Devpsych (Psych203) Midterms PDF

DEVPSYCH (PSYCH203) MIDTERMS Topics: Brain maturation Chapter 4: Early Childhood Brain Weight: By age 3, the Chapter 5: Middle and Late Childhood brain is about 75% of...

DEVPSYCH (PSYCH203) MIDTERMS Topics: Brain maturation Chapter 4: Early Childhood Brain Weight: By age 3, the Chapter 5: Middle and Late Childhood brain is about 75% of its Chapter 6 : Adolescence adult weight; by age 6, it's at 95%. CHAPTER 4: Early Childhood Myelination: Ongoing Early childhood (2 - 6 years old) myelination and dendrite development in the cortex Rapid physical, cognitive, and enhance abilities, such as socioemotional growth. controlling emotions and understanding how to Significant development in language and play games. cognitive abilities. Improved emotional control. Prefrontal Cortex: Greater Engagement in activities reflecting personal development in this area interests. improves thinking, strategizing, and emotional Parents remain key, with growing influence control. from teachers and peers. Overall physical growth Children aged 2-6 grow about 3 inches in height and gain 4-5 pounds annually. Growth happens in spurts, like during infancy. Between ages 3-6, the left Average 2-year-old: 23-28 pounds, 33-35 hemisphere, involved in language, inches tall. grows significantly. Average 6-year-old: 40-50 pounds, 44-47 The right hemisphere, involved in inches tall. spatial tasks, continues to grow. At age 3, children resemble toddlers with a large head, stomach, and short limbs. By age 6, body proportions begin to resemble adults, with a lengthened torso. Growth slows compared to infancy, leading to a reduced appetite. Caloric needs: The corpus callosum, a dense band - Ages 2-3: 1,000-1,400 calories. connecting the two hemispheres, undergoes a growth spurt between ages 3-6, enhancing - Ages 4-8: 1,200-2,000 calories coordination between both hemispheres. Children under 6 struggle with tasks like using an Etch A Sketch due to immature coordination between hemispheres. Motor skill development Toilet training Gross motor skills Fine motor skills Typically takes place between 24-36 months of Children develop basic age, with readiness being a key factor. Skills like drawing, locomotion skills buttoning Timing: (running, jumping, clothes, and using skipping) and object The average age for toilet scissors are control skills (throwing, refined. training is 29 months for girls catching, kicking). and 31 months for boys. 98% of children are trained by 36 Developmental milestones months. 2-year-olds: Improved running but struggle Physical and emotional readiness with activities like pedaling. is more important than age. 3-year-olds: Can pedal a tricycle. Starting too early can prolong the process. 4-year-olds: Have improved coordination and can dress themselves more easily. Readiness Signs Children’s art Interest in the potty or wearing underwear. By age 2: About 20 types of scribbles. Understanding and following basic instructions. By age 3: Begin creating shapes from scribbles. Complaining about wet or dirty diapers. By ages 4-5: Drawings become more Communicating the need to go through recognizable representations of the words, facial expressions, or posture. world. Staying dry for 2+ hours during the day. Ability to pull pants down and up and sit/rise from a potty chair. Daytime bladder control is typically achieved first, within 2-3 months of consistent training. Nap and nighttime training may take longer, sometimes years. Elimination disorders Sleep show reluctance to try new foods, exhibiting preferences for certain foods During early childhood, there is wide variation served in specific ways. in the number of hours of sleep recommended per day. "Just Right" Phenomenon: Many young children desire routine and consistency, such as specific rituals or patterns with toys, bedtime, or clothing choices. These behaviors bring a sense of security and often fade by middle childhood. Diet Issues in Developed Nations: While malnutrition is rare in developed countries, many children consume unbalanced diets with too much added sugar and fats. Half of these empty calories come from sources like soda, desserts, pizza, and whole milk. Establishing Healthy Eating Habits: Caregivers should focus on pleasant mealtimes, providing nutritious food, and Sexual development in early childhood avoiding power struggles to establish healthy taste preferences early on. Historical View: Traditionally, children were viewed as incapable of sexual Key Concepts in Piaget’s Preoperational arousal, but physical arousal exists from Stage: birth. Pretend Play: Children engage in symbolic play, Infancy: Boys and girls can experience using objects to represent different things. This erections and vaginal lubrication helps solidify new cognitive structures and even before birth. Infants may touch their encourages exploration and learning.****** genitals for comfort or to relieve tension, not to achieve orgasm. Egocentrism: Young children struggle to take the perspectives of others and assume that everyone Early Childhood: Self-stimulation becomes shares their views and experiences. common, and children show curiosity about their bodies and others'. Conservation Errors: Preoperational children Boys are often taught how to have difficulty understanding that quantity remains masturbate by peers, while girls discover it the same despite changes in shape or appearance. accidentally. Boys tend to Classification Errors: Children often struggle to engage in this behavior more openly than understand that objects can belong to multiple girls. categories (e.g., more black buttons or more Parental Guidance: Parents should buttons overall). Their reasoning is transductive, respond calmly, avoiding making drawing faulty conclusions from specific examples. children feel guilty. It’s important to teach Animism: Children attribute life-like qualities to appropriate times and places for inanimate objects (e.g., thinking a toy is tired or that such behaviors. a chair that hurt them is mean). This tendency Nutritional concerns diminishes after age 3. Appetite: Children in early childhood typically have a smaller appetite and may Critiques of Piaget compared to older children and adults, meaning they can hold fewer pieces of While Piaget’s theory laid the foundation for information in their minds at once. understanding early childhood cognition, modern research suggests he Executive Function: underestimated Executive function involves mental skills like children's abilities. self-control, flexible thinking, and working For instance, children exposed to specific memory thathelp manage thoughts and experiences, such as pottery-making, actions. demonstrate conservation skills earlier than Memory Strategies: expected. Younger children often don't usememory Additionally, studies on Theory of Mind strategies,like rehearsal, which involves reveal repeating information to that children can overcome egocentrism by remember it. ages 4 or 5, sooner than Piaget proposed. Long-term memory Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory Declarative Memory Non-Declarative (Explicit) Memory (Implicit) Cognitive development is shaped by cultural factors This includes facts and like language and social interactions. These are skills we events that we perform without Key Concepts