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Development Communication Dr. Zandra N. Maningas  Table of Contents Module 1: Nature and Concept of Development Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 1 Lesson 1. Definiti...

Development Communication Dr. Zandra N. Maningas  Table of Contents Module 1: Nature and Concept of Development Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 1 Lesson 1. Definitions of Development 2 Lesson 2. Characteristics of Development 9 Lesson 3. Problems of Underdevelopment 15 Module 2: Nature and Concept of Communication Introduction 19 Learning Objectives 19 Lesson 1. Definitions of Communication 20 Lesson 2. Characteristics, Levels, and Elements of Communication 26 Lesson 3. Models of Communication 35 Module 3: Introduction to Development Communication Introduction 44 Learning Objectives 44 Lesson 1. History of Development Communication 45 Lesson 2. Definitions of Development Communication 58 Lesson 3. Values of Development Communication 65 Lesson 4. Development Communication and Other Fields 69 Course Code: MCM 4 Pre-requisite: COM 101 Credit: 3 units Course Description: Concepts, theories, principles and practices of communication in development contexts. Includes case studies of development communication programs locally and internationally. Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO): At the end of the course, students should be able to: 1. Conceptualize the context of community communication and community media; 2. Integrate the concepts and domains of community communication in their academic paper; and 3. Develop critical thinking skills in conducting case analysis. Course Requirements: ▪ Class Standing - 60% ▪ Major Exams - 40% _________ Periodic Grade 100% PRELIM GRADE = 60% Class Standing + 40% (Prelim exam) MIDTERM GRADE = 30%(Prelim Grade) + 70 % [60% + 40% (Midterm exam)] FINAL GRADE = 30%(Midterm Grade) + 70 % [60% + 40% (Final exam)]  MODULE 1 NATURE AND CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT Introduction You must have come across the term development several times. But what does it really mean? Is it simply part of social and economic jargon? Or is it a useful concept for understanding the society and for involving the people in change efforts. This module will help you answer these questions. Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, students should be able to: 1. Conceptualize what is development; 2. Delineate the characteristics of development; and 3. Describe the problems of underdevelopment. 1 Lesson 1. Definition of Development The concept of development is almost as old as civilization. It was extensively used in the western societies from Greco-Roman civilizations to the late 19th century as a generic construct relating to humanity’s well-being (Soares and Quintella, 2008). The dominance of the concept of development in academic literature was seen during the post Second World War. On the onset, social and economic development as processes is integral to a society. Prior to this, the concept of development was limited to “growth”, “increase in per capita income” etc. The term “development” has several meanings. The term is multi-layered, challenged, ambiguous, and intangible. Its meaning depends on the context where it was used. It may also be used to redirect and to rationalize the different agendas advocated by individuals and organizations. Development can be defined as bringing about social change that allows people to achieve their human potential. It refers to improvements made in the economic and social conditions and natural and human resources to generate wealth and advance people’s lives. Further, development is a process rather than an outcome: it is dynamic in that it involves a change from one state or condition to another. Ideally, such a change is a positive one - an improvement of some sort (for instance, an improvement in maternal health). Furthermore, development is often regarded as something that is done by one group (such as a development agency) to another (such as rural farmers in a developing country). This is supported by Todaro (2003), which refers to “development as a multi-dimensional process involving the reorganization and reorientation of the entire economic and social systems. He continues to argue that development is a physical reality and a state of mind in which society has, through some combinations of social, economic and political process secured the way of obtaining better life”. Rogers (1990:30) adds "development is a long participatory process of social change in the society whose objective is the material and social progress for the majority of population through a better understanding of their environment." 2  Rostow’s seminal work (1971) reclaims Social Darwinism to explain development as “a process of evolutional succession in stages, where human societies leave a rudimentary model until they arrive at a western industrialized civilization consumption model, which is considered unique and universal”. In Ribeiro’s approach (2005, p. 11), the sense of the word development, in various areas of knowledge, converges to “a state, process, well-being, progress, economic and human growth or ecological balance”. The South Commision [SUD] (1990, p. 10) defines the term as “a maturing and development process of self that frees the population from fear and exploitation”. Ribeiro (2005) mentioned that “both understandings seem to diverge and advance in relation to the idea by the most traditional students of the theme to whom development is usually seen as a phenomenon that fundamentally interests developed countries.” An international institutional vision such as that of United Nations Development Programme [UNDP] (1991, p. 77), on the other hand, also suggests an interpretation of what development is: “expanding the range of choices for the population that allows development to become more democratic and participative. (...) access to (sic) income... participation in decisions and enjoyment of human, economic and political liberties.” This is affirmed by Tayebwa (1992:261) stating that “development is a broad term which should not be limited to mean economic development, economic welfare or material wellbeing. As per Tayebwa, development in general includes improvements in economic, social and political aspects of whole society like security, culture, social activities and political institutions.” Thomas (2000) explains three ways the word “development” is used. a. Development as a vision: a visualization or narrative of how a desirable community should be. b. Development as a historical process: social change that takes place over long periods of time due to unavoidable growths. In this context, development refers to the inevitable results of progress. Example is from agricultural to industrial society. 3 c. Development as action: thoughtful and careful efforts to elevate things for the better and to ensure a better standard of living. This includes provision on food, education, and health services, among others. Distribution of World Development Indices by Analysis Following table presents the indices of development internationally. It considers the following criteria: indicator adherence to the development concept such as the well-being of man (economic, social and political) and the environment (ecosystem and space); international acceptance and recognition; and number of countries covered by the index. Table 1. Distribution of World Development Indices by Analysis (Soares and Quintella, 2008) Dimension Description Covered Environmental Economic Political Social Countries Combined Consumption X X X 31 Level Index (Bennett, 1951) Human Resources X 75 Development Index [HRDI] (Harbison & Myers, 1964) Real Index of X X 80 Consumption (Beckerman & Bacon, 1966) UNRISD General Index of X X 58 Development [GID] (McGranahan, Richard- Proust, Sovani, & Subramanian, 1972) Physical Quality of Life X 150 Index [PQLI] (Morris, 1979) Composite Basic Needs X X 82 Indices (Ram, 1982) World Handbook of X X X 156 Political and Social Indicators (Taylor & Jodice, 1983) Index of Social Progress X X X 107 [ISP] (Estes, 1984) World Standard Distance X X 143 Scales (Ginsberg, Osborn, & Blank, 1986) 4  Dimension Description Covered Environmental Economic Political Social Countries Human Suffering Index X X X More than 60 [HIS] (Camp & Speidel, as related in Hess, 1989). Quality of Life Rankings X X X 126 (Slottje, 1991) Combined Quality of Life X X X 77 Indices [CQLI] (Diener, 1995) Index of Economic X More than 100 Freedom (Johnston & Sheehy, 1995) Economic Freedom X X 163 Indices [EFIs] (Gwartney, Lawson, & Block, 1996) Human Poverty Index X 92 [HPI-1] for developing countries (UNDP, 1999) Human Poverty Index X X 17 [HPI-2] for developed countries (UNDP, 1999) Dashboard of sustainability X X X More than 200 (International Institute for Sustainable Development [IISD], 2003) Environmental X X X X 146 Sustainability Index (Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy & Center for International Earth Science Information Network, 2005) From the table presented, it can be inferred that majority of development indices only focused on the social and economic aspects of the society. 5  Assessment Task 1-1 1. What key words or phrases best capture the meaning of development? Indicate the words or phrases that you best associate with the term. 2. Look around your local or national community. Can you identify at least three developmental projects that have improved the lives of the people and cite indices or indicators that will best show the improvement? Development Project Objective Measure of Success For example: Read and Write Project of To improve the literacy rate From 35% literacy rate the Sangguniang Kabataan of children living in the to 85% literacy rate in community the first year of implementation. 6  Development Project Objective Measure of Success Summary Development is a theory and multi-layered concept. Although its history goes back to the ancient times, development was dominant after the Second World War in the late 1940s. From then, efforts to improve social, political and economic conditions all over the world facilitated by the rapid technological advancement were evident. 7  References Soares, J. and Quntella R. (2008). Development: An Analysis of Concepts, Measurement and Indicators. BAR, Curitiba, v. 5, n. 2, art. 2, p. 104-124, Apr./June 2008. Retrieved from https://www.scielo.br/pdf/bar/v5n2/v5n2a03.pdf Rostow, W. W. (1971). Etapas do desenvolvimento econômico. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar Editores. Ribeiro, M. T. F. (2005). Notas de aula do curso de doutorado em administração [Notas de aula]. Escola de Administração, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brasil. Thomas, A. (2000) ‘Development as practice in a liberal capitalist world’, Journal of International Development, 12 (6) Todaro, M. (2003), Economic Development, Eighth Edition, Pub. Addison Wesley 2003. United Nations Development Programme. (1991). Human development report. New York: Oxford University Press. 8 Lesson 2. Characteristics of Development The following are the important characteristics of development: 1. Development is a continuous process. The process of development continues from the moment of inception of the society. The society always moves forward. Sometimes, the process of development is faster and under some situations it slows down. However, it witnesses no complete halting point. It is ongoing in nature. 2. Development follows a pattern. “Development occurs in an orderly manner and follows a certain sequence. Thus, primitive, medieval and modern are the different phases of development of the society. The society cannot skip one stage to reach at the other in the process of development. The pattern is always maintained.” 3. Development has a direction. Similar to the second characteristics, development as a process follows a definite direction, which is always forward and never backward; towards maturity. Examples of this are August Comte’s “Law of Three Stages”, Herbert Spencer’s proposition that the “society moves from a simple to the complex one,” Ferdinand Tonnies’s idea that the society transits from “community to association”, Emile Durkheim’s proposition that the society makes a shift from “mechanical to organic solidarity” and Karl Marx’s idea that the society progresses from a “class to a class less society.” 4. Development can be evolutionary or revolutionary in nature. Development when occurs in a slow and gradual manner it is said to be evolutionary in character. Evolutionary development “takes its natural course, time and in not very spectacular in nature. In the long run the impacts of development become visible.” On the other hand, revolutionary development refers to the “abrupt and rapid change in the society. Revolutionary development is triggered by some 9  factors like education, migration in large scale, introduction of policies etc. Revolutionary development is marked in a quick span and is vividly visible in nature.” For example, transition of a society from pre modern to modern is evolutionary development, but transition of a society from monarchy to democracy due to some revolution is revolutionary in nature. 5. Development is multidimensional. The conventional notion of development is uni-dimensionality, which is limited to on economic growth. However, it was discovered later that economic growth is just a parameter of development. Hence, they changed it to uni-dimensional to multidimensional to cover various aspects of the society such as political, cultural, and social aspects. Its political dimension is expressed through the “process of democratization, distributive justice; increased consciousness for human rights, equity, liberty etc.” The cultural dimensions of development are manifested through the “growth of secular culture, increased consumerism etc.” The social dimensions of development include “increased participation of people in societal affairs, development of self-reliance, better human development and environmental sustainability, etc.” 6. Development is universal, but not uniform. Development is a common process witnessed by every society however primitive or modern it is. Right from the beginning of the society development process is initiated. Examples include the rich and the poor societies, the most developed and the most under developed societies. It may be fast-phased or slow-phased in some societies. Development may be remarkable or challenging in some societies The process is common and collective, but the outcome is not similar or uniform. 7. Development insists upon adaptability. Development as process is driven by human needs. Human needs change with the changing time and situations. The process of development demands the existing institutions to change and adapt 10  to the upcoming demands to fulfil the emerging needs of the individuals. For example: with the process of industrialization there was increased migration which required the institution of joint family to disintegrate structurally. 8. Development stands for dynamism. Development necessarily entails change. It brings changes in the status quo of a society. No development process can be imagined without bringing subsequent changes. Thus, the concept of development is against the notion of static. 9. Development is irreversible. Development as a process is always forward looking and has no look back. There may be temporary stalemates but once a society is into the process of development, it will never revert back to its original state. So development is always progressive. 10. Development is diffusive. Development never remains concentrated in the place of its origin. It has a natural tendency to spread beyond its place of origin. The best example of it is that when a new technology is innovated, very soon, it spreads to other areas beyond the place of its origin. 11. Development always has positive yields. The outcomes of development are always positive. It is for the betterment of the society. Development thus is progressive. But sometimes when development outcomes are used by human beings in a negative way its consequences become disastrous. For e.g. Development of technology necessarily improves human quality of life. But when men blindly use it for destructive purpose the outcomes become sorrowful. 12. Development has got its qualitative and quantitative connotations. Development as a process can be judged through the qualitative improvement human conditions of living. For example when there is a reduction of house hold drudgery for the women we find a qualitative change in their living conditions and 11  term it as development of women. Similarly, when there is a quantum lift or there is an increase in number of some institution, then also we feel the impact of development. For example, the increase in the number of educational institutions is also described as development. Thus, the qualitative aspects of development are felt while the quantitative aspects of development are observed. To better concretize the concept and characteristics of development. Following is a case study on development project implemented by UNICEF titled “Community Management of Acute Malnutrition Programme, UNICEF.” “UNICEF is an agency within the UN devoted entirely to protecting the rights and wellbeing of children worldwide. The work of UNICEF aids global development because the organization maintains the stance that “nurturing and caring for children are the cornerstones of human progress.” UNICEF’s projects focus on the following five major areas: Child Survival and Development; Basic Education and Gender Equality; HIV/AIDS and Children; Child Protection; and Policy Advocacy and Partnerships.” “In 2009, UNICEF, in collaboration with the Nigerian Government, launched a program to lower malnutrition rates among children in Northern Nigeria. The program works locally, by bestowing community doctors and health centers with necessary tools to treat malnutrition, as opposed to having children travel to large hospitals far from their homes. The tools are relatively simple – a fortified peanut paste and vitamins administered in prescribed dosages – but the program has been incredibly successful, treating more than 500,000 children as of July 2013.” “The program’s effects on development are, thus, twofold. Primarily, it works to improve the chances of an entire generation of Nigerian citizens, who may otherwise be, at best, developmentally stunted due to malnutrition, and at worst, unable to survive. Secondly, the initiative supports Nigerian infrastructure by equipping local medical centers with necessary resources and skills to meet the needs of the people they service.” 12  Assessment Task 1-2 Based on the 12 characteristics of development, explain development in the case of Community Management of Acute Malnutrition Programme spearheaded by UNICEF. 13  Summary Development can be delineated according to its 12 characteristics. It is a continuous process, following a specific patter and direction. Development can be evolutionary or revolutionary in nature and is multidimensional. It is universal, but not uniform and insists upon adaptability. It stands for dynamism and is irreversible. It is diffusive and always has positive yields. Lastly, it has qualitative and quantitative connotations. Reference Todaro, M. (2003), Economic Development, Eighth Edition, Pub. Addison Wesley 2003. 14  Lesson 3. Problems of Underdevelopment https://images.app.goo.gl/MFWmSi7CFWSgNbQm7 Lesson One of the reasons that the 1process of development reaps so much attention is the glaring gap between rich (developed) and poor (developing) countries. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) rates countries’ development annually according to its Human Development Index (HDI), which includes measurements of citizens’ access to healthcare, educational attainment, and standards of living, among other factors. During 2012, the five countries with the highest HDI rankings were Norway, Australia, United States, Netherlands and Germany, while the five countries with the lowest rankings were Niger, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Chad and Burkina Faso, all African countries. About 37 of the 46 states ranked as having low human development are located in Africa. In contrast, 32 of the 47 states considered to be very high human development are found in Europe (Human Development Report, 2013). As these figures demonstrate, development is considered an issue since it led to great wealth inequalities between distinct global regions. Today, countries face structural constraints in development. These include geography, wherein modern economy cannot function without a division of labor. Thus, countries with small populations may have trouble developing and gaining access to markets, while landlocked countries may struggle to integrate with global markets and expand their economies. Other common constraint is the so called “poverty traps.” These include high economic poverty, hunger, high mortality rates, unsafe water supplies, poor education systems, corrupt governments, war, and poor sanitation. 