parents: Attachment Behaviours: ⚬Stranger anxiety: expressions of discomfort, such as clinging to the mother, in the presence of strangers ⚬Separation anxiety: expressions of discomfort, such as crying, when separated from an attachment figure ⚬Social referencing: an infant’s use of others’ facial expressions as a guide to his or her own emotions 4 Types of attachment: -Secure attachments (most popular in every country) ⚬Insecure attachments: ￭Avoidant attachment ￭Ambivalent attachment ￭Disorganized/disoriented attachment What is the strange situation sequence: Variations in Attachment Quality: Experimenter introduces parent and infant to playroom and leaves Parent sits while baby plays Stranger enters, sits, talks to parent Parent leaves Parent returns and greets baby, stranger leaves Parent leaves Stranger enters and offers comfort Parent returns, comforts, engages baby with toys Insecure attachment style reactions: & Secure attachment style reactions: -Brightspace Online and website for attachment What will create variations in attachment styles: -Based on mother’s responsiveness to needs -Consistency in child’s family environment leads to a secure attachment style -By age 4 or 5 the child has internalized this pattern and can affect relationship with peers and teachers How does ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder) influence attachment: -Most ASDs have secure attachment styles, they need social skills training and behavioral skills training Five factors influencing secure attachment: ⚬Emotional Responsiveness - is crucial; the primary caregiver must be able and willing to form a bond ⚬Tactile Responsiveness - pleasant physical contact during social interactions is associated with comfort and safety, and can buffer stress ⚬Contingent Responsiveness - being sensitive to the child’s verbal and nonverbal cues and responding appropriately ⚬Marital Conflict – poses risks for emotional withdrawal on the part of the infant which interferes with synchrony ⚬Mental Health – diminishes caregiver’s capacity for contingent responsiveness and synchrony 3 Characteristics of securely attached children: ⚬Children rated as securely attached to their mothers in infancy are later: ￭More sociable and more positive in their behaviour toward friends and siblings ￭Less clinging and dependent on teachers and less aggressive and disruptive ￭More empathetic and more emotionally mature in their interactions in school and other settings outside the home Characteristics continue into adolescence and adulthood: Securely attached children will often be: ⚬More socially skilled and have more intimate friendships ⚬More likely to be leaders ⚬Have higher self-esteem ⚬Increased sociability throughout early, middle, and late adulthood What does it look like when loss of attachment happens on a much broader scale? What is Colonization? ⚬Colonization: the social, cultural, and geographic displacement of Indigenous peoples by European settlers ⚬Many Indigenous children were separated from families and placed in residential schools, resulting in generations of Indigenous children lacking opportunities to develop and/or maintain secure attachment to caregivers What is the difference between personality versus temperament when looking into self concept: Personality: a pattern of responding to people and objects in the environment Temperament: inborn predispositions such as activity level that form the foundations of personality What are the three dominant temperament types: The easy child (40% of infants) The difficult child (10% of infants) The slow-to-warm-up child (15% of infants) Remaining 25% are a combination of 2 or more of the above 5 key dimensions of temperament: Activity level is a tendency to move often and vigorously, rather than to remain passive or immobile Approach/positive emotionality is a tendency to move toward, rather than away, from new experiences, usually accompanied by positive emotion Inhibition is the flip side of approach and is a tendency to respond with fear or withdrawal in new situations this seems to be a precursor to shyness Negative emotionality is the tendency to respond with anger, fussing, loudness, or irritability or a low threshold of frustrations Effortful control/task persistence is the ability to stay focused and to manage attention and effort Are identical twins more alike in temperament than fraternal twins? -Yes they are more alike Genetic & Epigenetic Factors: -Epigenetic mechanisms that control the expression of particular genes play a role in temperament What are the neurological processes underlying physiological patterns like shyness? -Differing thresholds for arousals -Dopamine & serotonin problems -Frontal lobe asymmetry What is interpersonal milieu? -Are neurological differences a cause or an effect of temperament? (Depends on environments) Mix!!! What is Sandra’s Scarr's niche-picking? Temperament impacting interests: ￭People of all ages choose the experiences that