consciously recall. thinking, such as riding a bike or tying Zone of Proximal Development For example, a child shoes. might remember what Scaffolding they learned in class A child may not be able Private Speech: Children talk to themselves to (semantic memory) or to explain the steps, recall what they did on solve problems, which eventually becomes internal but they can do it their birthday(episodic silent thought. automatically. memory). Contrast with Piaget: Piaget emphasized child-led discovery learning, while Vygotsky argued for the importance of instruction from more Autobiographical memory knowledgeable individuals. The ability to recall personal life events, Information Processing starts to develop in early childhood. Divided Attention: Young children struggle Children’s Understanding of the World to multitask but improve with age. Children develop an understanding of the Selective Attention: Improves as children world around them, focusing on their natural grow; younger children have difficulty inclination to generate explanations and filtering out distractions, especially auditory theories. ones. Sustained Attention: Younger children struggle to focus for long periods but show improvement with age. Memory Working Memory: Young children have limited working memory Constructivism Children aged 4 and older generally pass the task because they start to Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed in understand that people can have constructivism, where children actively try to different thoughts, beliefs, and understand their surroundings. knowledge. Piaget Vygotsky Unexpected contents task Piaget is identified as a cognitive constructivist, Vygotsky is seen as a Children are shown a familiar container that actually emphasizing social constructivist, contains something unexpected. The child is asked independent learning stressing that social what they thought was inside before the box was through exploration interactions play a key opened, and what someone else, who hasn’t seen and personal role in learning inside, would think is in the box. experience. Significance of the False-Belief Task Developmental Milestone: Theory – theory It demonstrates that a child is moving away from egocentrism (a hallmark of early childhood, Children have a natural tendency to create theories according to Piaget) and beginning to to explain everything they encounter, often understand that other people have their own generating their own explanations if the information thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives. they receive is unsatisfactory or too complex. Social and Emotional Development: Theory of mind Mastering this task is crucial for developing is the ability to understand that others have their own empathy, understanding others' intentions, and thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives, which may differ predicting behavior, all of which are vital for from one's own. This is crucial for social interactions. successful social interactions. Cultural and Familial Influences: Research shows that certain factors, like having siblings or growing up in a culture that emphasizes different types of knowledge (individualistic versus collectivistic), can influence when children develop theory of mind and pass the false-belief task. False-belief task Children under 4 years old often fail the false-belief task because they are still egocentric, meaning they think that everyone sees and knows the world the same way they do.  Theory of mind is part of social intelligence, Bilinguals excel in learning new words and helping us understand others' handling multiple labels for the same object thoughts and feelings. AUTISMSPECTRUM DISORDER It promotes self-awareness and empathy by According to the DSM-5-TR, Autism Spectrum recognizing different Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder perspectives. marked by: This ability helps us predict others' actions Deficits in social communication (e.g., and improves communication and social skills. difficulty with conversations, understanding nonverbal cues). Language development: Restricted, repetitive behaviors (e.g., repetitive movements, rigid routines, intense Children’s vocabulary expands rapidly interests). between ages 2-6, from 200 to over 10,000 Symptoms begin in early development, words. cause significant functional impairment, and They learn 10-20 words per week through vary in severity across individuals. fast-mapping, linking new words to known ASD is not explained by intellectual concepts. disability or developmental delay. Learning of speech parts varies by language; English speakers tend to learn nouns first, while Chinese and Japanese speakers learn verbs more readily. BILINGUALISM GLOBAL PREVALENCE: Most children worldwide are bilingual LANGUAGE EXPOSURE Bilingual children may hear fewer words in Despite these differences, both conditions involve each language, affecting their language challenges with social communication, repetitive proficiency. behaviors, and restricted interests, which is why the Heritage languages may be less frequently DSM-5 now includes Asperger's under the broader used in favor of dominant languages (e.g., term of ASD. children responding in English instead of Spanish at home). PREVALENCE: The disorder is four times more common in boys than girls. COGNITIVE BENEFITS Bilingualism improves cognitive skills, such as inhibitory control and working memory CAUSES: GENETIC FACTORS Strong genetic link, with 60%-90% concordance in identical twins, compared to 5%-10% in fraternal twins. Multiple genes related to brain connectivity and synapse formation implicated. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Exposure to pollutants (e.g., mercury, plant emissions), urban living, and vitamin D deficiency are linked to increased ASD risk. Prenatal infections (e.g., flu, pneumoniasepsis) during pregnancy increase the risk of ASD by 79%, possibly due to damage to the fetal brain from inflammation PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY VACCINATION MYTHS: CHILDHOOD Despite widespread misinformation, no Self-Control scientific evidence supports a link between vaccinations and autism. Involves response initiation, response Studies (e.g., DeStefano et al., 2013) show inhibition, and delayed gratification. The that the number of immunogens from development of self-control starts in early vaccines during early childhood does not childhood and improves over time, leading to correlate with ASD development. better outcomes in areas like academic performance and health (Mischel, Ebbesen, & Zeiss, 1972) GENDER Another important dimension of the self is the sense of self as male or female. During preschool years, children become more curious about the differences between boys and girls, both in appearance and in what activities are considered appropriate for each. Gender identity refers to a person’s internal sense of being male, female, or something else. This identity starts to develop in early childhood as children begin to recognize PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY whether they are boys or girls CHILDHOOD Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt Self-Concept and Self-Esteem DEVELOPMENT OF GENDER IDENTITY behavior based on internalized gender norms Influenced by a combination