HPS202 Exam Prep PDF

Exam: Prep Thursday, 3 October 2024 12:11 pm This Open Book Online End of Unit Assessment will assess the following topics: 1. What is the child/adolescent’s presenting problem (not their diagnosis)? (a) Identify the child/adolescent’s presenting problem. (2 marks) - The problem the ident...

Exam: Prep Thursday, 3 October 2024 12:11 pm This Open Book Online End of Unit Assessment will assess the following topics: 1. What is the child/adolescent’s presenting problem (not their diagnosis)? (a) Identify the child/adolescent’s presenting problem. (2 marks) - The problem the identified by the individual that is bringing them to seek therapy or treatment/what they’d like to address - A symptom or difficulty that is observable/behavioural - What issues or current problems is the child or adolescent presenting with/bringing to therapy - Usually includes broader issues outside of their mental health or developmental problems such as social, cognitive, behavioural, interpersonal, academic, issues - i.e., difficulties maintaining attention, increasing peer conflicts, increased sleep difficulties, increased aggression or emotional meltdowns, social withdrawal or avoidance - E.g. of presenting problem conceptualised beyond diagnosis: - ○ (b) Provide one piece of evidence from the case for the presenting problem. (2 marks) - E.g.: she has increasingly experienced difficulties keeping up with her peers during written tasks, as it takes her longer to visually scan and make meaning of large amounts of text. She also reports difficulties with spelling and sequencing for problem solving (Presenting Problem) - Her learning differences, as well as differences in sensory perception (Presenting Problem - Biological) sees that she can become easily overwhelmed and distressed at school (Presenting Problem - Psychological)  - Her learning differences, as well as differences in sensory perception (Presenting Problem - Biological) sees that she can become easily overwhelmed and distressed at school (Presenting Problem - Psychological) 2. How might parenting styles influence the child/adolescent’s development? - Prosocial Behaviour: - Children are more likely to display pro-social behaviours, when their caregivers model prosocial behaviour themselves - also when parents are more authoritative in their parenting, which would involve greater warmth, communication, and compassion. - children whose parents provide opportunities for them to practise prosocial behaviours & provide appropriate behavioural models are more likely to develop these behaviours. - Children whose parents have a warm authoritative parenting style engage in more prosocial, empathetic, and compassionate behaviour, and less antisocial behaviour in various play settings - Parenting that is warm, emotionally expressive and sympathetic w/ active instruction about kindness increases likelihood of sympathetic behaviour - It is not sufficient merely to extinguish antisocial behaviours - positive behaviours should be reinforced through warmth, affection, and parental approval. - Aggressive behaviour: - authoritarian, and uninvolved parenting styles have been associated with higher rates of aggressive behaviour. - specifically authoritarian and permissive parenting, both at the more extreme levels of control, either very low and very high is associated with relational aggression, particularly seen in girls. - Permissive, uninvolved, and authoritarian styles are associated w/ higher levels of aggression. - Authoritarian parenting & permissive parenting is associated w/ children's relational aggression w/ peers. - Paternal authoritarian parenting and maternal permissive parenting are predictors for boys' relational aggression. - Authoritarian styles of both parents predict girls' relational aggression -. - Girls' and boys' physical aggression is predicted by their mothers' permissive parenting - Gender roles have mediating effect in how parenting styles influence the development of different types of aggression. - Children whose parents are able to accept their hostile-aggressive impulses & actions & who can guide their efforts to find more positive ways of resolving conflicts & asserting their needs are more likely to learn to manage their aggression in adaptive ways. - Aggressive children result more from parents who are unable or unwilling to appropriately regulate and manage their children's behaviour.  who can guide their efforts to find more positive ways of resolving conflicts & asserting their needs are more likely to learn to manage their aggression in adaptive ways. - Aggressive children result more from parents who are unable or unwilling to appropriately regulate and manage their children's behaviour. - Punitive, authoritarian parenting practices have often become entrenched as part of the family cycle of violence 1. Authoritative: - Considered the ideal style in western cultures - Still some aspect of control over behaviours - Parents provide children with age-appropriate boundaries - they engage in bi-directional conversations and communication - they're seen as being warm, loving and emotionally supportive - Parent is responsive and respectful of the child's thoughts and feelings - as children get older, they may negotiate boundaries and consequences together. Taking into consideration the maturity demands - the focus is more on a child-centred approach to parenting. - Allowing the child to take part in decision making - Parents tend to us rewards rather than punishments & explain behavioural rules & expectations - Parents use techniques of persuasion and explanation - Tries to balance the responsibility of the child to take on board family & broader social rules, with the rights of the child to be respected and have their own needs met. - Often this type of parenting results in children who are independent and self-reliant - Also associated with higher self-esteem, internalised moral standards, psychosocial maturity, autonomy, better mental health and academic success. 