15  Another set of problem that overwhelmed the society are as follows: unemployment, high population growth, inequality, environmental degradation and loss of land, malnutrition, ethnic conflict, and societal issues. The World Bank (2013) recommends that countries focus on six areas of policy to improve chances of development: 1. Investment in education and health; 2. Increasing productivity of small farms; 3. Improving infrastructure (for example, roads); 4. Developing an industrial policy to promote manufacturing; 5. Promoting democracy and human rights; and 6. Ensuring environmental protection. 16  Assessment Task 1-3 Using the indices of development such as life expectancy, literacy, education, and standards of living, compare the top 10 and bottom 10 countries. 17  Summary This lesson enumerated problems associated with underdevelopment. Your personal encounters with these problems must have prompted you at one time or another to actively engage yourself in solving them. Their magnitude and complexity may have, at times, given you a feeling of helplessness and frustration. References Levin Institute (2016). Globalization 101. Retrieved from http://www.globalization101.org/case-studies-of-development-projects/ Ongkiko, Ila & Flor, Alexander. (2006). Introduction to Development Communication. 10.13140/RG.2.1.2952.6887. 18  MODULE 2 NATURE AND SCOPE OF COMMUNICATION Introduction Have you ever noticed people express themselves or interact with each other? Have you ever wondered the important role that communication plays in our lives? Communication is an essential part of human collaboration, interface, or interaction. Effective communication has many benefits and this may improve all aspects of our personal and professional lives. How you communicate an idea or piece of information is important as the idea or information itself. Messages should be strong, simple and precise. Badly presented, boring or complicated messages will often be misunderstood or simply ignored. In this module, we will discuss communication, its models, characteristics, levels and elements of communication. Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, students should be able to: 1. Define communication; 2. Explain the characteristics, levels, and elements of communication; and 3. Compare and contrast the models of communication. 19 Lesson 1. Definitions of Communication “Communication is the most important skills in life. We spend most of our waking hours communicating.” -Stephen Covey The word communication came https://images.app.goo.gl/kyKMfKwyAA515Fw79 from the Latin word “communis,” which means “to make common.” Communication facilitates sharing of common experiences with others. It involves sharing of an idea, thought, feeling or information with others, which includes thinking, dreaming, speaking, arguing and so on. Hence, the scope of communication is very wide. Communication is a skill and is considered art and science, which makes it a complex process. It is a skill because it involves definite important systems, it is an art as it involves innovative and creative tasks, and it is science because certain demonstrable philosophies are involved to ensure an effective communication. In the past, you probably used the words “sending” or “receiving” when referring to communication. Littlejohn in 1999 noted that “a wide variety of terms have been used to define communication such as symbols, speech, understanding, process, transmission, channel, intention, meaning, and situation.” Today, communication is referred as “sharing”. The word “share” implies something that two or more people do together rather than something one person does or gives to someone else. Communication forms relationships, allows cultures to evolve, and encourages understanding among people. Hence, communication is the thing that makes us human. Without it, we would perish. The study of speech is based on the assumption that one’s ability to communicate in an effective manner is vital to successful human interaction. 20  Wilbur Schramm, 1973 (A pioneer in Mass Communication Research) Communication is the process of sharing information, idea or attitude Bryant ,1992 Communication is not simply the verbal, explicit, and intentional transmission of message; it includes all those processes by which people influence one another George Gerbner ,1967 Communication is a social interaction through messages. Communication is the process of managing messages for the purpose of creating meaning. Three key terms makeup this definition: messages, managing, and meaning. Messages are the words, sounds, actions, and gestures that people express to one another when they interact. Messages may be expressed verbally in words or nonverbally in sounds, actions, and gestures. Managing refers to the handling or supervising of people or some process or material. In communication, we manage the process of creating, receiving, and responding to verbal and nonverbal messages. Managing and handling messages involve making choices among possible messages. 21  Consider the various choices among you make when performing a simple ritual such as greeting a friend in a hallway. You choose between greeting the person verbally or nonverbally or do both? Do you simply say “Hello”, wave your hand as you pass your friend, or do both? You make choices among several possible verbal or nonverbal behaviors. Managing messages also encompasses how to respond to another’s communication. When someone says “Hello” to you, how do you respond? Do you acknowledge the greeting or ignore it? Do you respond by saying “Hello” back or giving a wave of your hand. Managing communication is challenging not only because it involves choosing among many possible messages but also because the kinds of messages you select influence the meaning you create. Meaning refers to the interpretation people assign to a message - how it is recognized or understood. Meaning for words and events may be personal and unique or it may be shared with others. As people are socialized into a group or culture, they may develop meanings for certain words and events shard with others. Take for example the words spam, virus, and firewall. Spam (cook) - refers to a spiced ham in a can Virus (doctor) - refers to an infectious agent that invades and takes over human cells Firewall (forest firefighter) - refers to the line of defense where you will attempt to stop a fire. In computer programming, these terms meant differently. Spam - junk mail that you receive on email Virus - computer virus that corrupts your computer files Firewall - restricting who has access to data on a computer Although the words are the same, whether you are socialized as a cook, doctor, firefighter, or computer programmer influences the meaning you assign to those words. 22  What does that mean? should be rephrased as What does that mean to you? Features and Functions of Communication 1. Communication as Information Transfer. People communication to get their point across to an audience clearly. 2. Communication as shared meaning. People communicate in order to create a common understanding of people, events, and situations. 3. Communication as persuasion. People communicate to influence others, to accept points of view or to perform certain actions that we specify. Persuasion is the use of communication to reinforce, change, or modify an audience’ attitudes, values, beliefs, or actions. 4. Communication as community. People communicate to facilitate coordination among people in communities. Importance of Communication 1. It is a way of creating and sharing meanings. 2. It helps people satisfy their work and personal lives. 3. It helps people to feel good about themselves and about their friends, groups, and organizations. 4. It is a form of releasing tension or an outlet to one’s pent-up emotions or angst (therapeutic effect of communication). 23  Assessment Task 2-1 1. What key words or phrases best capture the meaning of communication? 2. Discuss the adage “One cannot not communicate.” 24  Summary Communication is a fundamental part of all our lives. The range of methods we can use to communicate with each other is growing all the time. We can communicate using everything from a note stuck on the fridge door to video-conferencing. But no matter which medium we choose, the underlying structure or communication cycle remains the same. If we are unsure of what we wish to communicate, or transmit it badly, we run the risk of not being understood by other people. In general, communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information, news, ideas and feelings but also create and share meaning. As an end note, communication is a means of connecting people or places. Reference Ongkiko, Ila & Flor, Alexander. (2006). Introduction to Development Communication. 10.13140/RG.2.1.2952.6887. 25 Lesson 2. Characteristics, Levels, and Elements of Communication Characteristics of Communication 1. Communication is a process. When https://images.app.goo.gl/2gPJ3huBMKb2qvVa8 communication is looked upon as a process, it follows that it has elements that are continually changing, dynamic, and interacting. Furthermore, the events and relationships among its elements are seen as being: on-going, cyclic, ever- changing, no beginning-no end, interdependent, and interrelated. Describing communication as a process does not mean that communication must follow a specific series of steps in order to be effective. People can communicate effectively in a given situations in any number of days. When talking about communication as a process, the meaning of an utterance depends on where it falls in the process - what has happened before the words are spoken and what happens afterward. The words may mean different things depending on how the recipients respond to the message. Context can influence the meaning of a message. The meaning of words changes when you utter that phrase to a potential partner, a member of your family, or a close friend. To understand the process of communication, we must ask questions such as what was said, to whom, in what context, and how did they respond. 2. Communication creates our social worlds. Our social worlds are comprised of people, their relationships with others, and the events and objects they create. Communication does so much more than simply transmit our internal states such as thoughts and feelings to others and refer to external events and people. Rather it creates and reforms our understanding of those states, events, and people. 26  Through communication, we create myths, stories, rituals, ceremonies, rules, and other aspects of our social reality. It is communication that provides us with meaning and expectations about people and situations. Because the way we communicate is responsible to a large extent for creating our social world. 