of biological factors (such as genetics), social influences GENDER SCHEMA THEORY (BEM,1981) (such as parental guidance and societal Children actively develop ideas about what it expectations), and representational means to be male or female, creating gender influences (how children perceive and schemas. They seek out information on internalize gender norms). gender roles and adjust their behavior to fit This understanding evolves as children grow the norms of their gender and become more aware of their own identity and the expectations associated with it. DEVELOPMENTAL INTERGROUP THEORY (BIGLER&LIBEN, 2007): GENDER ROLES Gender stereotypes are strong because These are culturally defined expectations for society puts too much emphasis on gender. behaviors, attitudes, and activities This focus leads children to form rigid gender considered appropriate for males and stereotypes that are hard to change. females. Children learn these roles through TRANSGENDER CHILDREN interactions with their families, peers, media, and educational systems. Some children do not conform to their assigned gender roles and may prefer toys, GENDER SOCIALIZATION clothing, and anatomy associated with the opposite sex. The process where children learn the behaviors, Approximately 0.3% of the U.S. population roles, and expectations associated with being male or female in their culture identifies as transgender, some from a very young age. Parents: They treat boys and girls differently from GENDER DYSPHORIA birth, like using certain colors, giving different types of toys, and assigning specific chores. Gender Dysphoria refers to the distress experienced due to a mismatch between an Peers: Children observe and imitate what their individual’s gender identity and their friends do based on their gender. assigned sex at birth. Media: TV shows, movies, and books often show Focus is on the distress rather than the typical roles for men and women, which shape a gender identity itself. child's understanding of gender. Included in DSM-5-TR to help individuals access medical care and support. THEORIES OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT Recognizes the need for treatment when SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (BANDURA,1997) distress affects daily functioning. Aims to reduce stigma and avoid Gender behavior is learned through pathologizing nonconforming gender observation, modeling, reinforcement, and identities. punishment. A study on socially transitioned transgender Children are rewarded for following gender children (ages 3-12) showed that their roles and punished for breaking them. gender development mirrors that of They learn gender-appropriate behaviors by cisgender children when they are supported watching adults and older children by family, leading to positive mental health. COGNITIVE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Some transgender individuals are intersex (around 2% of the world’s population), with Builds on social learning theory but adds biological variations like Turner syndrome, cognitive processes like attention, self- congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and regulation, and selfefficacy. Children learn androgen insensitivity syndrome the meaning of gender and regulate their Intersex refers to individuals born with biological "Nagger" moms and dads often fall under the characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of Authoritarian parenting style. This style is male or female. This can involve variations in: characterized by a high level of demand and control but low responsiveness to the child's Sex Chromosomes: Combination of XX, XY, emotional needs. or other variations. Reproductive Organs: Presence of both Key Traits of Authoritarian Parents: male and female reproductive organs, or They frequently nag, criticize, and set strict differences in their development. rules without much explanation or Sex Hormones: Levels of testosterone or discussion. estrogen that do not match typical male or They prioritize obedience and discipline over female patterns. open communication. Intersex conditions can include: They often rely on verbal nagging as a method to ensure compliance with rules and Turner Syndrome: Missing or partially expectations. missing X chromosome. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Genetic SAMPLE LINES COMMON TO AUTHORITARIAN disorder causing high levels of androgens. PARENTS (NAGGER TYPE) Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome: “You never do anything right; why can’t you Resistance to male hormones despite having just do what I tell you?” XY chromosomes. “How many times do I have to tell you to BAUMRIND’S PARENTING STYLES: clean your room?” “If you don’t follow the rules, there will be Parent-child dynamics evolve as children become consequences —no excuses.” more independent, leading to potential conflicts that shape the relationship. While their intentions might be to guide or correct behavior, this approach can often lead to negative feelings in children, such as resentment or anxiety, as it focuses more on control and less on understanding and communication. CULTURAL IMPACT Parenting styles are shaped by cultural values. In individualistic cultures, like the U.S., independence and self-reliance are key, making authoritative parenting more favored. “I understand you ’re upset, but we need to talk about In collectivistic cultures, such as those in Asia, why it’s important to follow the rules. Let’s figure out obedience and compliance are prioritized, leading to a solution together.” – AUTHORITATIVE more authoritarian approaches. “You don’t feel like doing your homework? That’s SOCIAL CLASS INFLUENCE okay, just do it whenever you want.” - PERMISSIVE Parenting styles can also reflect social class “Because I said so. That’s the rule, and you need to Working-class parents, who rely on obedience and follow it.” - AUTHORITARIAN reliability in their jobs, tend to emphasize these traits “Figure it out yourself. I’ m busy right now.” – in their children. NEGLECTFUL Middle-class parents, who are often rewarded for initiative and independence in professional roles, encourage those same qualities in their children. SPANKING GLASS CHILD Studies show that physical punishment, Refers to a sibling of a child with a disability, including spanking, can lead to negative chronic illness, or special needs. outcomes like increased aggression, The term “glass” symbolizes how these antisocial behavior, and cognitive delays. siblings are often “seen through” or overlooked, as most attention and family For example, children who were spanked scored resources are typically directed toward the higher on aggression measures and lower on sibling with special needs vocabulary tests. PLAY Internationally, physical discipline is increasingly viewed as harmful, with 46 Is seen by different theorists as a crucial part of child countries banning it. The United Nations has development called for the elimination of physical Freud: Believed play helps children release punishment, seeing it as a violation of pent-up emotions and cope with distressing children's rights. situations in a safe way. ALTERNATIVES TO SPANKING Vygotsky and Piaget: Viewed play as essential for developing intellectual abilities. Praising and modeling appropriate behavior