reflect their temperaments, choose certain environments, friends, expression of self (prefer calm friends over loud friends) ￭Parents may also be able to either increase or decrease the effects of an infant’s inborn temperamental tendencies ⚬Goodness-of-fit is the degree to which an infant’s temperament is adaptable to his or her environment, and vice versa What is long-term stability? ⚬Temperamental patterns seen in infancy tend to persist through childhood and into adulthood ⚬Researchers have found considerable consistency at various ages in measures of inhibition What is Self-Concept according to Freud and Piaget: -During the same months when a baby is creating an internal model of attachment and expressing her own unique temperament, she is also developing an internal model of self. -Freud suggested that the infant needed to develop a sense of separateness from her mother before she could form a sense of self. -Piaget emphasized that the infant’s understanding of the basic concept of object permanence was a necessary precursor for the child’s attaining self-permanence. What is the Subjective (Existential) Self? ⚬An infant’s awareness that she or he is a separate person who endures through time and space and can act on the environment (they exist in time & space) ⚬Like object permanence, babies are usually fully aware of the subjective self by 8 to 12 months of age What is the objective (Categorical) Self? -The second second major task is for the toddler to come to understand that she is also an object in the world (Thompson et al., 2011). Just as a ball has properties—roundness, the ability to roll, a certain feel in the hand—so the “self” also has qualities or properties, such as gender, size, a name, or qualities such as shyness or boldness and coordination or clumsiness (characteristics) -As self-awareness develops, toddlers begin to show a newly proprietary attitude (“Mine!”) toward toys or other treasured objects. -Discover different categories and characteristics of themselves What is Mirror Recognition and Self-naming? The Rouge Test: -This is where you put rouge on a child’s nose and place them in front of a mirror- do they wipe their nose? -Younger children will not show self-recognition but those 18-24 months would touch their own noses -Mirror recognition & self naming happen at roughly the exact same time Describe the emotional self? -Begins when the baby learns to identify changes in emotions expressed in other faces at 2-3 months -As the infants understanding of self advances, it is matched by parallel progression of their emotional expression -Near the end of the first year, babies use caregivers emotions to guide their own emotions and mimic feelings/expressions -Near the end of the second year, self-conscious emotional expressions emerge When do children realize that other people have a mind of their own, separate intentions & internal mental states? -2 years old ⚬This is related to later language, intellectual, behavioural, and emotional adjustment What is joint attention? ⚬A child’s capability to pay attention to both another person’s intentions and an object at the same time (for example to draw someone’s attention to a toy) is a form of joint attention What are the effects of nonparental care in Canada? Mom is working and so is Dad (Nonparental daycare is a way of life in Canada) In 1967, only 17% of Canadian mothers with preschool children were in the labour force By 2015, roughly 70% of such women were working outside the home ￭This has led to major changes in childcare services -The most common pattern, especially for infants and toddlers, is for a nonrelative to care for the child in a setting outside the child’s home (Sinha, 2014) -More than 50% of child under 4 receive nonparental care through a nonrelative caregiver What are the two most common patterns of non parental daycare: ⚬Most common pattern: care in home daycares or a regulated licenced daycare centre by a nonrelative ⚬Second most common pattern: care provided by relatives or nannies in a variety of settings What are the effects of daycare on a child's cognitive development, peer relations and attachment style? High-quality, cognitively enriched daycare has beneficial effects on children’s overall cognitive and language development ⚬Especially for infants and children from poor families, who show significant and lasting gains in IQ and later school performance The impact of daycare on children’s personalities is not entirely rosy, however, the association is complex One study found that coupled with insensitive mothering, insecure attachment is amplified by any of the following: ⚬The child averaging more than 10 hours per week in any type of nonparental care, regardless of quality ￭Multiple child-care arrangements ￭Exposure to low-quality daycare Research concluded that the quality of attachment to parents is dependent on the larger familial, community, societal, and cultural context in which child care occurs