CS101 Introduction to Computing - Handouts (1).pdf

Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Table of Contents 1. Introduction to Computer Science.................................................

Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Table of Contents 1. Introduction to Computer Science.............................................................................................. 26 1.1. What is Computer Science?................................ 26 1.2. Computer Science Applications......................... 27 1.3. Local Job Market............................................... 27 1.4. International Job Market.................................... 28 1.5. Are you not a student of Computer Science?...... 28 2. Breadth First Learning................................................................................................................ 29 2.1. Search Engine Usage Techniques....................... 29 2.2. History of Computing........................................ 29 2.3. Data Storage...................................................... 29 2.4. Data Manipulation............................................. 29 2.5. Operating System............................................... 29 2.6. Networking and the Internet............................... 29 2.7. Algorithms......................................................... 29 2.8. Programming Languages.................................... 29 2.9. Software Engineering......................................... 29 2.10. Data Abstraction................................................ 29 2.11. Database Systems............................................... 30 2.12. Artificial Intelligence......................................... 30 2.13. CS impact on society.......................................... 30 2.14. Content Filtering, Spam, International laws........ 30 2.15. Word Processing................................................ 30 2.16. Presentations Development................................ 30 2.17. Spreadsheet........................................................ 30 2.18. Database MS Access.......................................... 30 2.19. Web Page Development..................................... 30 Module 3.............................................................................................................................................. 31 3. Search Engines............................................................................................................................. 31 3.1. Query................................................................. 31 3.2. How Google Works........................................... 31 3.3. Try Searching on Google................................... 32 Page 1 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU 3.4. Use of Microphone............................................ 32 3.5. Flip a Coin......................................................... 32 3.6. Query Formulation............................................. 32 3.7. Capitalization..................................................... 32 Module 4.............................................................................................................................................. 33 4. Searching Tricks.......................................................................................................................... 33 4.1. Weather Searching............................................. 33 4.2. Performing Calculations on Google.................... 33 4.3. Currency Conversion......................................... 34 Module 5.............................................................................................................................................. 35 5. Search Operators (1).................................................................................................................... 35 5.1. Search on Social Media...................................... 35 5.2. Search for a price............................................... 35 5.3. Searching Hash tags........................................... 36 5.4. Exclude words from Query................................ 36 5.5. Exact Match....................................................... 36 5.6. Wild Card based Searching................................ 36 Module 6.............................................................................................................................................. 37 6. Search Operators (2).................................................................................................................... 37 6.1. Searching within the range................................. 37 6.2. Boolean Operators............................................. 37 6.3. Search with a Specific Site................................. 37 6.4. Searching Related Websites............................... 37 6.5. Searching a cached version................................ 37 Module 7.............................................................................................................................................. 38 7. Search Operators (3).................................................................................................................... 38 7.1. Stocks Operator.................................................. 38 7.2. Map Operator..................................................... 38 7.3. Movie Operator.................................................. 38 7.4. Compare Food................................................... 38 7.5. Define Operator................................................. 38 7.6. Image Search..................................................... 38 7.7. Tilt..................................................................... 38 Page 2 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Module 8.............................................................................................................................................. 39 8. Advanced Search Operators........................................................................................................ 39 8.1. Intitle................................................................. 39 8.2. Allintitle............................................................ 39 8.3. inurl and allinurl................................................. 39 8.4. Intext and allintext............................................. 39 8.5. Proximity Search................................................ 39 8.6. Let’s solve a complex Query.............................. 39 Module 9.............................................................................................................................................. 40 9. What we should not search on Internet...................................................................................... 40 9.1. Avoiding Ads:.................................................... 40 9.2. Dangerous to Search.......................................... 40 9.3. Avoid Cyber-security attacks............................. 40 9.4. Unpleasant Results............................................. 41 Module 10............................................................................................................................................ 42 10. Roots of Computing................................................................................................................. 42 10.1. Abacus............................................................... 42 10.2. Technology of Gears.......................................... 42 10.3. Punch Cards....................................................... 43 10.4. ENIAC............................................................... 44 10.5. Factsheet of ENIAC........................................... 44 10.6. Rapid Advancement........................................... 44 Module 11............................................................................................................................................ 46 11. Bits............................................................................................................................................ 46 11.1. Basics................................................................ 46 11.2. What Bits can represent:.................................... 46 11.3. Bits units............................................................ 46 11.4. Patterns Using Bits............................................. 46 Module 12............................................................................................................................................ 48 12. Boolean Operations.................................................................................................................. 48 12.1. AND Boolean Operation.................................... 48 12.2. OR Boolean Operation....................................... 48 12.3. XOR Boolean Operation.................................... 48 Page 3 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU 12.4. Not Operation.................................................... 48 12.5. Boolean Operation Example............................... 49 Module 13............................................................................................................................................ 50 13. Hexadecimal Notation.............................................................................................................. 