Providing time-outs for inappropriate IMAGINARY COMPANIONS behavior Fictional characters created by children, which can Giving choices include invisible friends, personified objects (like Helping the child identify emotions and stuffed toys), or personas that the child learning to calm down impersonates daily. Ignoring small annoyances Withdrawing privileges Reasons for Creation: The reasons why children create imaginary companions are These alternatives foster better emotional regulation and long-term behavioral improvements not well understood, and over half have no clear trigger. SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS Changes Over Time: Imaginary companions often change in characteristics, Unique Bond: Siblings share a special such as developing superpowers, switching relationship distinct from those with peers or age or gender, or even "dying." These adults, spending significant time together. changes may reflect the child's growing Role in Social Skill Development: Siblings creativity or willingness to share their help each other develop social skills through experiences. cooperative and pretend play, teaching Treatment of Friends: Children often treat empathy, sharing, cooperation, negotiation, their imaginary companions as they do real and conflict resolution. friends, valuing the relationship similarly. INFLUENCE OF PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP: This suggests that children may use a consistent mental model of friendship in The quality of sibling interactions is often influenced interactions with both real and imaginary by the quality of the parent-child relationship and the companions. child’s psychological adjustment. CHILDREN AND THE MEDIA Negative sibling interactions are more common in families with poor parent-child Negative Effects of Television: communication. Excessive TV exposure is linked to adverse effects Children with emotional or behavioral issues on children’s behavior, health, and academic are more likely to have negative sibling achievement. Background TV can disrupt active interactions play, hinder cognitive and language development, and contribute to attention problems later in linked to better cognitive performance, childhood. language skills, and school readiness. Lower quality care was associated with more Use of Mobile Devices: behavioral problems and poorer Young children often use mobile devices developmental outcomes. mainly for gaming. CHILD ABUSE Excessive screen time (two or more hours per day) is associated with externalizing Child abuse and neglect are defined by federal law behaviors (e.g., aggression), shorter sleep, as actions or failures to act by a caregiver that result behavioral problems, and delays in motor in harm or risk of serious harm, including physical, skills, language, and problem-solving. emotional, sexual abuse, or neglect. SEXUAL ABUSE Defined as any sexual contact between a child and an adult or much older child, sexual abuse affects 1 in 4 girls and 1 in 10 boys. It can lead to severe emotional consequences, such as depression, anxiety, and relationship issues, especially when the perpetrator is a trusted figure. Avoid Using Media for Soothing: Using mobile media to calm children may hinder their emotional self-regulation and make it harder for parents to limit device use CHILD CARE NICHD Study on Child Care: The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development conducted a comprehensive longitudinal study of 1,364 children from diverse economic and ethnic backgrounds. The study found that children cared for by their mothers did not develop differently from those in child care. Instead, family characteristics (e.g., parental education, Prolonged exposure to abuse and toxic stress can income, emotional support) were stronger damage brain structures like the hippocampus and predictors of child development. amygdala, impairing memory, increasing disease vulnerability, and making children hypersensitive to Impact of Child Care Quality: stress in the future Higher quality child care—defined by better adult-to-child ratios, smaller group sizes, and caregivers’ education and training—was ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES (ACES) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) refer to all forms of abuse, neglect, and other traumatic experiences occurring before age 18. IMPACT OF ACES Health Outcomes: Increased risk of chronic conditions (e.g., heart disease, cancer), mental health issues (e.g., depression, suicide attempts), and risky behaviors (e.g., substance abuse, smoking). Development: Prolonged adversity without adult support activates stress response systems, disrupting brain and organ development. KEY FINDINGS OF ACES Health Risks: Individuals with four or more ACEs face significantly higher risks for various health problems compared to those with none (Felitti et al., 1998). Prevention Strategies: Supporting families and Demographics: ACEs are prevalent across providing responsive adult relationships can mitigate all groups, but higher exposure is noted in: the negative effects of ACE END OF CHAPTER 4 (PPT) Black and multiracial individuals LGBTQ+ communities Those with lower education, income, and employment status CHAPTER 5: Middle and Late Childhood In some communities, there may be cultural attitudes that either normalize or fail to adequately address Age Range: ages 6 to 11, between early abuse and neglect, leading to higher incidences of childhood and adolescence. ACEs. Motor Skills Development: Children gain greater control over their bodies, mastering many gross and fine motor skills. Brain Changes: enhance physical development and contribute to improved reasoning and flexibility of thought. Importance of School: broadening children's experiences beyond their family. Role of Peers: Peers become central to children's lives, influencing changes in parent-child relationships. Impact on Self-Perception: Peer acceptance plays a crucial role in shaping children's self-perception and can affect their emotional development in later years.  Overall Growth Middle childhood is a prime time to introduce children to organized Growth rates slow; children typically gain sports. about 5-7 pounds and grow 2-3 inches per year. Sports help children develop social skills, improve athletic abilities, and learn about Children tend to slim down, gaining muscle competition. strength and lung capacity, allowing for prolonged strenuous activity. Concerns About Competition Growth spurt begins earlier for girls (around Emphasis on competition and skill can age 9) than boys (around age 11). lead to burnout, causing children to lose interest and quit. Motor Skills Benefits of Sports Participation Children sharpen gross motor skills (e.g., riding a bike) and fine motor skills (e.g., Linked to higher family satisfaction and cutting nails). overall quality of life. Boys generally outperform girls in gross Contributes to improved physical and motor skills, while girls excel in fine motor emotional development. skills. Associated with better academic Improvements in motor skills are linked to performance. brain growth and developmental Barriers to Participation experiences. Gender, poverty, location, ethnicity, and Brain Growth disability can limit sports opportunities. Two significant brain growth