3. Communication is functional. A. Task Function. Communication intends to accomplish something. If you are a member of a work team, and need to make a decision, communication with other members helps make that decision. When you are negotiating the purchase of a car, your ability to persuade can help you accomplish your goal by getting a good deal. Communication functions by helping us explain, brainstorm, negotiate, direct, and make decisions in many situations. It allows us to complete the task at hand. B. Relational Function. Communication serves a particular purpose in any interaction. In addition to getting things done, communication also helps build relationship, and maintain a healthy supportive climate. Communication can offer people social support in times of personal crisis. Self-esteem can be built and strengthened through communication. Communication can help build cohesion and enhance commitment and loyalty in small groups and organizations. When communication builds relationships and creates supportive climates, it serves as a relational function by focusing on the emotional aspects of a relationship between two people, a group, or an organization. 4. Communication is limiting and liberating. When people communicate, they base their communication on the pre-existing norms, values, and beliefs that characterize groups, organizations, institutions, and societies. These norms, values, and beliefs set expectations and boundaries for how people are to communicate and they try to conform to them. For example, gangs have created a strong set of norms, values, and beliefs that guide how gang members dress and talk to one another. Gang members who want to 27  maintain their membership in the gang and avoid punishment or retribution must conform to these expectations. People often communicate in ways that intentionally or unintentionally violate pre- existing expectations and boundaries. When people communicate in ways that are creative and liberating, they reshape the norms, values, and beliefs. 5. Communication is adaptive. We need to change our communication according to our environment if we are to communicate competently. Adapting our communication to the environment can be difficult because it may involve trade-offs between your beliefs and values and the necessity to maintain quality working relationships with others. 6. Communication is holistic. Understanding communication holistically means we must examine the speaker, the audience, and most importantly what they do together. To understand communication holistically, focus on: What people do together At a specific time In a specific place What has led up to this interaction And what their hopes are for the future. A holistic approach to examining communication is important because focusing only on the speaker’s intent or on the audience’s perceptions of a message limits our understanding of the entire communication process. 7. Communication involves coordination of meanings. For people to communicate well, they must share meanings for events and words and that people always need to be clear and unambiguous to achieve good communication. Yet, there are times where we may need or want to be less than clear in our communication. Being ambiguous in how we communicate can have two main benefits: 28  Ambiguity can help people with diverse sets of opinions collaborate with each other. If there is ambiguity about what feelings or values are important, people may assume they share the same beliefs and values and be willing to work together. When communication is clear, the differences between people become more distinct and may lead to conflict. Ambiguous communication can promote creativity. For example, teachers may be ambiguous in their instructions about how to complete a particular assignment to encourage students to be creative in the way they accomplish the task. Levels of Communication There are three levels of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal, and mass communication. A. Intrapersonal Communication It involves communication with oneself. This is your knowledge of and communication with yourself; it involves thinking, remembering, and feeling - all the things you do internally. The individual becomes his or her own sender and receiver, providing feedback to him/herself in an ongoing internal process. It involves one or more of those mental activities in which human beings engage - for example, thinking, deciding, remembering, feeling, valuing, and rationalizing. B. Interpersonal Communication It is defined as person-to-person communication. It is the interaction between two people or among members of a relatively small group. Simultaneously, it determines our relationships with others, as well as who we are. It includes dyadic communication and small group communication. Dyadic communication refers to communicative interaction between two individuals. Examples: telephone conversation, a job interview, a conference with an instructor and a student. Small group communication refers to communicative interaction 29 between three or more persons which permits the dialogical participation of each person. Examples: committee planning, informal discussion. C. Public Communication It involves one-to-many situation in which a speaker presents a message to an audience; at this level, one engages primarily in a monologue rather than a dialogue. It includes public speaking and mass communication. Public speaking involves a speaker(s) transmitting speech to a live audience. Receiver responses to the message are often limited to non-verbal forms such as laughter, applause, facial expressions, and bodily movements. D. Mass Communication Mass communication refers to the transmission of a message to many different audiences that remain essentially unknown to the transmitter and unknown to each other. Mass communication is characterized by feedback from receiver to transmitter which is delayed and inferential. Communication takes place simultaneously with the help of an electronic device, in which an institution is involved. These electronic devices are known as mass media such as print, radio, television, the Internet, etc. The audience is 'mass' i.e. it has a heterogeneous profile, are unknown to each other and located in widespread locations. Feedback in mass communication is considered to be weak and delayed as compared to group and interpersonal communication. Today with developments in the field of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), communication through electronic media may be interactive and feedback may not be delayed. Even now print medium for instance, newspapers, journals, news broadcast, etc., engaged in mass communication do not generate as much feedback as the other types of communication Elements of Communication If we look at communication as a process, then we need to look at its elements. 30 1. Source. It refers to a person or group of persons with a purpose, a reason for engaging in communication. The source initiates the communication process. The source is also referred to as the encoder, sender, information source, or communicator. 2. Receiver. It is the person or group of persons at the other end of the communication process. H/She is the target of communication. The receiver listens when the source talks; the receiver reads what the source writes. 3. Message. A source must have something to transmit. His or her purpose is expressed in the form of a message. The message may be an idea, purpose, or intention that has been translated into a code or a systematic set of symbols. 4. Channel. It is the means of encoding and decoding messages; it is message vehicles; it is vehicle carriers. It is both the router travelled by the message and the means of transportation. 5. Feedback. A communication response is feedback to both the source and the receiver. 31  Assessment Task 2-2 1. Comment on the statement that communication is a two-way process. What role does feedback play in this process? 2. With the help of diagram, describe the process and elements of communication. 32  3. Compare and contrast the levels of communication. Points of Comparison Interpersonal Intrapersonal Group Mass 33  Summary Communication is the act of transferring information from one place, person or group to another. Every communication involves (at least) one sender, a message, and a recipient. This may sound simple, but communication is actually a very complex subject. As a process, communication is ongoing, cyclic, ever-changing, and with no beginning and no end. The elements of the process are interdependent and interrelated. Reference Ongkiko, Ila & Flor, Alexander. (2006). Introduction to Development Communication. 10.13140/RG.2.1.2952.6887. 34 Lesson 3. Models of Communication https://images.app.goo.gl/Y3bEFFvwC4TGR6oN9 Models of communication are conceptual models or systematic representations of the process, which helps in understanding how communication works can be done. Models show the process metaphorically and in symbols. They form general perspectives on communication by breaking communication from complex to simple and keeps the components in order Communication Models There are three general types of communication models in which all other communication models are mostly categorized. 1. Linear model of human communication. It describes communication as a one-way transmission. A speaker sends a message and listeners receive the information that constitutes the message. The channel or medium of communication provides a point of contact between the speaker and audience. And what the speaker says has some impact or effect upon the listener. 35 It includes the following models of communication: Berlo’s model o David Berlo o He points out the importance of the psychological view in his communication model. o The four parts of Berlo’s SMCR model are - source, message, channel, and receiver. o Several things determine how a source will operate in the communication process. They include the source’s communication skills, abilities to think, write, draw, speak. They also include attitudes toward audience, the subject matter, yourself, or toward any other factor pertinent to the situation. Knowledge of the subject, the audience, the situation and other background also influence the way the source operates. o Knowledge of the social background, education, friends, and culture is also important. o Message has to do with the package to be sent by the source. The code or language must be chosen. Within the message, select content and organize it to meet acceptable treatment for the given audience or specific channel. o Channel can be thought of as a sense. o Receiver becomes the final link in the communication process. The receiver is the person/s who make up the audience of your message. All of the factors that determine how a source will operate apply to the receiver. 