50 13.1. Why we need Hexadecimal Notation.................. 50 13.2. Hexadecimal Representation.............................. 50 13.3. Hexadecimal Example....................................... 50 Module 14............................................................................................................................................ 51 14. Storing a Bit............................................................................................................................. 51 14.1. Main Memory.................................................... 51 14.2. Main Memory Organization............................... 51 14.3. Byte Size Organization....................................... 51 14.4. Memory Address................................................ 51 14.5. RAM.................................................................. 52 14.6. DRAM............................................................... 52 14.7. SDRAM............................................................. 52 Module 15............................................................................................................................................ 53 15. Magnetic Systems..................................................................................................................... 53 15.1. Mass Storage...................................................... 53 15.2. How it works..................................................... 53 15.3. Zoned-bit recording............................................ 53 15.4. Seek Time.......................................................... 53 15.5. Rotation Delay................................................... 53 15.6. Access Time...................................................... 53 15.7. Transfer rate....................................................... 54 Module 16............................................................................................................................................ 55 16. Optical System......................................................................................................................... 55 16.1. Compact Disk.................................................... 55 16.2. DVD (Digital Versatile Disks)........................... 55 16.3. BDs (Blue Ray Disks)........................................ 55 Module 17............................................................................................................................................ 55 17. Flash Drives.............................................................................................................................. 55 17.1. Issues in Magnetic and Optical Systems............. 55 Page 4 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU 17.2. Flash Drive Technology..................................... 56 17.3. SSDs (Solid State Disks).................................... 56 17.4. SDs (Secure Digital Memory Cards).................. 56 Module 18............................................................................................................................................ 57 18. Representing Text.................................................................................................................... 57 18.1. Representation as Code...................................... 57 18.2. ASCII Codes...................................................... 57 18.3. ASCII code example.......................................... 57 18.4. Limitation of ASCII codes................................. 57 18.5. Limitations of ASCII-extensions........................ 57 18.6. Unicode............................................................. 57 18.7. UTF-8................................................................ 57 Module 19............................................................................................................................................ 58 19. Representing Numeric Values................................................................................................. 58 19.1. Issues in storing numeric as Unicode.................. 58 19.2. Binary Notation................................................. 58 19.3. Binary Notation Variations................................. 58 Module 20............................................................................................................................................ 59 20. Representing Images................................................................................................................ 59 20.1. Pixel.................................................................. 59 20.2. Encoding Method: Pixel to Bitmap..................... 59 20.3. Encoding Method: Handling shades................... 59 20.4. Encoding Method: Colorful Images.................... 59 20.5. Brightness Chrominance.................................... 59 20.6. Image Scaling.................................................... 59 20.7. Geometric Structures for Image Scaling............. 59 20.8. Scalable Fonts.................................................... 59 Module 21............................................................................................................................................ 60 21. Representing Sound................................................................................................................. 60 21.1. Sound Amplitude............................................... 60 21.2. How to encode the Sound................................... 60 21.3. How Sound data communication takes place...... 60 21.4. Sample Intervals................................................ 60 Page 5 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU 21.5. Alternative Method: MIDI................................. 60 Module 22............................................................................................................................................ 61 22. Binary Notation........................................................................................................................ 61 22.1. Power Method.................................................... 61 22.2. Algorithm for Finding Binary Representation of a Positive Decimal Number 61 Module 23............................................................................................................................................ 63 23. Binary Addition....................................................................................................................... 63 Module 24............................................................................................................................................ 65 24. Fraction in Binary.................................................................................................................... 65 24.1. Radix Point........................................................ 65 24.2. Example of Radix Point..................................... 65 24.3. Addition in fraction............................................ 65 Module 25............................................................................................................................................ 66 25. 2’s Complement Notation to Store Numbers.......................................................................... 66 25.1. Integer Representation in 2’s Complement......... 66 25.2. Conversion between positive and negative representations 66 25.3. Addition in 2’s complement notation.................. 66 25.4. Problem of Overflow......................................... 67 Module 26............................................................................................................................................ 68 26. Excess Notation........................................................................................................................ 68 26.1. Integer Representations in Excess Notation........ 68 26.2. Excess Four Notation......................................... 68 26.3. Excess Four Notation Comparisons.................... 68 Module 27............................................................................................................................................ 70 27. Floating Point Notation............................................................................................................ 70 27.1. Storing Radix..................................................... 70 27.2. Storing Fractions................................................ 70 Module 28............................................................................................................................................ 71 28. Truncation Errors in Floating Point Notation........................................................................ 71 28.1. Primitive Methods for Handling Truncation Errors72 28.2. Intelligent Processing for Handling Truncation Errors 72 Module 29............................................................................................................................................ 73 29. Data Compression: Generic Techniques................................................................................. 73 Page 6 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Module 30............................................................................................................................................ 75 30. Data Compression: Compressing Images................................................................................ 