spurts: Girls often report less participation and Ages 6-8: Notable improvements in fine motor skills support compared to boys; fathers tend to be and eye-hand coordination. more involved with sons, while girls look to coaches and teachers as mentors. Ages 10-12:Development of frontal lobes leads to enhanced logic, planning, and memory. Participation rates are higher in suburban areas compared to rural or urban centers. Myelination increases information processing speed and reaction time. Emergence of Esports The hippocampus shows increased Esports, or competitive video gaming, is myelination, improving memory functioning. gaining popularity among children, with many viewing it as a form of Children develop better planning and exercise. coordination by using both brain hemispheres and gain improved control A significant portion of youth enjoy playing over emotional outbursts. and watching esports, indicating a shift in recreational activities. Attention improves as the prefrontal cortex matures. There has been a downward trend in children's engagement in sports since 2008. Physical Education (PE) in Schools: PE programs are crucial for introducing sports to children, with recent increases due SPORTS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN to concerns about childhood MIDDLE CHILDHOOD obesity. Introduction to Organized Sports CHILDHOOD OBESITY  Childhood obesity is influenced by reduced Behavioral interventions aim to help children participation in physical education and youth improve impulse control and resist unhealthy sports. food choices. Body Mass Index (BMI) is used to assess Parental support should be warm and weight; children above the 85th percentile encouraging, avoiding guilt or shame. are considered overweight, while those Regular aerobic exercise can enhance abovethe 95th percentile are classified as cognitive function in overweight children. obese. Habits Established Early in Life: Unhealthy In 2015-2016, approximately 13.9% of eating and sedentary behaviors developed in children aged 2-5 and 18.4% of children aged 6-11 were obese. childhood tend to persist into adulthood. Health Implications Biological Factors: Childhood obesity alters metabolism and fat storage, making Excess weight is linked to various medical and weight loss harder later in life. cognitive conditions: Behavioral Patterns: Poor impulse control High blood pressure in childhood leads to continued unhealthy food and activity choices as adults. Insulin resistance Psychological and Emotional Challenges: Inflammation Emotional eating and low self-esteem from childhood bullying often extend into Depression adulthood. Parental Influence: Parents’ modeling of Lower academic achievement unhealthy behaviors makes it difficult for Obesity can impair brain function, affecting: children to adopt healthier habits. Difficulties in Weight Loss: Once obese, Executive functioning children face greater physical and Working memory psychological barriers to losing weight as adults. Mental flexibility Decision-making abilities PIAGET’S CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE Dietary Impact (7-11 Years) Diets high in saturated fats negatively Concrete Thinking affect memory performance. children begin to use logic to solve problems Omega-3 fatty acids are associated with related to tangible, real-world situations but improved memory skills. have difficulty with abstract or hypothetical concepts. Their thinking is grounded in High sugar and saturated fat intake can direct experiences and things they can see weaken the blood-brain barrier. or touch. Social Consequences Inductive Reasoning Overweight children may face bullying, children make generalizations based on ridicule, and social rejection, harming their specific observations. self-esteem. Classification Physical health risks include orthopedic problems, heart disease, stroke, and With growing experiences and vocabulary, increased cases of pediatric diabetes. children learn to classify objects into various groups and subgroups. Intervention Strategies Identity KNOWLEDGE BASE: As children encounter more experiences, their knowledge in specific areas The essence or identity of an object remains deepens, allowing them to learn and remember new the same even if its outward appearance information more efficiently. changes. Their existing knowledge helps them make Conservation connections to new concepts. Concrete operational children grasp the Critical Thinking concept of conservation, meaning they As children develop cognitively, they begin to understand that changing the shape or analyze and evaluate information more appearance of an object does not change its critically. amount or volume. They learn how to assess the validity of Decentration arguments, judge the reliability of sources, Unlike younger children, they can focus on and weigh different perspectives before more than one aspect of an object or making decisions. situation at a time. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Seriation Vocabulary Growth: They can organize objects in a systematic By fifth grade, children have around 40,000 order based on a quantitative property like words in their vocabulary, length, weight, or volume. This ability allows expanding through associations with known them to approach problem-solving in a more words and developing methodical way. more abstract thinking. Abstract thinking: Reversibility Older children categorize words (e.g., "pizza" They realize that some processes can be as "food") and understand wordplay, allowing reversed (e.g., water can freeze and then them to enjoy jokes with punchlines or word- melt back into water), and they also apply based humor. this concept in math, understanding that Grammar flexibility: addition and subtraction are reversible operations. Older children adapt to new grammar rules more easily, improving their ability to speak Improvements in Information Processing and write correctly. WORKING MEMORY: The capacity to hold and COMMUNICATION DISORDERS manipulate information in mind improves, partly due to brain development like synaptic pruning and Fluency disorders (stuttering) myelination. It helps children process information About 5% of young children experience faster and block out distractions, essential for tasks like following multi-step instructions. stuttering, with 75% outgrowing it. Persistent stuttering affects around 25%, often linked to ATTENTION: Selective attention—the ability to genetics or brain injury. focus on relevant information while ignoring Articulation disorders: distractions—improves significantly. They also develop better cognitive flexibility, making it easier to These involve difficulty in producing speech switch between tasks or adapt to new rules. sounds, making it hard for others to understand. Children should be mostly MEMORY STRATEGIES: Children begin to use intelligible by age five. memory strategies more effectively, such as rehearsal (repeating information), visualization, and mnemonic devices like acronyms.  