36 Lasswell’s model (1948) o Harold D. Lasswell, American political scientist o A convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following question: Who, Says What, In Which Channel, To Whom, With What Effect? o Criticisms: (1) The model took for granted that communication is mainly a persuasive process, that the communicator always has some intent to influence the receiver. (2) It omits the elements of feedback. Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Model (1949) o Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, engineers o It is a linear model that introduces the dysfunctional factor, noise. Noise is anything that disrupts the smooth flow of communication. 37 2. Interactive model of communication. The most distinctive feature of the interactive model is the concept of feedback. This is usually referred to as two-way communication. It includes circular, interdependent feedback process transposed over the linear communication model. It includes the following model of communication: Osgood and Shramm’s Model o Charles Osgood and Wilbur Schramm o They took Berlo's ideas and developed them further by describing a circular model of communication between two parties. It involves both parties in the endless process of listening and communicating. They describe this process as encoding and decoding. Both parties alternate between being Sender and Receiver. Both parties do a lot of interpreting as they decode what they hear and encode what they want to say. 38 3. Transactional model of communication. The speaker and listeners simultaneously encode and decode messages received from one another on the basis of the frames of reference that each brings to the situation. Convergence Model of Communication o Lawrence Kincaid, 1981 o It shows a process through which participants share information so that mutual understanding is reached. 39 Helical Model o Frank Dance (1967) o Communication portrays that is a moving process. It shows the dynamism of the communication process. It gives the notion that man, when communicating, is active, creative, and store information. o The name helical comes from “Helix” which means an object having a three- dimensional shape like that of a wire wound uniformly around a cylinder or cone. He shows communication as a dynamic and non-linear process. o As like helix, the communication process starts very slowly and defined small circle only. The communicators shared information only with a small portion of themselves to their relationships. Its gradually develops into next level but which will take some time to reach and expanding its boundaries to the next level. Later the communicators commit more and shared more portions by themselves. 40  Assessment Task 2-3 1. Watch closely two persons communicating with each other. Note the various signs and symbols used for interaction. Analyze how their roles as sender and receiver interchange while interacting. Examine if there is any noise or barrier existing in their communication. If yes, observe the effect of the noise on the communication process. 41 2. Look around for a communication scenario and plot the communication model adapted using a diagram. 42  Summary Communication models are similar to frozen reality of concepts. It freezes the communication process so we can better explore it. The communication models underlines that communication is a process (Berlo, 1961), is a transaction (Stewart, 1990), and is a convergence of mutual understanding (Rogers and Kincaid, 1981). Reference Ongkiko, Ila & Flor, Alexander. (2006). Introduction to Development Communication. 10.13140/RG.2.1.2952.6887. 43  MODULE 3 INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION Introduction Development Communication is defined as the use of communication to facilitate development. It “engages stakeholders and policy makers, establishes conducive environments, assesses risks and opportunities, and promotes information exchanges to bring about positive social change via sustainable development,” as defined by Nora C. Quebral, Professor Emeritus at the University of the Philippines in Los Baños—who is also considered the “mother” of this practice. Used in this manner, communication is done not just for spreading information and educating people—as we are used to receiving from newspapers, TV, radio, and now the internet—but also for changing behaviors, marketing to specific social groups, mobilizing communities, advocating issues in the general media and clamoring for changes to society. UPLB’s Quebral, who has been discussing development communication since the 1970s, later expanded its definition, calling it “the art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and the larger fulfilment of the human potential.” Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, students should be able to: 1. Describe how development communication started as a field of study; 2. Explain the concept and values of development communication; and 3. Discuss the uniqueness and similarity of development communication with the other fields. 44 Lesson 1. History of Development Communication How did the discipline https://images.app.goo.gl/i9Di9AQKMws2vpu18 and practice of development communication begin? Who were the founders and how were the first experiments implemented? Okunnu (2014) shared that “the practice of development communication began in the 1940s, but its widespread application came about after World War II. The advent of communication sciences in the 1950s included recognition of the field as an academic discipline, led by Daniel Lerner, Wilbur Schramm and Everett Rogers. Both Childers and Quebral stressed that development communication includes all means of communication, ranging from mass media to person to person.” The Academic Schools of Development Communication As a result of different approaches towards challenging development theories and models, different models of development communication have emerged within specific cultural, geographical and ideological contexts. Concurring with Ansu-Kyeremeh's (1994) and Amin's (1989) rejections of postcolonial euro-centralisation of knowledge, Manyozo, (2006) broke the field into six schools. These six schools of thought in development communication comprise: Latin American, Bretton Woods, Los Banos, African, Indian, and the Post-Freire Schools. These categorizations are based on planned, systematic and strategic communication strategies; coherent method; attachment to academic, training and research institutions; and sources of project funding. 45  The Latin America School 1940 (Radio Sutatenza for rural education; Miners’ Radio Network in Colombia; Television and radio entertainment-education. Theorists: ACCPO, Luis Ramiro Beltrán, Juan Díaz Bordenave, Miguel Sabido, Paulo Freire, Jose Barrientos The Bretton Woods School 1950 Theorists: Everett Rogers, Daniel Lerner, Wilbur Schramm, Jan Servaes, Steeves & Melkote, UNESCO, WB, UNDP, FAO, John Hopkins Centre for Communication Programs, SADC Centre of Communication for Development. IDRC. The Los Baños School 1950s (Development broadcasting; agricultural development communication; ). Theorists: Felix Librero, Alexander Flor, Ely Gomez, Nora Quebral, Juan Jamias, Madeline Suva, Virginia Samonte, Communication Foundation for Asia, Philippine PressInstitute, International Rice Research Institute. The African School (Rural radio; Theatre for development). 1960 Theorists: Penina Mlama, Christopher Kamlongera, Zakes Mda, Robert MacLaren, Ngugi wa Thiong’o, Mapopa Mtonga, Derek Mulenga, David Kerr, Jean-Pierre Ilboudo, CIERRO, The Indian School Radio/television for rural development, 1970 development journalism Theorists: Mehra Masani, George Verghese Keval Kumar, University of Poona, Joseph Velacherry, Delhi University, University of Kerala Post-Freire School: Participatory Development Communication (Communication for social change/development-Visual anthropology, >1980 community theatre, public journalism, radio for development, development radio broadcasting). Theorists:UPLB College of Development Communication, IDRC, FAO Communication Project, UNESCO, Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation, World Bank Figure 1. Mapping out of the emergence of Development Communication (Manyozo, 2006) Latin American School: Emphasis on Media for Development and Participatory Communication The emergence, growth and expansion of the Latin American School was built not on Western development theory, but rather on post coloniality (as a rejection of a specific historical experience of colonial and neo-colonial subjugation), religious Catholicism (especially liberation theology) and adult literacy. Manyozo (2006, 2012) argues that Latin America may have introduced the earliest experiments in development communication. Emerging largely independent of Western development theory and influences, the Latin American School can be partially traced to 1947 in Colombia, when Radio Sutatenza was established by a Roman Catholic priest, Jose Joachim Salcedo. Radio Sutatenza pioneered and perfected the concept and practice of lasescuelasradiofonicas (or radio schools), 46 promoted by the country's Accion Cultural Popular (ACPO). The ACPO itself was formed in an attempt to broaden and diversify the Catholic Church's distant education initiatives (Diaz Borden/ave; 1977; Gumucio, 2001). It was an independent organization whose cultural division was responsible for structured and unstructured adult educational initiatives, largely comprising a radio network through which the institute offered training lasting between six months and three years (Diaz Bordenave, 1977; Gumucio, 2001). The Sutatenza rural development education experiment would later receive funding from UNESCO and the Colombian government in order to scale up and scale out its programmes. It can even be argued that this specific approach, combined with Freirean concepts of conscientisation and trancendentality, would formulate the theoretical backbone of the educommunication movement and approach within the formal education system in Brazil, Latin America and the world. For Diaz Bordenave (1977), Gumucio (2001) and Manyozo (2012), Sutatenza's approach was rooted in the liberation philosophy of the Catholic Church, which emphasizes total independence from ideological and material institutions and structures of oppression. Such a theology was clarified when the Second Vatican Council was organized. The Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), held in Latin America, released a number of documents and declarations in relation to liberation theology that also specifically detailed the role of media and communication as instruments of empowerment and poverty eradication. One of such declarations was the Decree on the Media of Social Communications, Inter Mirifica (Second Vatican Council, 1963), which recognizes the role and power of 'new avenues of communicating', to "reach and influence, not only individuals, but the very masses and the whole of human society, and thus can rightly be called the media of social communication". This specific Decree provides guidelines, not only on how the 'media of social communication' can promote citizenship, good governance and humanity, but also the utilitarian values and principles of such media. The Decree even places responsibilities -with producers, publishers and broadcasters as well as audiences, observing that: “The Church recognizes that these media [of social communication], if properly utilized, can be of great service to mankind, since they greatly contribute to men's entertainment and instruction as well as to the spread and support of the Kingdom of God….” 