75 Module 31............................................................................................................................................ 77 31. Data Compression: Compressing Audio and Videos.............................................................. 77 Module 32............................................................................................................................................ 78 32. Data Manipulation: CPU Basic............................................................................................... 78 Module 33............................................................................................................................................ 80 33. Data Manipulation: Stored Program...................................................................................... 80 Module 34............................................................................................................................................ 81 34. Data Manipulation: CPU Architecture Philosophies.............................................................. 81 Module 35............................................................................................................................................ 82 35. Data Manipulation: Machine Instruction Categories............................................................. 82 35.1. Data Transfer Group.......................................... 82 35.2. Arithmetic/Logic Group..................................... 82 35.3. Control Group.................................................... 82 Module 36............................................................................................................................................ 83 36. Data Manipulation: Program Execution................................................................................. 83 Module 37............................................................................................................................................ 84 37. Data Manipulation: Program Execution Example................................................................. 84 Module 38............................................................................................................................................ 87 38. Data Manipulation: Logic Operators...................................................................................... 87 Module 39............................................................................................................................................ 89 39. Data Manipulation: Rotation and Shift................................................................................... 89 Module 40............................................................................................................................................ 90 40. Data Manipulation: Arithmetic Operators............................................................................. 90 Module 41............................................................................................................................................ 91 41. Data Manipulation: Role of Controller................................................................................... 91 Module 42............................................................................................................................................ 92 42. Data Manipulation: Direct Memory Access and Handshaking.............................................. 92 Module 43............................................................................................................................................ 93 43. Data Manipulation: Communication media and communication rates................................. 93 43.1. Parallel Communication..................................... 93 43.2. Serial Communication........................................ 93 Page 7 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Module 44............................................................................................................................................ 94 44. Data Manipulation: Pipelining................................................................................................ 94 Module 45............................................................................................................................................ 95 45. Operating Systems: History..................................................................................................... 95 Module 46............................................................................................................................................ 97 46. Operating Systems: Basic Concepts (I)................................................................................... 97 Module 47............................................................................................................................................ 98 47. Operating Systems: Basic Concepts (II).................................................................................. 98 Module 48............................................................................................................................................ 99 48. Operating Systems: Software Classification........................................................................... 99 Module 49.......................................................................................................................................... 100 49. Operating Systems: Components (I)..................................................................................... 100 Module 50.......................................................................................................................................... 102 50. Operating Systems: Components (II).................................................................................... 102 51. Operating Systems: Process of Booting................................................................................. 104 Module 52.......................................................................................................................................... 106 52. Operating Systems: Process and its Administration............................................................. 106 Module 53.......................................................................................................................................... 107 53. Operating Systems: Process and its Administration............................................................. 107 Module 54.......................................................................................................................................... 109 54. Operating Systems: Handling Competition between Processes............................................ 109 Module 55.......................................................................................................................................... 110 55. Operating Systems: Semaphores........................................................................................... 110 Module 56.......................................................................................................................................... 112 56. Operating Systems: Deadlock................................................................................................ 112 Module 57.......................................................................................................................................... 114 57. Operating Systems: Security Attacks from outside.............................................................. 114 Module 58.......................................................................................................................................... 115 58. Operating Systems: Security Attacks from inside................................................................ 115 Module 59.......................................................................................................................................... 117 59. Networking and the Internet: Network Classification.......................................................... 117 Module 60.......................................................................................................................................... 118 60. Networking and the Internet: Protocols................................................................................ 118 Page 8 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Module 61.......................................................................................................................................... 120 61. Networking and the Internet: Combining Networks............................................................ 120 Module 62.......................................................................................................................................... 122 62. Networking and the Internet: Methods of Process Communication.................................... 122 Module 63.......................................................................................................................................... 124 63. Networking and the Internet: Distributed Systems.............................................................. 