2. Authoritarian: - high in control and maturity demands. - more parent directed, whereby the communication is unidirectional, so the parent will state what has to happen with the child without the child's input. - there is little or no room for negotiation. This style of parenting typically lacks warmth and is seen in Westernized cultures as being very strict, so high control. - Parents are inflexible & do not let child participate in decision making - Parents see the appropriate development of their children as exclusively under adult control - Rules are often absolute, strictly imposed without exception, & are enforced with threats and punishments - Little sensitivity is given to the child's thoughts and feelings - Low threshold for disagreement and disobedience. - Parents may exhibit forms of psychological control - withdrawing affection or making it contingent on the child's compliance with their wishes. - They can undermine the child's autonomy by deriding their ideas & choices & demanding excessively high standards of behaviour or performance that do not align with the child's developmental level. - Gives children little or no opportunity to learn more appropriate ways of behaving, & undermines their sense of self-worth and confidence in parental love. - Associated with anxiety, withdrawal, low self-esteem, and a lack of sociability in children - Boys often react to this style with hostility, girls often become dependent and submissive 3. Permissive: - quite indulgent. - The parent asks little of the child, and has few boundaries in place. - Child-centred approach - communication may involve the child placing demands on the parent, so the roles are quite 3. Permissive: - quite indulgent. - The parent asks little of the child, and has few boundaries in place. - Child-centred approach - communication may involve the child placing demands on the parent, so the roles are quite reversed, and the parent giving the child whatever they want. - characterised as also being higher in warmth. - Low level of parental control, parents reluctant to put limits on their child's behaviour - Permissive parenting can be a reaction to parents experiencing an authoritarian style of parenting during their own childhood - Parents may be at a loss as to how they should appropriately discipline and control their child's behaviour. - They give mixed messages about their expectations of the child's behaviour; making few or no demands on their children and setting inconsistent behavioural limits - Children are largely permitted to make their own decisions, even when this is developmentally appropriate - Puts children in control of their everyday behaviour & social learning, when they are too developmentally immature to manage this responsibility effectively - Children often become impulsive, disobedient, and rebellious. They are often demanding and dependent on adults to meet their needs. 4. Uninvolved: - low control - little communication. - Few or no demands or rules - low in warmth. - may be seen in Westernised cultures as being more neglectful. - In collectivist cultures, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, it is much more common for extended family to contribute to parenting the children. - so the parent may not be contributing as much directly, but the child is receiving the care from others. - Parents are emotionally detached from their offspring & appear to prioritise their own concerns ahead of their responsibilities in raising their children. - Parents show inconsistency in setting behavioural limits and make few behavioural demands on their children. - Severe levels of un-involvement constitutes child neglect, and may be associated with parental substance abuse and psychiatric disturbances. - Children are at risk of severe maladjustment, show disrupted social-emotional development, poor self-control, social alienation, immaturity and low self-esteem, withdrawn, low achieving loners. - Individual variations in parenting styles and practices: - 2 parents may use different parenting styles - Parents may change their style with time and in different situations - Although authoritative parenting is seen as ideal, the outcomes of any parenting style will depend on the needs of the child - The duration of parenthood also influences which parenting style is adopted - Also birth order - first time parents may practise more authoritarian parenting than 2nd time parents - Assistance of older children in parenting