47 The Bretton Woods School: Emphasis on Media for Development and Media Development Origins of the Bretton Woods School can be formally located within the post-Second World War Marshall Plan economic strategies and the subsequent establishment of the World Bank and the IMF in 1944 (Manyozo, 2006; Melkote and Steeves, 2001; Kumar, 1994; Servaes, 2008). The school's modernist development communication paradigm has often propagated the dominant view of development promoted by Western institutions and governments — the production and planting of development in indigenous and uncivilised societies (Lerner, 1958; Melkote and Steeves, 2001; Quebral, 1988; Rogers, 1962; Servaes, 2008; Schramm, 1964). The Bretton Woods School's financial and academic institutions have, over the years, comprised, among others, UNESCO, FAO, Rockefeller Foundation, Department for International Development (DFID), Ford Foundation and universities like Michigan State, Texas, Cornell, Ohio, Wisconsin, Leeds, Columbia, Iowa, Southern California or New Mexico. As the Manyozo (2012) observes, there were two major developments that contributed to the emergence of this school. First were the early farm radio experiments in the US in the early 1900s, which were marked by the University of Wisconsin using the earliest ham radio inventions to broadcast weather reports on a daily basis (Hilliard and Keith, 2001). Such micro- power radios provided important agricultural information to regional and remote communities about weather, soil and air, market reports, flood warnings and other information affecting farming communities. These experiments were strengthened by the involvement of major public and national broadcasters who later embarked on farm radio programming for rural and farm areas, and were later joined by the US Department of Agriculture (Milliard, 2003). Second were the development communication experiments in Canada,'which comprised of farm radio forums (in the late 1930s) and the Fogo Process participatory video and film experiments, in which the screening of locally generated videos on rural poverty provided a space where local people were conscientised about local development and then challenged to improve their livelihoods (Manyozo, 2012; Williamson, 1991). For this school, it was not development that was a problem. What was needed was to find creative and more participatory ways of communicating this very development that had been exposed for promoting gross structural and social inequalities by the Latin American postcolonist critiques (Ascroft and Masilela, 1994; Diaz Bordenave, 1977; Hedebro, 1982; 48 Kumar, 1994). What makes this school modernist is not the fact that it initially advocated and supported the modernization approaches, but the fact that its communication approaches are located within the dominant development paradigms. ). Even when overwhelming evidence suggests the failure of modernization development paradigms in eradicating poverty and underdevelopment, the Bretton Woods School has continued to promote superficial revisionism of theories, concepts and approaches (Escobar, 1995; Mansell, 1982). Los Banos School: Emphasis on the Three Approaches The origins of theory-based and method-informed “development oriented communication practice” can be traced to two sources – First were the land grant universities in North America, where most UPLB professors would be sent for graduate studies. Second was the College of Agriculture at the University of Philippines where academics intensified the efforts to extend the results of agricultural sciences research to the farmers and other end users the new knowledge and technology (Jamias, 1975, 1991; Librero 1985, 2009; Quebral, 1988, 2002). Like the case of other schools, the Los Banos School received logistical and financial support from the Bretton Woods School. But over time, it recreated itself into an autonomous institution and eventually managed to develop its own theories and methodologies. Development communication at Los Baños became an academic field rather than a techniques programme. Systematic study and practice began at the University of the Philippines Los Baños in the 1970s, through the establishment of the Department of Development Communication in the College of Agriculture, which offered undergraduate and master's degrees. Quebral coined the term "development communication" while at the university's Office of Extension and Publications, now the College of Development Communication (CDC). According to Felix Librero, the term was first used by Quebral in her 1971 paper, "Development Communication in the Agricultural Context," presented in at a symposium at the University of the Philippines Los Baños. In her paper, Quebral argued that development communication had become a science, requiring the tasks associated with communicating development oriented issues be based on scientific inquiry. At the time the field was limited to agricultural and rural development. 49 The African School: Emphasis on Participatory Communication The African School of development communication emerged a little earlier or around the 1960s, largely out of the postcolonial and communist movements, which provided a springboard from which African scholars began to rethink concepts of culture, communication and development (Kamlongera, 1988, 2005; Manyozo, 2012). During the period of its emergence and growth, the school comprised of two faculties, folk media and rural radio (Manyozo, 2012). Its growth should be directly connected to the independence and negritude movements, especially in Francophone Africa. Negritude is both a concept and a practice. It is a concept in post-colonial theory that refers to a movement of largely French-speaking African and Caribbean black intellectuals who have used the ideological platform of 'black pride' or 'black is beautiful' to speak back against colonial oppression of indigenous African values, identities and knowledge. Negritude has also been a strategic practice of black liberation theology, in which social movements (such as the Nation of Islam, the Black Panthers or Rastafarians) have become forms of organised social consciousness that reject the political, social and moral domination of the West, whilst emphasising the pride and consciousness of being black (Manyozo, 2012). For Africa, three institutions have played a huge part in the growth and expansion of the theory and practice of communication for development. First, the early missionaries who came to the continent on a modernization mission understood the importance of theatre as a tool for civilizing the African other (Kamlongera, 2005). Second, the universities in post- independent Africa adapted the indigenous practice of travelling troupes into the concept of travelling theatres and started advancing the notion of 'taking theatre to the people' (Kamlongera, 1988, 2005). Such travelling theatre plays started off by taking European plays to local community halls, but later on began to create educational indigenous language plays on popular themes. Third are the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) whose emergence as subsidiary service providers have allowed them to use theatre, music and dance for mobilizing and empowering communities to become active participants in the development process. Communication for development, as it is practised using theatre, dance and music, still retains these attributes. 50  Theatre for development is a term describing a group of methodologies which strategically and consciously employ song, drama and dance as modes of sensitizing and empowering communities to improve their status quo (Kamlongera, 1988, 2005; Mda, 1993). The objective is to strengthen initiatives towards development and social change through the employment of performance as a communication process rather than one oriented towards communicating development content (Kamlongera, 1988, 2005; Mda, 1993). In theatre for development, therefore, theatre becomes a discourse and a forum through which local people critically analyse development issues, linking effects to causes, thereby attaining mental liberation or conscientisation in the Freirean praxis. University travelling theatres have, since the 1980s, moved away from performing English plays in the Shakespearean tradition and started developing indigenous language plays which carry social educational messages on popular issues of alcoholism, adultery, witchcraft or agriculture (Kamlongera, 1988, 2005; Mda, 1993). The plays draw from oral cultures, including music and religious symbolism, and building on these, the troupes perform traditional social functions of providing community education. Alongside the theatre for development movement has been the rural and community radio sector. Ilboudo (2003) traces the development of rural and community radio on the continent, from indigenous language programming on development through farm radio forums, rural stations linked to public broadcasters and then finally to independent rural and community stations. In francophone West Africa, the development or rural radio involved huge state intervention (of course, with financial and technical assistance from foreign governments and development organizations), whilst in anglophone Sub-Saharan Africa, the development of the sector has been led by the civil society sector (Ilboudo, 2003). Today, however, there seems to be a convergence of the different communication for development trajectories. Theatre for development and other participatory action research strategies are being increasingly employed by networks of development NGOs and community broadcasters in order to increase audience participation in message and content generation to support various development projects. The expansion of the ICT sector has also enabled radio stations to become increasingly connected to the knowledge society, which helps programme producers to use internet and other ICT-based knowledge resources to improve their reach in terms of meeting audience needs. 