124 Module 64.......................................................................................................................................... 125 64. Networking and the Internet: Internet Architecture............................................................ 125 Module 65.......................................................................................................................................... 127 65. Networking and the Internet: Internet Addressing.............................................................. 127 Module 66.......................................................................................................................................... 129 66. Networking and the Internet: Internet Applications............................................................ 129 Module 67.......................................................................................................................................... 130 67. Networking and the Internet: Internet Applications: Email................................................ 130 Module 68.......................................................................................................................................... 131 68. Networking and the Internet: VoIP....................................................................................... 131 Module 69.......................................................................................................................................... 132 69. Networking and the Internet: Internet Multimedia Streaming............................................ 132 Module 70.......................................................................................................................................... 133 70. Networking and the Internet: World Wide Web.................................................................. 133 Module 71.......................................................................................................................................... 134 71. Networking and the Internet: Web implementations........................................................... 134 Module 72.......................................................................................................................................... 135 72. Networking and the Internet: HTML................................................................................... 135 Module 73.......................................................................................................................................... 136 73. Networking and the Internet: HTML................................................................................... 136 Module 74.......................................................................................................................................... 138 74. Networking and the Internet: More on HTML..................................................................... 138 Module 75.......................................................................................................................................... 139 75. Networking and the Internet: XML...................................................................................... 139 Module 76.......................................................................................................................................... 141 76. Networking and the Internet: Client Side and Server Side.................................................. 141 Module 77.......................................................................................................................................... 143 Page 9 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU 77. Networking and the Internet: Layered Approach to Internet Software (I)......................... 143 Module 78.......................................................................................................................................... 145 78. Networking and the Internet: Layered Approach to Internet Software (II)........................ 145 Module 79.......................................................................................................................................... 146 79. Networking and the Internet: Layered Approach to Internet Software (III)...................... 146 Module 80.......................................................................................................................................... 148 80. Networking and the Internet: TCP /IP Protocol Suite.......................................................... 148 Module 81.......................................................................................................................................... 150 81. Networking and the Internet: Security (Forms of Attacks).................................................. 150 Module 82.......................................................................................................................................... 152 82. Networking and the Internet: Protection and Cures............................................................ 152 Module 83.......................................................................................................................................... 154 83. Networking and the Internet: Encryption............................................................................. 154 Module 84.......................................................................................................................................... 156 84. Networking and the Internet: Legal Approaches to Network Security................................ 156 Module 85.......................................................................................................................................... 158 85. Algorithm: an Informal Review............................................................................................ 158 Module 86.......................................................................................................................................... 159 86. Algorithm: Formal Definition of Algorithm......................................................................... 159 Module 87.......................................................................................................................................... 160 87. Algorithm: Abstract Nature of Algorithms........................................................................... 160 Module 88.......................................................................................................................................... 161 88. Algorithm: Representation (Primitives)................................................................................ 161 Module 89.......................................................................................................................................... 163 89. Algorithm: Representation (Pseudocode)............................................................................. 163 Module 90.......................................................................................................................................... 165 90. Algorithm: Representation (Pseudocode) While-Structure.................................................. 165 Module 91.......................................................................................................................................... 166 91. Algorithm: Representation (Pseudocode) Function-Structure............................................. 166 Module 92.......................................................................................................................................... 167 92. Algorithm: Discovery (The Art of Problem Solving)............................................................ 167 Module 93.......................................................................................................................................... 169 93. Algorithm: Getting your Foot in the Door............................................................................ 169 Page 10 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Module 94.......................................................................................................................................... 170 94. Algorithm: Algorithm Discovery Strategies (I)..................................................................... 170 Module 95.......................................................................................................................................... 171 95. Algorithm: Algorithm Discovery Strategies (II)................................................................... 171 Module 96.......................................................................................................................................... 172 96. Algorithm: Iterative Structures (Sequential Search Algorithm).......................................... 172 Module 97.......................................................................................................................................... 174 97. Algorithm: Iterative Structures (Loop Control)................................................................... 174 Module 98.......................................................................................................................................... 