younger siblings can reduce parenting stress and influence style - Parents who are under stress tend to be more rigid, arbitrary and authoritarian - Parenting style changes according to child temperament - e.g. a highly oppositional child is more likely to elicit an authoritarian style - Sexuality influences parenting style - gay fathers show more warmth to their children and greater collaboration with their partners, compared to straight fathers. Lesbian mothers report sharing an authoritative approach, despite being raised by parents who were authoritarian - Parenting style changes according to child temperament - e.g. a highly oppositional child is more likely to elicit an authoritarian style - Sexuality influences parenting style - gay fathers show more warmth to their children and greater collaboration with their partners, compared to straight fathers. Lesbian mothers report sharing an authoritative approach, despite being raised by parents who were authoritarian 3. How might Piaget’s theory explain child/adolescent’s cognitive development? 4. How might gender socialisation influence the child/adolescent’s development? Gender Socialisation - Various theories have incorporated the importance of social factors for gender identity development, and have suggested that children are exposed to various social messages about gender roles, expectations, and stereotypes from family, peers, and the media. - Via these social sources, children learn about gender related norms, roles and expectations of their particular society, and adopt and engage in gender behaviours that are consistent with their gender. This learning process is referred to as Gender Socialisation. - Through observations and interactions with others that share societal beliefs and roles related to gender, girls and boys learn different values, skills, and behaviour patterns. - As children get older, they then internalise these observations, developing attitudes and modelling behaviours that are consistent with their gender identity and appropriate gender roles. - Early Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1986): - Gender role behaviours are learned through the following processes of observation, modelling, reinforcement and punishment: 1. Children learn gender roles by firstly observing and retaining gender appropriate behaviour from same-gender role models (older children, adults, characters in media sources) 2. Children who are motivated to engage in gender appropriate behaviours then model the observed behaviours. They also receive positive reinforcement for engaging in behaviours that are consistent with their gender roles (e.g. praise from parents). Children who engage in behaviours that are not consistent with gender norms/roles receive negative feedback from others, or other indicators of disapproval for breaking gender roles (punishment).  with their gender roles (e.g. praise from parents). Children who engage in behaviours that are not consistent with gender norms/roles receive negative feedback from others, or other indicators of disapproval for breaking gender roles (punishment). 3. Children who are reinforced for their engagement in gender appropriate behaviours are then more motivated, and more likely to engage in gender appropriate behaviours in the future *Parents in particular are an important source of gender based learning, and influence the toys and clothing that children are provided, and the activities that they are encouraged to engage in. - (1) Gender Identity (internal self concept of their gender) (2) Gender Expression (how individuals present their gender) (3) Gender Norms (a set of socially accepted behaviours and attitudes deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their sex) (4) the Gender Roles we have learned or embody And how this relates to their sex assigned at birth as well as our sense of femininity and masculinity. - Gender: - Social and cultural explanations, meanings, and norms associated with being male or female. - Gender describes a social system that varies over time and location and involves shaping of a set of behaviours deemed appropriate for one’s sex. - a person’s gender is the complex interrelationship between three dimensions: - o Body: - Bodies are gendered by cultural expectations and society. - Masculinity and femininity are equated with certain physical attributes, labelling us more or less masculine or feminine based on the degree to which these attributes are present - This gendering of our body affects our how we feel about ourselves and how others perceive and interact with us - o Identity: - Each person's deeply felt internal and individual experience of gender, which may or may not correspond with the sex they were assigned at birth or the gender attributed to them by society. - o Social: - Gender Roles: - Societal beliefs and expectations of acceptable behaviours, attitudes and personality traits that are attributed to, or expected based on biological sex. These are usually restrictive and reinforce gender binaries.  - Gender Roles: - Societal beliefs and expectations of acceptable behaviours, attitudes and personality traits that are attributed to, or expected based on biological sex. These are usually restrictive and reinforce gender binaries. - Gender Expression: - The way in which a person externally expresses, demonstrates or presents their gender to the world, and how they are perceived by others. - Gender Binary: - A socially constructed yet inaccurate concept that there are only two genders: male and female, and that everyone identifies with one or the other. Ø Gender development across childhood & adolescence: Ø Awareness and construction of gender: - From an early age, children develop an awareness of differences between males and females and what it means to be a "boy" or a "girl". - Between 18 months to 2 years of age, most children develop the ability to label others according to gender and to use gender labels regularly in their speech. - This period coincides with the time that children begin to develop a sense of selfhood and actively seek information about socially appropriate behaviours. - As well as being able to reliably identify and use gender categories, children's gender-typed behaviour increases. - This has been evidenced by an increase in sex-typed toy preferences such as boys showing more interest in cars compared to dolls. - Between 3 and 6 years, children develop an understanding that gender is an enduring social category, and their awareness of gender stereotypes increases. - Children adopt rigid ideas of gender (masculinity and femininity) that reflect perceptions of appropriate clothing, toy preferences and behaviours of 'boys' and 'girls'. e.g. only girls wear pink. Ø Increased flexibility in gender: - Children adopt more flexible concepts of masculinity and femininity and gender-based thinking (e.g. boys and girls can wear pink). - These changes reflect an awareness that while gender is permanent, it cannot be altered by changes in dress or play behaviours. - The increase in cognitive flexibility (7-8 years) also corresponds to important social cognitive and neurological changes in middle childhood. - This is when children develop greater awareness that other individuals have their own unique beliefs, intentions, feelings, and points of view, as well as a growing ability to view social categories from many perspectives.  - This is when children develop greater awareness that other individuals have their own unique beliefs, intentions, feelings, and points of view, as well as a growing ability to view social categories from many perspectives. Ø Increased salience and complexity of gender in adolescence: - Adolescence is an important developmental period for gender-related changes that are influenced by the development of a sexual identity, biological changes that accompany puberty, and experiences of first romantic relationships. - Cognitive maturation that occurs during adolescence also lead to development of more sophisticated knowledge about gender, resulting in more complex identities which become more embedded in their social worlds. - These changes lead to considerable advancements in the ways that adolescence understand, express and experience their gender. - The salience of gender identity also increases substantially and becomes important for self-evaluation and psychological wellbeing. - During adolescence, gender identity and gender role attitudes continue to develop simultaneously. - In recent years and mostly in countries with high levels of social equality, individuals develop more egalitarian gender attitudes and roles during adolescence. - Young women tend to exhibit more egalitarian attitudes than young men, which may be a reflection of the substantial changes to female gender roles that have occurred over time. - These developmental changes may also be strengthened by contemporary societal changes, where adolescents are being more readily exposed to, and more accepting of diversity in gender identity and attitudes. - This is prompting new ways of thinking about gender, while creating a more inclusive social climate for the expression of the full diversity of gender, and non traditional gender attitudes and ideals. 5. What precipitating factor led to the child/adolescent’s presenting problem? - Trigger(s) for the onset of symptoms or current problems - Recent factors, stressors or key onset events that have triggered the individual's difficulties or led to the immediate onset of the presenting problem - Precipitating factors have a time relationship with the onset of presenting problem Ø Biological Medical illness or injury Initiation of, or early use of alcohol or drugs Biological, hormonal changes that accompany puberty Ø Biological Medical illness or injury Initiation of, or early use of alcohol or drugs Biological, hormonal changes that accompany puberty Ø Psychological Conflicts around identity that occur during developmental transitions Ø Social/Cultural Interpersonal Conflicts Interpersonal loss/loss of a close friendship Experience of bullying, social exclusion Increased academic and/or parental expectations or demands School stressors E.g.: - Since starting secondary school (Precipitating factor – Social), she has increasingly experienced difficulties keeping up with her peers during written tasks. Academic demands are exceeding abilities/cognitive social capacity. - the grade 3 curriculum is marked by increased complexity to previous years, where students are required to interpret and apply higher levels of knowledge and work more independently across various tasks and contexts. 