51 The Indian School: Emphasis on Media for Development and Media Development Organized development communication in India began with rural radio broadcasts in the 1940s. Broadcasts adopted indigenous languages to reach larger audiences. Organized efforts in India started with community development projects in the 1950s. The government, guided by socialist ideals and politicians, started many development programs. Field publicity was employed for person-to-person communication. Radio played an important role in reaching the masses because literacy was low. Educational institutions – especially agricultural universities, through their extension networks – and international organizations under the United Nations umbrella experimented with development communication. Non- governmental organizations (NGOs) relied on close inter-personal relations among communicators. Communication from the government was more generic and unidirectional. So-called Public Information Campaigns were government-sponsored public fairs in remote areas that presented entertainment along with information on social and developmental schemes. Villagers engaged in competitions to attract attendees. Public and private organizations sponsored stalls in the main exhibition area. Development agencies and service/goods providers also attended. Some state governments employed this model. Community radio was used in rural India. NGOs and educational institutions created local stations to broadcast information, advisories and messages on development. Local participation was encouraged. Community radio provided a platform for villagers to publicize local issues, offering the potential to elicit action from local officials. The widespread adoption of mobile telephony in India created new channels for reaching the masses. Post-Freire School: The Communication for Development and Social Change School The Communication for Development and Social Change School comprises institutional collaboration involving research and development organizations from the five schools of thought, as well as between the north and south. It must be observed that this collaboration has not been smooth, as there seems to be some disagreement over concepts of social change, communication process, training and methodological approaches. As a result, there are broadly two saliently tenuous approaches towards studying or teaching development communication: the development theory approach and the communication theory approach, since "we are talking about processes that go hand in hand" (Quebral, 1988: 7). The development theory approach has involved researchers and practitioners locating the 52 origins, definitions and practices within dominant development paradigms as having formulated the springboard for the emergence of development communication. Quebral (1988: 8) argues that development communication is "coloured" more by how we define development, which is "the stronger principle in the tandem" to the extent that, when the definition of development changes, the "definition of development communication also changes". The development theory approach, on the one hand, offers parallel comparisons between the evolution of development communication in relation to development theory. Research and training programmes working within this approach have often located their initiatives in agricultural extension, rural development, rural sociology, community health development or indigenous knowledge systems. This is the approach that has dominated the research and training programmes in much of Africa and Asia. The communication theory approach on the other hand, involves practitioners and scholars focusing on examining histories of how media and communication experiments impact governance, democracy and livelihoods. Such approaches have usually been built on bodies of work in media effects research, social theory, political economy or liberal democratic political theory. The concept of social change has become key to this, especially in the Americas. The models of training programmes that are being promoted by the Communication for Social Change Consortium reflect this approach. An increasing number of universities in Latin America are adopting this social change training model, whose origins can be attributed to the 'media of social communication' declarations by the Second Vatican Council as well as Goran Hedebro's (1982) book, Communication and Social Change in Developing Nations: A Critical View. Without comparing the two approaches, Servaes (2008) emphasizes the centrality of participation in conceptualizing development communication. Dismissing the emphasis on diffusion within the two approaches, especially with regard to their reliance on the persuasive power of media, that is, being sender-and-media-centric in nature, Servaes (2008) contends that understanding development communication can only be successful if built on participation theories advocated by UNESCO and Freire, an undertaking that must be accepted as common sense. As a theory, practice and field of study, development communication has reoriented itself to focus on social challenges of the first world as well as issues like child prostitution, art forms, human rights and culture, because by being "seamless in nature", human development entails economic, social, political and cultural independence (Quebral, 1988: 22). Rockefeller 53 Foundation researchers and practitioners have started 'asserting' the relevance of devel- opment communication 'in the context of developed countries' and as such, a 'new and longer label', communication for social change, is being proposed (Cadiz, 1991,1994). For others, the term communication for development and social change is more appealing (Servaes, 2003, 2008). The collaboration of different schools has produced interesting results with regards to testing theory against practice. The IsangBagsak Network has involved community-based natural resource management initiatives by Latin American, South East Asian, African and Canadian institutions. Bessette (2004) observes that IsangBagsak is a research and development initiative that empowers development partners to employ participatory development communication (PDC) tools and approaches in order to promote community- based natural resource management. The PDC is a communication tool with which to facilitate community involvement in local development (Bessette, 2004). The implication of Bessette's assertion is that communication systems and approaches should be 'indigenised', a process that involves the deliberate implication and inclusion of indigenous communication systems into the mainstream communication systems so as to create holistic communication initiatives (Ansu-Kyeremeh, 1994, in Manyozo, 2006). In terms of rural radio and development, major contributions of the Communication for Development and Social Change (CFD&SC) School have been to clarify the concept of rural radio in relation to development journalism and rural radio forum, which were largely restricted to either rural or agricultural communications by all these schools. 54  Assessment Task 3-1 One of the first examples of development communication was Farm Radio Forums in Canada. From 1941 to 1965, farmers met weekly to listen to radio programs, supplemented by printed materials and prepared questions to encourage discussion. At first this was a response to the Great Depression and the need for increased food production in World War II. Later the Forums dealt with social and economic issues. This model of adult education or distance education was later adopted in India and Ghana. Instruction: Considering the six academic schools of Development Communication, please share your thoughts on how the Farm Radio Forum may have help to facilitate social development from 1941 to 1965. 55  Assessment Task 3-2 Instruction: Make a graphic organizer of the six academic schools of Development Communication. 56  Summary The idea of communication as a support to development can be traced back in 1940s. Development Communication may have its roots in the post-war initiatives as discussed in the Bretton Woods School. However, due to geographical, cultural, colonial and historical differences, different development communications evolved from different parts of the world. It was manifested in the efforts of the broadcasters of Radio Sutatenza and Radios Mineras, the development broadcasting and agricultural development communication, the travelling theatre troupes of Africa, the extension workers of Bhiwandi in India to discuss devcom as having emerged as a homogenous field, and the Communication for social change/development. References Bessette, G. (2004). Involving the community: A guide to participatory development communication. Ottawa, Ontario, Dakar, Montevideo, Nairobi, New Delhi and Singapore: IDRC and Southbound. Ongkiko, Ila & Flor, Alexander. (2006). Introduction to Development Communication. 