175 98. Algorithm: Iterative Structures (Components of Repetitive Control)................................. 175 Module 99.......................................................................................................................................... 176 99. Algorithm: Iterative Structures: Loop Execution (Examples-1).......................................... 176 Module 100........................................................................................................................................ 177 100. Algorithm: Iterative Structures: Loop Execution (Examples-II)......................................... 177 Module 101........................................................................................................................................ 179 101. Algorithm: Iterative Structures (Pretest and Posttest loops)................................................ 179 Module 102........................................................................................................................................ 180 102. Algorithm: Insertion Sort Algorithm.................................................................................... 180 Module 103........................................................................................................................................ 181 103. Algorithm: Insertion Sort Algorithm Example..................................................................... 181 Module 104........................................................................................................................................ 182 104. Algorithm: Recursive Structure (The Binary Search Algorithm)........................................ 182 Module 105........................................................................................................................................ 185 105. Algorithm: Recursive Control............................................................................................... 185 Module 106........................................................................................................................................ 186 106. Algorithm: Algorithm Efficiency........................................................................................... 186 Module 107........................................................................................................................................ 188 107. Algorithm: Software Verification.......................................................................................... 188 Module 108........................................................................................................................................ 190 108. Algorithm: Software Verification Examples......................................................................... 190 Module 109........................................................................................................................................ 190 109. Programming Languages: Early Generations-I.................................................................... 190 Module 110........................................................................................................................................ 192 Page 11 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU 110. Programming Languages: Early Generations-II.................................................................. 192 Module 111........................................................................................................................................ 194 111. Programming Languages: Machine Independence.............................................................. 194 Module 112........................................................................................................................................ 195 112. Programming Languages: Imperative Paradigms................................................................ 195 Module 113........................................................................................................................................ 197 113. Programming Languages: Declarative Paradigms............................................................... 197 Module 114........................................................................................................................................ 198 114. Programming Languages: Functional Paradigm.................................................................. 198 Module 115........................................................................................................................................ 200 115. Programming Languages: Object Oriented Paradigm......................................................... 200 Module 116........................................................................................................................................ 201 116. Programming Languages: Variable and Data Types........................................................... 201 Module 117........................................................................................................................................ 203 117. Programming Languages: Data Structure............................................................................ 203 Module 118........................................................................................................................................ 205 118. Programming Languages: Assignment Statement................................................................ 205 Module 119........................................................................................................................................ 206 119. Programming Languages: Control Structures (if-statement).............................................. 206 Module 120........................................................................................................................................ 207 120. Programming Languages: Control Structures (if-statement examples).............................. 207 Module 121........................................................................................................................................ 208 121. Programming Languages: Control Structures (Loops)........................................................ 208 Module 122........................................................................................................................................ 209 122. Programming Languages: Programming Concurrent Activities......................................... 209 Module 123........................................................................................................................................ 211 123. Programming Languages: Arithmetic Operators Examples................................................ 211 Module 124........................................................................................................................................ 211 124. Programming Languages: Relational Operators Examples................................................. 211 Module 125........................................................................................................................................ 213 125. Programming Languages: Logical Operators Examples...................................................... 213 Module 126........................................................................................................................................ 215 126. Software Engineering: Software Engineering Discipline...................................................... 215 Page 12 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Module 127........................................................................................................................................ 217 127. Software Engineering: Software Life cycle........................................................................... 217 Module 128........................................................................................................................................ 218 128. Software Engineering: Requirement Analysis Phase............................................................ 218 Module 129........................................................................................................................................ 219 129. Software Engineering: Design Phase..................................................................................... 219 Module 130........................................................................................................................................ 220 130. Software Engineering: Implementation Phase...................................................................... 220 Module 131........................................................................................................................................ 221 131. Software Engineering: Testing Phase.................................................................................... 221 Module 132........................................................................................................................................ 222 132. Software Engineering: Software Engineering Methodologies (I)......................................... 222 Module 133........................................................................................................................................ 