6. How might attachment styles influence the child/adolescent’s development? Ø Main overview of attachment style's influence on neurodiverse children/adolescents: Ø Secure attachment: Neurodiverse children with secure attachment tend to feel safe and supported, which enhances their ability to explore the world and develop independence. This attachment style provides a foundation for emotional regulation, helping neurodiverse children better manage sensory overload, anxiety, or other challenges associated with their condition. They are more likely to seek support when needed and form positive relationships, which can be crucial for navigating social difficulties often present in conditions like autism or ADHD. Secure attachment also promotes adaptability, aiding neurodiverse adolescents in facing transitions like moving to a new school or managing increasingly complex social environments. Ø Insecure-avoidant attachment: This attachment style, where children learn to downplay emotional needs due to a lack of responsiveness from caregivers, may further complicate the social challenges of neurodiverse children. They may avoid seeking help or struggle with forming close relationships. For example, children on the autism spectrum, who may already have difficulties with understanding or expressing emotions, could withdraw further in social situations, potentially reinforcing feelings of loneliness or misunderstanding. This lack of engagement can hinder the development of coping strategies that are vital for emotional resilience. Ø Insecure-ambivalent (anxious) attachment: Neurodiverse children with this attachment style tend to exhibit heightened anxiety and dependency, becoming overly reliant on caregivers for emotional reassurance. This can limit their ability to develop independence and self-regulation. For neurodiverse individuals who may already struggle with change or novelty, this anxious attachment may amplify their difficulties in navigating new situations or forming peer relationships. For example, a child with ADHD may experience greater frustration in social interactions, becoming more easily upset or anxious when faced with conflicts or misunderstandings, and struggling to develop problem-solving skills.  For neurodiverse individuals who may already struggle with change or novelty, this anxious attachment may amplify their difficulties in navigating new situations or forming peer relationships. For example, a child with ADHD may experience greater frustration in social interactions, becoming more easily upset or anxious when faced with conflicts or misunderstandings, and struggling to develop problem-solving skills. Ø Disorganized attachment: Neurodiverse children with disorganized attachment often experience confusion and difficulty understanding social interactions, making their development particularly challenging. This attachment style is typically seen when caregivers are inconsistent or even frightening, leading to a lack of trust and emotional instability. For neurodiverse children, who may already have heightened emotional responses or difficulty interpreting social cues, disorganized attachment can lead to extreme emotional outbursts or withdrawal. They may struggle with forming stable relationships, both with peers and authority figures, which can affect their academic and social development. Adolescents with this attachment style might experience erratic behaviors and find it harder to manage their neurodiverse traits, such as impulsivity in ADHD or sensory sensitivities in autism. - Attachment differs from bonding in that attachment occurs between an older infant, who is capable of forming an emotional relationship, and another person; bonding is a one-way relationship that the parent feels toward the child - Attachment =“a close, reciprocal, emotional relationship between two persons, characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity” Ø It is reciprocal – child attaches to parent and parent attaches to child Ø It differs from bonding (the one-way relationship parent feels towards a child) Ø Attachment: Influencing Factors: Quality of caregiving /Caregiving hypothesis: Ainsworth's notion that the type of attachment than an infant develops with a particular caregiver depends primarily on the kind of caregiving he or she has received from that person - – Secure: sensitive and responsive, interactional synchrony, ample stimulation and support - – Resistant: inconsistent (in mood and temperament) - – Avoidant: unresponsive, impatient, negative, or overzealous - – Disorganised: abusive  - Infant temperament – Kagan’s temperament hypothesis suggest that attachment behaviours reflect temperament Integrative theory considers both of the above - – Quality of caregiving predicted either secure or insecure attachment - – Infant temperament predicted type of insecure attachment Ø Attachment & Fathers: - Fathers are most highly involved with their infants and hold more favourable attitudes about them when they are happily married, and when their wives encourage them to become an important part of their babies' lives