Voice disorders: Practical Intelligence: Affect pitch, loudness, or quality of voice, Common sense or "street smarts" gained THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE through life experience. General Intelligence Standardization: Factor (g): While practical intelligence exists, research Most intelligence tests Intelligence tests must suggests it overlaps with "g" and may not aim to be strongly predict success. measure "g", a broad standardized across Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard mental various age Gardner) capacity. groups to create norms for Good intelligence tests what is typical at each are age. reliable (consistent over time) This allows for and valid (measure comparisons of what they individual scores to claim to measure). these norms often making speech unintelligible. Sounds significantly different from other children of same age/gender. Measuring Intelligence: Standardization and IQ THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE Flynn Effect: IQ Formula: General Intelligence Specific Intelligence Over the past decades, IQ = (Mental Age ÷ (g) (s) intelligence test scores Chronological Age) × Proposed by Charles worldwide have 100. Spearman, "g" refers to increased by about 3 Refers to specific skills a single underlying IQ points per decade, A child performing at in narrower factor that affects potentially due to better the average level for domains, such as overall cognitive ability, nutrition, education, their age would have verbal or including abstract and familiarity with an IQ of 100. mathematical abilities. thinking, reasoning, testing. and learning. While these correlate with "g", they can People with higher "g" form clusters that The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) generally learn faster represent specific and perform better on a areas of strength The most widely used IQ test for adults, wide range of assessing verbal, perceptual, working intellectual tasks. memory, and processing speed. It is highly reliable and valid, correlating with Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert academic and occupational success. Sternberg) Versions for children (WISC-V) and Analytical Intelligence: preschoolers (WPPSI-IV) also exist. Involves problem- solving and academic tasks Cultural bias measured by traditional intelligence tests. Intelligence tests have been criticized for Creative Intelligence: favoring Western, middle-class norms, and Refers to the ability to generate new ideas and for not accounting for cultural differences in adapt to new situations; not highly correlated the understanding of intelligence. with analytical intelligence.  While speed is valued in the West, other that they often have better physical health cultures may prioritize thoughtful, and social adjustment than average. reflective answers. Gifted individuals are also more likely to This highlights the limitations of standard pursue advanced education and prestigious IQ tests in capturing non-academic talents careers. and cultural variations in intelligence. EDUCATION AND CULTURAL Extremes of Intelligence: Intellectual Disability CONSIDERATIONS and Giftedness Parental Involvement IQ follows a bell-curve distribution, with most Parents' socioeconomic status and their people clustering around relationship with teachers can impact an average IQ of 100. their involvement in a child's education. The standard deviation is 15, meaning that Teachers may respond more positively to about 2% of people score above 130 (gifted) parents who share similar social and and below 70 (intellectual racial backgrounds. disability). Bilingualism Around 20% of students speak a language other than English at home. Bilingual students who are fluent in both languages have cognitive advantages. Cultural differences Cultural norms, such as communication styles (eye contact, wait time, social distance), can lead to misunderstandings Gender differences between teachers and students. Men's IQ scores are more spread out, with CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES more men than women at the extremes of the Learning Disabilities IQ distribution. A specific impairment in academic learning (reading, Men are more likely to be diagnosed with writing, math, etc.) that significantly reduces intellectual disabilities or giftedness. performance in that area, but not necessarily in all Intellectual disability academic areas. Defined by low IQ and challenges in COMMON LEARNING DISABILITIES adaptive functioning (daily life tasks). 1.Dslexia Conditions like Down syndrome, caused by Difficulty with reading, such as phonological an extra 21st chromosome, are a common processing, reversing letters, or spelling issues. cause. Societal attitudes have shifted, encouraging inclusivity and reducing discrimination. 2.Dysgraphia Giftedness Writing disabilities, including difficulty forming letters Defined by an IQ of 130 or higher. or writing words phonetically. Gifted children may face social challenges, Specific ways dysgraphia can present though studies (e.g., Terman's study of the include: "Termites") show  Difficulties writing in a straight line. Plays a key role in attention, motivation, reward processing, and controlling Difficulties with holding and controlling a movement writing tool. LOW Norepinephrine Writing letters in reverse. Norepinephrine is important for arousal, Having trouble recalling how letters are alertness, and the regulation of attention. formed. Treatment Having trouble knowing when to use lower- or upper-case letters. Behavioral interventions, medication (stimulants like Ritalin), 3.Dyscalculia cognitive-behavioral therapy, Math disabilities, such as poor working memory or issues understanding number systems. lifestyle changes (e.g., more sleep) are common treatments. Common Signs of Dyscalculia: Importance of Evaluation and Diagnosis: 1. Difficulty Grasping Quantities Identifying disabilities can help provide 2. Understanding Numerals and Words appropriate instruction and resources for 3. Struggling with Math Facts children in need. 4. Counting Money or Making Change Mislabeling a child can lead to misinterpretation of behaviors by teachers, 5. Trouble Estimating Time family members, and the child themselves. 4.Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Impact on Self-Concept: (ADHD) Labels can influence how a child views Characteristics: Inattention, hyperactivity, themselves, potentially leading to and impulsive behavior that interferes with a loss of confidence and the development of daily functioning. a self-fulfilling prophecy, where the child Symptoms: Difficulty focusing, may unconsciously live up to the negative forgetfulness, fidgeting, interrupting others, expectations and excessive movement. tied to the label. Prevalence: ADHD affects about 5% of Social Implications of Labeling: children, with boys being three times more Once labeled, children may be treated based likely to be diagnosed than girls. on that diagnosis even if Long-term Impact: ADHD can persist into their difficulties improve over time, adulthood and is often associated with reinforcing the self-fulfilling prophecy. challenges in academic performance, social Abnormal vs. Normal Behavior: relationships, and emotional regulation. The distinction between normal and Etiology abnormal behaviors in children can Genetic factors play a significant role. be unclear, as some behaviors considered abnormal are relatively Reduced dopamine activity and smaller common during childhood. frontal lobes are found in individuals with ADHD. Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority NEUROTRANSMITTERS Industry: LOW Dopamine Children in middle and late childhood are busy, engaged in planning, playing, and achieving. Success in these endeavors helps Moral reasoning is based on personal them develop confidence for future consequences. challenges. Children focus on avoiding punishment and Inferiority: seeking rewards, with decisions guided by self-interest. If children feel unsuccessful in their efforts, they may develop a sense of inferiority, which can have a lasting impact on their self-esteem. Self-Understanding Self-Concept: Level 2: Conventional Morality In middle and late childhood, children develop a realistic sense of self, including an Morality is centered around social norms, awareness of strengths and weaknesses. approval from others, and law-abiding behavior. They incorporate others' opinions (e.g., from parents, teachers, peers) into their self- Individuals seek to uphold social order and concept, affecting their self-esteem. gain approval from peers or authority figures. Self-Efficacy: The belief in one's ability to complete tasks or achieve goals. A mismatch between perceived self efficacy and actual ability can lead to motivational problems, either underestimating or overestimating one’s capabilities. Level 3: Postconventional Morality KOHLBERG’S THREE LEVELS OF MORAL Morality is based on abstract principles of DEVELOPMENT justice, equality, and human rights. Individuals prioritize ethical principles over societal rules, with decisions guided by personal values and universal standards. Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development build on Piaget's work, examining how moral reasoning evolves as we age. Kohlberg argued that moral development occurs in stages and is based on active Critiques of Kohlberg reasoning. People may use different stages of reasoning He used moral dilemmas, such as a man depending on the situation. stealing medicine for his dying wife, to study how individuals decide right from The model may be more suitable for Western wrong. cultures and may undervalue non-Western cultural emphasis on authority and social Level 1: Preconventional Morality norms.  Gilligan's Critique: Kohlberg’s theory may Friendships are based on trust, loyalty, and better describe male moral development. sharing personal thoughts or secrets. At this Females tend to focus more on care and stage, friendships become more intimate, relationships, although there is limited and children or teens stop “keeping score” of evidence of gender differences in favors. the stages. However, betrayal of trust can end FRIENDS AND PEERS friendships. Early Childhood: Friends are expected to share similar interests and viewpoints, and differences can Toddlers show a preference for certain be seen as disloy playmates, but interactions are more parallel play rather than intentional social Autonomous interdependence engagement. Friends are accepted for who they are, and Age four: children begin using the term differences between friends are valued "friend," often based on proximity (e.g., living rather than being seen as threats. nearby, attending the same school). At this stage, children, teens, and adults Middle and Late Childhood understand that friends can have other relationships and interests without it Friendships become central to children’s negatively affecting their bond. self-esteem, learning social skills, and understanding worth. Peers play a key role in This reflects more mature, mutual respect shaping behaviors, communication, and and acceptance. values. PEER RELATIONSHIPS AND SOCIOMETRIC Concept of friendship evolves from mutual ASSESSMENTS activities (reward-cost) to kindness and Sociometric methods assess how children shared interests (normative expectations), are perceived by their peers by asking them and later to loyalty and sharing secrets to nominate classmates they like and dislike. (empathy and understanding). Children fall into categories: STAGES OF FRIENDSHIP DEVELOPMENT (SELMAN, 1980): 1. POPULAR CHILDREN Momentary physical interaction Prosocial: A friend is simply someone you're playing with at the Friendly, cooperative, and does well in moment, typically based on convenience (e.g., a school. neighbor). Antisocial One-way assistance: Using manipulation or bullying to gain Friends are people who do nice things for you, but popularity the child may not consider what they are giving back to the friendship. Rejected children Fair-weather cooperation May be withdrawn (shy and easy targets for bullies) or aggressive (confrontational and Reciprocity becomes important—if a friend often excluded by peers). does something nice, the child expects to be repaid in kind. Controversial children Friendships may end if this doesn’t happen. Liked by some and disliked by others, often displaying a mix of behaviors. Intimate and mutual sharing Neglected children Rarely mentioned by peers, often socially those who are socially isolated, perceived as invisible but not actively disliked. different, or with low self-esteem. Long-Term Consequences of Popularity Bullies: Popular children tend to experience: Contrary to the belief that bullies have low self-esteem, many have high self-esteem, Stronger marriages and relationships in social power, and popularity. adulthood They bully to dominate or control others and Higher earnings and better career outcomes often lack empathy. Better overall health Warning Signs of Bullying: Unpopular children may face: Children may not always report being Higher risks of anxiety and depression bullied due to fear of retaliation or embarrassment. Physical health problems, obesity, and substance abuse Signs that a child is being bullied include: Fewer opportunities to develop crucial social ☐ unexplained injuries, skills ☐ lost possessions, ☐ changes in eating or sleeping patterns, ☐ declining grades, BULLYING ☐ withdrawal from social activities, and ☐ self-destructive behavior. unwanted aggressive behavior involving a power imbalance, which may be repeated or FAMILY LIFE have the potential to be repeated. Family Tasks (Berger, 2014) There are several forms: Families fulfill 5 key tasks: Verbal bullying: Includes name-calling, 1. Providing food, clothing, and shelter. teasing, and making inappropriate comments. 2. Encouraging learning. Social bullying: Involves exclusion, spreading rumors, or publicly embarrassing 3. Developing self-esteem. someone. 4. Nurturing friendships with peers. Physical bullying: Involves harm to a person’s body or possessions. 