223 133. Software Engineering: Software Engineering Methodologies (II)........................................ 223 Module 134........................................................................................................................................ 224 134. Software Engineering: Software Engineering Methodologies (II)........................................ 224 Module 135........................................................................................................................................ 225 135. Software Engineering: Coupling........................................................................................... 225 Module 136........................................................................................................................................ 227 136. Software Engineering: Cohesion........................................................................................... 227 Module 137........................................................................................................................................ 228 137. Software Engineering: Information Hiding.......................................................................... 228 Module 138........................................................................................................................................ 229 138. Software Engineering: Components...................................................................................... 229 Module 139........................................................................................................................................ 230 139. Software Engineering: Design Patterns................................................................................. 230 Module 140........................................................................................................................................ 231 140. Software Engineering: Design Patterns Examples................................................................ 231 Module 141........................................................................................................................................ 233 141. Software Engineering: Scope of Quality Assurance............................................................. 233 Module 142........................................................................................................................................ 234 142. Software Engineering: Software Testing............................................................................... 234 Module 143........................................................................................................................................ 236 Page 13 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU 143. Software Engineering: Documentation................................................................................. 236 Module 144........................................................................................................................................ 238 144. Software Engineering: Human Machine Interface............................................................... 238 Module 145........................................................................................................................................ 241 145. Software Engineering: Software Ownership and Liability................................................... 241 Module 146........................................................................................................................................ 243 146. Data Abstraction: Arrays and Aggregates............................................................................ 243 Module 147........................................................................................................................................ 243 147. Data Abstraction: List, Stacks and Queues........................................................................... 243 Module 148........................................................................................................................................ 245 148. Data Abstraction: Trees......................................................................................................... 245 Module 149........................................................................................................................................ 247 149. Data Abstraction: Pointers.................................................................................................... 247 Module 150........................................................................................................................................ 248 150. Database Systems: The Significance of Database Systems................................................... 248 Module 151........................................................................................................................................ 250 151. Database Systems: Role of Schema....................................................................................... 250 Module 152........................................................................................................................................ 251 152. Database Systems: Database Management Systems............................................................. 251 Module 153........................................................................................................................................ 253 153. Database Systems: Relational Database model..................................................................... 253 Module 154........................................................................................................................................ 254 154. Database Systems: Issues of Relational Designs.................................................................... 254 Module 155........................................................................................................................................ 256 155. Database Systems: Relational operators............................................................................... 256 Module 156........................................................................................................................................ 257 156. Database Systems: Select Operation..................................................................................... 257 Module 157........................................................................................................................................ 258 157. Database Systems: project Operation................................................................................... 258 Module 158........................................................................................................................................ 259 158. Database Systems: Join Operation........................................................................................ 259 Module 159........................................................................................................................................ 262 159. Database Systems: Object Oriented Databases..................................................................... 262 Page 14 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Module 160........................................................................................................................................ 264 160. Database Systems: Maintaining DB Integrity....................................................................... 264 Module 161........................................................................................................................................ 265 161. Database Systems: The Commit/Rollback Protocol.............................................................. 265 Module 162........................................................................................................................................ 266 162. Database Systems: Locking................................................................................................... 266 Module 163........................................................................................................................................ 268 163. Database Systems: Sequential Files....................................................................................... 268 Module 164........................................................................................................................................ 270 164. Database Systems: Indexed Files........................................................................................... 270 Module 165........................................................................................................................................ 271 165. Database Systems: Hash Files................................................................................................ 271 Module 166........................................................................................................................................ 272 166. Database Systems: Hash File Example.................................................................................. 