10.13140/RG.2.1.2952.6887. Okunnu (2014). HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT. https://www.academia.edu/11008400/HISTORY_OF_DEVELOPMENT_COMMUNICATI ON Manyozo, Linje (March 2006). "Manifesto for Development Communication: Nora C. Quebral and the Los Baños School of Development Communication". Asian Journal of Communication 16 (1): 79–99. doi:10.1080/01292980500467632. Quebral, N. (1988). Development communication. Laguna: UPLB College of Agriculture 57 Lesson 2. Definitions of Development Communication How does one define development communication? Its definition has evolved and has varied in time and place since 1940s. Dr. Nora Quebral (1988) defined “Development Communication as the art and science of human communication linked to a society’s planned transformation from a state of poverty to one dynamic socio-economic growth that makes for greater equality and the larger unfolding of individual potentials. Development Communication requires creativity in communicating messages through the use of various communication media and materials. It is a social science, which uses scientific method to enrich its own field through research where theories and principles can be derived and applied to developmental problems. It applies systematic methods in making decisions and planning how to effectively carry out communication interventions. It acts as catalyst for social change. It also entails motivating individuals and group of people to change their habits, their lifestyles, way of thinking, and way of doing things.” UPLB Chancellor Samonte (1974) described “Development Communication as “communication with social conscience. It is heavily oriented towards the human aspects of development. Even though it is primarily associated with rural development, it is also concerned with urban, particularly sub-urban problems. It plays two broad roles. The first is a transformation role through which it seeks social change in the direction of higher quality of life and social justice. The second is a socialization role through which it strives to maintain some of the established values of society that are consonant with development.” Erskine Childers defined “Development support communications as a discipline in development planning and implementation in which more adequate account is taken of human behavioral factors in the design of development projects and their objectives.” According to the World Bank, development communication is the “integration of strategic communication in development projects based on a clear understanding of indigenous realities.” 58  The UNICEF views it as: "...a two-way process for sharing ideas and knowledge using a range of communication tools and approaches that empower individuals and communities to take actions to improve their lives.” The Thusong government center described it as “providing communities with information they can use in bettering their lives, which aims at making public programmes and policies real, meaningful and sustainable”. Bessette (2006) defined development communication as a “planned and systematic application of communication resources, channels, approaches and strategies to support the goals of socio–economic, political and cultural development.” Devcom under the modernization framework often is viewed as a process of persuasive marketing. Some examples of this would be biomedical-based health communication initiatives that seek specific behavior changes in their receivers/users, the diffusion of innovations approach, and social marketing approaches. For those with critical perspectives, therefore, devcom is a process of consensus building and resistance. It is not a linear process, but it must be historically grounded, culturally sensitive, and multifaceted, with attention to all the political, economic, and ideological structures and processes that comprise society. Examples of these would include participatory approaches in social change, social mobilization, advocacy communication, resistance communication and liberation approaches, and participatory action research (PAR) approaches. Devcom is not message exchange, but rather emancipatory communication that will leave people free to determine their futures. That should include everyone participating in the process, not just the so-called target groups. The assumption is that once people are able to name their sources of oppression, as well as their sources of power, they will then be able to find solutions (Melkote & Steeves, 2015). 59  Assessment Task 3-3 1. What key words or phrases best capture the meaning of development communication? 60 2. Cite two cases in your local community or national community where you can see the interface of development and communication. Use the box below for writing and analyzing your case. Case 1 Case 2 61  Assessment Task 3-4 In the 1970s in Korea, the Planned Parenthood Federation succeeded in lowering birth rates and improving life in villages such as Oryu Li. It mainly used interpersonal communication in women’s clubs. Oryu Li’s success did not recur in all villages. The initial effort had the advantage of a remarkable local leader and visits from the provincial governor. Given the said case, enumerate the factors or main important points, which made this particular situation an outcome of development communication. 62  Summary Development communication has been defined in several ways by different experts such as economic development and sociologists. Though, the terminology development communication originated in Asia, it differs from region to region depending on the definers view of development. Development communication refers to the use of communication to facilitate social development. It engages stakeholders and policy makers, establishes conducive environments, assesses risks and opportunities, and promotes information exchanges to bring about positive social change via sustainable development. References Ongkiko, Ila & Flor, Alexander. (2006). Introduction to Development Communication. 10.13140/RG.2.1.2952.6887. Quebral, Nora (23 November 2001). “Development Communication in a Borderless World”. Paper presented at the national conference-workshop on the undergraduate development communication curriculum, “New Dimensions, Bold Decisions”. Continuing Education Center, UP Los Baños: Department of Science Communication, College of Development Communication, University of the Philippines Los Baños. pp. 15–28. Ogan, C.L. (1982). “Development journalism/communication: The status of the concept”. International Communication Gazette 29 (3): 1–13. doi:10.1177/001654928202900101. Manyozo 2006. “COMMUNICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT GOES BEYOND PROVIDING INFORMATION”. 63 Melkote, S.R. and Steeves, H.L. (2015). Communication for Development Theory and Practice for Empowerment and Social Justice 3rd Edition. Sage. Thusong Service Center (October 2000). “Development Communication – An approach to a democratic public information system”. Thusong Service Center. Retrieved 16 October 2012. Bassette, Guy. 2006. People, Land, and Water: Participatory Development Communication for Natural Resource Management. London: Earthscan and the International Development Research Centre 64 Lesson 3. Values of Development Communication There are three major values that guide the practice of development communication. These are as follows: Value- Purposive Pragmatic Laden Development Communication is Purposive Communication. Development Communication practitioners communicate not only to inform but also to influence the behavior of the receiver of information. In the development context, a tacit positive value is attached to what one communicates about, which shall motivate the people for social change. Development Communication is Pragmatic. To be pragmatic means being results- oriented. The ultimate goal of development communication is a higher quality of life for the people of a society by social and political change. There is a need to evaluate the impact of the project implemented. Being pragmatic also assesses the factors that contributed to the success or failure of a communication program. Questions like “Did I achieve my objectives?” and “What factors led to the attainment of the objectives?” are asked. Development Communication is Value Laden. Information sources, consciously or unconsciously, assign values to every message they communicate (Jamias, 1975). There are four exquisite values of Development Communication. These are empowerment, environmentalism, entrepreneurship, and equity. The following case will help you concretize the three major values of development communication better. “The women are eager to play an active role in HIV/AIDS education. They hold a meeting with the clinic sister of the Provincial Health Department who 65 visits the area each Wednesday morning. She offers them training and information based on printed material produced by the department and the Department of Health. This is as they have decided to stage a community drama as an awareness vehicle. They write the script and they established a partnership with the Local Authority to stage the play in venues around such as clinics, schools, government offices etc. The group is supported by the government in the development of a marketing campaign for this series of roadshows which occurs across the municipality. This is through the production of posters and flyers in partnership with Provincial Health Department. By now the women have received a sponsorship from a private sector concern to extend the number of performances. This is as a result of the large crowds which the performances had drawn and the enthusiastic participation of the local community. The roadshows also successfully distributed many other information products from other departments, to the large groups attracted.” 66  Assessment Task 3-5 Review the facts given in the experience of the women who utilizes community theater to advance HIV/AIDS education. In the given box, indicate the manifestations that development communication is purposive, pragmatic, and value-laden. 67  Summary Three main ideas which define the philosophy of development communication and make it different from general communication are purposive, pragmatic, and value laden. Keeping in mind these core values could give the development communication practitioners an advantage on how to achieve the fulfillment of individuals, families, groups and communities basic needs accordingly. It will also help to developing one’s skills and ability to use his/her own resources that can bring positive change in the community. Reference Ongkiko, Ila & Flor, Alexander. (2006). Introduction to Development Communication. 10.13140/RG.2.1.2952.6887. 68 Lesson 4. Development Communication and Other Fields The CHED Memorandum Order No 36 s. 2017 specifically cited that the Development Communication must concentrate on the knowledge and skills needed in teaching, managing, and implementing communication programs for development. Area of practice includes public and corporate communication/information officers, social science and communication researchers/analysts, communication/media planners and managers, program/project development officers, media practitioners, learning system designers, and multimedia designers, among others. The allied fields of Development Communication are Communication, Journalism, Broadcasting, Multimedia Studies, Film, Communication Research, Agricultural Education/Extension, and Development Studies. How is Development Communication different from the various fields in communica