Biological Macromolecules PDF

# Biological Macromolecules ## Carbohydrates **Function:** - Source of energy - Structural compounds - Energy production and storage - Helps build macromolecules **Biological Macromolecules:** - Large, complex molecules - Polymers - Polysaccharides - Large macromolecules - Includes:...

# Biological Macromolecules ## Carbohydrates **Function:** - Source of energy - Structural compounds - Energy production and storage - Helps build macromolecules **Biological Macromolecules:** - Large, complex molecules - Polymers - Polysaccharides - Large macromolecules - Includes: - Starch (stored in plants) - Glycogen (stored in liver) - Cellulose (plant cell walls) - Chitin (insect exoskeleton) ### Monomers - Monosaccharides - Building blocks of large molecules - Simple carbohydrates - Includes: - Glucose - Galactose - Fructose ### Disaccharides - Two monosaccharides combined - Through dehydration synthesis - Removal of water to form a bond ### Polysaccharides **Polymer** – Polysaccharide - Such as: Starch, Glycogen, Chitin, Cellulose **Which is made of:** - Monomer - Monosaccharides - Linked together - Such as: Glucose, Galactose **Starch:** - Can be broken down - Found in plants - Stored energy - Highly branched **Cellulose:** - Cannot be broken down - Structural - Found in plants - Plant cell walls **Chitin:** - Found in insect exoskeletons **Fructose:** - Simple sugar **Glucose:** - *C*₆*H*₁₂*O*₆ - Includes: - Glucose - Galactose - Fructose **Isomers:** - Same chemical formula - Different structure **Dehydration Synthesis:** - Can be reversed - Bonding glucose molecules (maltose) - Removal of water to form a bonded structure **Hydrolysis:** - Breaking bonds between monomers by adding water - Monosaccharides ## Lipids **Function:** - Stores energy in animals - Long-term - Insoluble in water - Hydrophobic - Non-polar **Includes:** - Triglycerides - Phospholipids - Waxes - Steroids **Polymers - Triglyceride:** - Made of Monomers - Glycerol - Found in fats/oils **3 Fatty Acids + 1 Glycerol** **Lipids - Waxes:** - Structural lipid **Fatty Acids - Saturated vs. Unsaturated:** **Fats:** - Saturated - As many H's as possible - Solid **Unsaturated:** - Double bonds - Liquid **Monomers - Glycerol Fatty Acids:** - Building blocks of larger molecules - Polymers - Triglycerides **Triglyceride Structure:** - Made by combining 3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol **Types of Triglycerides (Based on Fat Pads):** - **Saturated** - Solid - No double bonds - Found in: - Animals - Butter - Lard - Coconut oil - Palm oil - **Unsaturated** - Liquid - At least one double bond - Found in: - Plants - Vegetable oil - Olive oil - Canola oil **Lipids - Phospholipids:** - Modified triglyceride - Found with cell membranes **Health Source:** - Animal fats: - Usually saturated - Not as much as healthy fat - Found in: - Bacon - Butter - Plant fats: - Usually unsaturated - More healthy fat - Found in: - Peanut oil - Vegetable oil ## Proteins **Function:** - Structural - Chemical reactions - Structural: hair, nails, skin, muscles, feathers - Chemical reactions - Hormones - Messenger proteins - Antibodies - Enzymes: Break down food **Monomers - Amino Acids:** - Building blocks of larger molecules - 20 different kinds **Polymers - Polypeptide**: - Peptide: Two linked amino acids - Large molecules - Long chain of amino acids - Ranges in size from 50-100,000 amino acids **Sequence of amino acids:** - Essential vs. non-essential - Essential: Must be ingested through diet - Non-essential: Produced by the body - 9/20 essential - 11/20 non-essential **Protein:** - 1+ polypeptides - Folded in a specific shape **General Types of Proteins:** | Type | Function | Appearance | Location | |---|---|---|---| | Fibrous | Structural | Long, straight chains | Nails, skin, muscles, feathers, fins | | Globular | Chemical reactions | Folded into 3D shape | Hormones, enzymes, insulin, hemoglobin, antibodies | **General Formula:** - Always has 4 parts: - Amino group - Carboxyl group - Hydrogen - Replacement group **Bond:** - Special bond that holds together a chain of amino acids **Dehydration Synthesis:** - Removal of H₂O to form a bond **Polypeptide (Polymer) Example:** **Folding:** - Between non-consecutive amino acids - Important **Lock and Key Theory:** - Active site: Where the substrate binds - Substrate: The molecule that the enzyme acts upon - Enzyme: A biological catalyst **Enzymes:** - Organic catalysts - React only with specific substances (substrates) - Speed up chemical reactions **Catalyst:** - Speeds up the rate of a reaction - Doesn't change the equilibrium of the reaction - Doesn't change the enthalpy of the reaction ## Nucleic Acids **Function:** - Contains code that stores hereditary information - Codes for specific proteins - Carries genetic material in cellular organisms **Polymer - DNA RNA:** - DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid - RNA: Ribonucleic acid **DNA Function:** - Double stranded - Copied during cell division - Found only in the nucleus - Stores genetic code **RNA Function:** - Single stranded - Temporary copy of genetic code - Found in: - Nucleus - Ribosomes - Cytoplasm of cell - Determines protein structure **DNA Structure:** - Two kinds - differ in nitrogenous base, sugar molecule - 5 carbon sugar - Phosphate group - Nitrogen base **Nucleotide Structure:** - Nitrogen base - Phosphate group - 5 carbon sugar **RNA Structure:** - Nitrogen base - Phosphate group - 5 carbon sugar **Carbon Labeling:** - Counter-clockwise **Pyrimidines (Single Ringed):** - Cytosine (both DNA & RNA) - Thymine (DNA) OR Uracil (RNA) **Purines (Double Ringed):** - Guanine (both DNA & RNA) - Adenine (both DNA & RNA) **DNA Nucleotide:** - Nitrogen bases = A, G, C, T - 5 carbon sugar = Deoxyribose sugar - Phosphate group **RNA Nucleotide:** - Nitrogen bases = A, G, C, U - 5 carbon sugar = Ribose sugar - Phosphate group **Complements:** - **DNA** - A and T - G and C - **RNA** - A and U - G and C **Gene:** - Codes for DNA - RNA + bottom strand - AUCG (U replaces T as an exception)