272 Module 167........................................................................................................................................ 274 167. Database Systems: Data Mining............................................................................................ 274 Module 168........................................................................................................................................ 275 168. Database Systems: Data Mining Examples and Implications............................................... 275 Module 169........................................................................................................................................ 276 169. Database Systems: Social Impact of Database Technology.................................................. 276 Module 170........................................................................................................................................ 278 170. Artificial Intelligence: Introduction and Vision.................................................................... 278 Module 171........................................................................................................................................ 281 171. Artificial Intelligence: Intelligent Agents.............................................................................. 281 Module 172........................................................................................................................................ 284 172. Artificial Intelligence: Research Methodologies................................................................... 284 Module 173........................................................................................................................................ 285 173. Artificial Intelligence: The Turing Test................................................................................ 285 Module 174........................................................................................................................................ 286 174. Artificial Intelligence: Understanding Images...................................................................... 286 Module 175........................................................................................................................................ 287 175. Artificial Intelligence: Language Processing......................................................................... 287 Module 176........................................................................................................................................ 289 Page 15 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU 176. CS Impact: CS impact on Society.......................................................................................... 289 Module 177........................................................................................................................................ 290 177. CS Impact: CS Impact on Health.......................................................................................... 290 Module 178........................................................................................................................................ 291 178. CS Impact: CS Impact on Environment............................................................................... 291 Module 179........................................................................................................................................ 292 179. CS Impact: Ethical Issues...................................................................................................... 292 Module 180........................................................................................................................................ 293 180. CS Impact: Software Licenses and Information Privacy..................................................... 293 Module 181........................................................................................................................................ 294 181. CS Impact: Intellectual Property.......................................................................................... 294 Module 182........................................................................................................................................ 296 182. CS Impact: Security............................................................................................................... 296 Module 183........................................................................................................................................ 297 183. CS Impact: Privacy................................................................................................................ 297 Module 184........................................................................................................................................ 299 184. CS Impact: Social Issues of IT............................................................................................... 299 Module 185........................................................................................................................................ 301 185. CS Impact: Content Filtering, Email-Spams and Laws....................................................... 301 Module 186........................................................................................................................................ 302 186. CS Impact: Children Protection and Electronic Theft......................................................... 302 Module 187........................................................................................................................................ 304 187. Word Processing: MS Word.................................................................................................. 304 Module 188........................................................................................................................................ 308 188. Word Processing: MS Word (Quick Access bar).................................................................. 308 Alternate Method -- Undo & Redo by Using Keys...... 308 Module 189........................................................................................................................................ 309 189. Word Processing: MS Word (Home Ribbon)....................................................................... 309 Module 190........................................................................................................................................ 310 190. Word Processing: MS Word (Clipboard Group).................................................................. 310 I want to move. I am content where I am.................... 311 Module 191........................................................................................................................................ 314 191. Word Processing: MS Word (Font Group)........................................................................... 314 Page 16 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Module 192........................................................................................................................................ 316 192. Word Processing: MS Word (Paragraph Group-I).............................................................. 316 Module 193........................................................................................................................................ 318 193. Word Processing: MS Word (Paragraph Group-II)............................................................. 318 Module 194........................................................................................................................................ 320 194. Word Processing: MS Word (Style Group).......................................................................... 320 Module 195........................................................................................................................................ 321 195. Word Processing: MS Word (Editing Group)...................................................................... 321 Module 196........................................................................................................................................ 322 196. Word Processing: MS Word (Insert Functionalities)........................................................... 322 Module 197........................................................................................................................................ 323 197. Word Processing: MS Word (page Group)........................................................................... 323 Module 198........................................................................................................................................ 325 198. Word Processing: MS Word (Table Group)......................................................................... 325 Module 199........................................................................................................................................ 326 199. Word Processing: MS Word (Illustration Group)................................................................ 326 Module 200........................................................................................................................................ 