5. Providing harmony and stability. Cyberbullying: Uses electronic means Families need to balance physical, cognitive, (e.g., texts, social media) to harass or emotional, and social needs to create a embarrass others. supportive environment. Different family types (not just two-parent Cyberbullying is particularly harmful because it households) can effectively fulfill these tasks. can happen 24/7, is often anonymous, and difficult to erase. Parenting Styles Victims of bullying, especially cyberbullying, may Authoritative parenting (joint decision-making, experience low self-esteem, health problems, poor reason) - effective for children’s growing academic performance, and higher rates of alcohol independence in middle and late childhood. and drug use. Authoritarian parenting (strict discipline) -more Those at Risk for Bullying: common in some ethnic groups but often balanced with warmth, resulting in confident, happy children. Students more likely to be bullied include LGBT youth, children with disabilities, and Living Arrangements Friendships are important for emotional support but can sometimes lead to risky In 2017, 65% of children lived with married behaviors. parents, while 32% lived with an unmarried parent. Adolescents try out different roles and ideas to figure out who they are. Solo mothers: 21%, solo fathers: 4%, and cohabiting parents: 7%. This period of many changes is a key focus for psychologists’ growth & puberty Children in single-parent households face a higher likelihood of poverty (30% for solo Age Range: Puberty generally starts between ages mothers) compared to married households 8 and 14, with girls beginning around age 10 and (8%). boys around age 12. Lesbian and Gay Parenting Duration: Pubertal changes : 3 to 4 years. Research shows no negative effects on Physical Growth: children raised by lesbian or gay parents. Adolescents experience a growth spurt that adds Children of gay and lesbian parents develop approximately 10-11 inches in height and 50-75 normally in terms of social, emotional, pounds in weight. Growth follows a distal-proximal and psychological aspects, with no pattern (extremities to torso), starting with the differences in gender identity, moral hands, then arms, and finally the torso judgment, or school performance compared to children of heterosexual parents. Sexual Development Primary Sexual Primary Sexual Blended Families Characteristics: Characteristics: Involves changes in the Visible signs of 16% of children live in blended families. reproductive organs maturity not directly linked to Children in blended families may feel e.g., testes growth and reproduction insecure or uncertain in relationships with spermarche in boys, stepparents, and this can lead to feelings of e.g., broader shoulders rejection, rebellion, or withdrawal. uterus growth and and Blended families often have different rules in menarche in girls. deeper voice in males, each household, causing confusion for breast development children. and END OF CHAPTER 5 (PPT) widening hips in females CHAPTER 6: Adolescence EMOTIONAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES lasts from about age 10 to 18, starting with puberty. 1. Awkward Growth Stages : Disproportionate growth during puberty can Hormones cause physical changes during make adolescents appear awkward. puberty. 2. Acne : Common during puberty due to Different brain areas mature at various hormonal changes affecting oil glands speeds, leading to more risk- 3. Height and Weight: Variations exist, with taking. influences from genetics and ethnicity. 4. Increased Independence : Teenagers begin Adolescents improve in thinking about seeking more independence from parents complex and abstract ideas. and turn to peers for support. Their relationships with parents change as they seek more independence.  5. Early Puberty Risks Early maturation can This developmental "mismatch" can lead to lead to mental health issues like depression increased risk-taking and emotional instability in and anxiety, particularly in girls. teens. 6. Gender Role Intensification : Teenagers Influence of Peers and Rewards might alter their interests to conform to gender expectations (e.g., boys taking up Adolescents are particularly responsive to sports to appear more masculine). social rewards and peer influence, driven by heightened sensitivity to dopamine and SOCIETAL & ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES oxytocin. Environmental Cultural Differences Factors This makes them more likely to engage in The timing of puberty Factors like nutrition, risky behaviors to gain peer approval. can vary among ethnic stress, and exposure to groups, with African chemicals can Vulnerability to Substances American girls typically influence the timing of beginning the earliest. puberty. The developing brain is especially susceptible to damage from substances like drugs, which can disrupt critical ADOLESCENT BRAIN developmental processes. Brain maturation Adaptation and Growth Becomes more interconnected and The brain's capacity for novelty-seeking and specialized risk-taking helps adolescents form new Improved cognitive functions such as social connections and gain independence, thinking and processing skills due to essential for personal and societal increased myelination. development. Structural Changes ADOLESCENT SLEEP Different areas of the brain myelinate at Sleep needs different times, affecting abilities like The National Sleep Foundation (2016) states that language learning. adolescents require 8 to 10 hours of sleep each night For instance, after early childhood, further for optimal functioning. myelination makes acquiring a second Actual Sleep Patterns language more challenging due to reduced brain plasticity. Surveys show that most adolescents get less sleep than recommended. Brain Regions Development Consequences of Insufficient Sleep The corpus callosum thickens Insufficient sleep leads to irritability, sleepiness in Connections between the hippocampus and school, risk of accidents, poor academic frontal lobes also strengthen. performance, and health issues like obesity. Emotional and Impulse Control Causes The limbic system matures early, affecting Inadequate sleep stems from social activities, emotion and reward sensitivity. homework, media use, and biological shifts in In contrast, the prefrontal cortex, which circadian rhythms due to puberty. governs impulse control and planning, School Start Times develops fully by the mid-20s. The CDC recommends that schools start no earlier What will happen to the adolescent? than 8:30 a.m., but over 80% of schools begin earlier, impacting adolescent sleep. Advice Binge-eating disorder Consistent sleep schedules are crucial; sleeping in Recurrent Binge Eating: on weekends can disrupt sleep patterns, Similar to bulimia but occurs without regular making weekdays more challenging. adolescent compensatory behaviors. sexual activity Marked Distress: Early Sexual Awareness Significant stress or upset during and after By ages 10 to 11, most children experience binge eating episodes. sexual attraction. No Compensatory Behaviors: Over half of high schoolers report having had sexual intercourse at least once Unlike bulimia, binge-eating disorder does Adolescent Pregnancy Trends not involve regular purging, excessive exercise, or fasting. Teen birth rates have significantly declined to 17.4 births per 1,000 females aged 15-19 in 2018, a decrease attributed to less sexual activity or increased birth control usage. Impact on fathers Men with less education tend to become fathers earlier tan those with more education eating disorders Anorexia Nervosa Restriction of Energy Intake: Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage ✓ Leads to significantly low body weight. Abstract thinking Intense Fear of Weight Gain: Adolescents develop the ability to think about abstract concepts such as justice, ethics, and Persistent concern about gaining weight. freedom. Distorted Body Image: Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning Self-esteem overly influenced by This form of reasoning involves the ability to perceptions of body weight and sh