330 200. Word Processing: MS Word (Media and Links Groups)..................................................... 330 Module 201........................................................................................................................................ 332 201. Word Processing: MS Word (Comments and Header & footer).......................................... 332 Module 202........................................................................................................................................ 333 202. Word Processing: MS Word (Text Group (Part-1))............................................................. 333 Module 203........................................................................................................................................ 335 203. Word Processing: MS Word (Text Group (Part-II) and Symbols Group).......................... 335 Module 204........................................................................................................................................ 336 204. Word Processing: MS Word (Design Ribbon)...................................................................... 336 Module 205........................................................................................................................................ 338 205. Word Processing: MS Word (Page Setup Group in Page Layout Ribbon).......................... 338 Module 206........................................................................................................................................ 339 206. Word Processing: MS Word (Page Setup Group in Page Layout Ribbon).......................... 339 Module 207........................................................................................................................................ 340 207. Word Processing: MS Word (Arrange Group in Page Layout Ribbon).............................. 340 Module 208........................................................................................................................................ 341 Page 17 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU 208. Word Processing: MS Word (References Ribbon)............................................................... 341 Module 209........................................................................................................................................ 342 209. Word Processing: MS Word (Proofing Group in Review Ribbon)...................................... 342 Module 210........................................................................................................................................ 343 210. Word Processing: MS Word (Language Group in Review Ribbon).................................... 343 Module 211........................................................................................................................................ 344 211. Word Processing: MS Word (Comments Group in Review Ribbon)................................... 344 Module 212........................................................................................................................................ 345 212. Word Processing: MS Word (Tracking and Changes Groups in Review Ribbon).............. 345 Module 213........................................................................................................................................ 346 213. Word Processing: MS Word (Compare and Protect Groups in Review Ribbon)................ 346 Module 214........................................................................................................................................ 347 214. Word Processing: MS Word (View Ribbon)......................................................................... 347 Module 215........................................................................................................................................ 349 215. Presentations: MS-PowerPoint (Introduction)..................................................................... 349 Module 216........................................................................................................................................ 350 216. Presentations: MS-PowerPoint (Slides Group on Home Ribbon)........................................ 350 Module 217........................................................................................................................................ 350 217. Presentations: MS-PowerPoint (Design Ribbon).................................................................. 350 Module 218........................................................................................................................................ 351 218. Presentations: MS-PowerPoint (Transition Ribbon)............................................................ 351 Module 219........................................................................................................................................ 352 219. Presentations: MS-PowerPoint (Animation Ribbon)............................................................ 352 Module 220........................................................................................................................................ 353 220. Spreadsheets: MS Excel (Introduction)................................................................................. 353 Module 221........................................................................................................................................ 355 221. Spreadsheets: MS Excel (Functions)..................................................................................... 355 Module 222........................................................................................................................................ 358 222. Spreadsheets: MS Excel (Application Scenarios-I)............................................................... 358 Module 223........................................................................................................................................ 359 223. Spreadsheets: MS Excel (Application Scenarios-II)............................................................. 359 Module 224........................................................................................................................................ 361 224. Spreadsheets: MS Excel (Sorting and Filter)........................................................................ 361 Page 18 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Module 225........................................................................................................................................ 363 225. Database: MS Access (Introduction)..................................................................................... 363 Module 226........................................................................................................................................ 365 226. Database: MS Access (Creating and Managing Tables)....................................................... 365 Module 227........................................................................................................................................ 366 227. Database: MS Access (Creating Forms)................................................................................ 366 Module 228........................................................................................................................................ 367 228. Database: MS Access (Creating Reports)............................................................................. 367 Module 229........................................................................................................................................ 368 229. Database: MS Access (Query Wizard).................................................................................. 368 Module 230........................................................................................................................................ 372 230. Web page Development (Notepad Editor)............................................................................. 372 Module 231........................................................................................................................................ 374 231. Web page Development (Introduction to Dreamweaver)..................................................... 374 Module 232........................................................................................................................................ 377 232. Web page Development (Inserting Tables using Dreamweaver).......................................... 377 Module 233........................................................................................................................................ 380 233. Web page Development (Inserting Lists).............................................................................. 380 Module 234........................................................................................................................................ 381 234. Web page Development (Inserting Images).......................................................................... 381 Table of Figures: Figure 1: Job Opportunities in Pakistan when classified as “By Function”.............................................. 27 Page 19 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Figure 2: Job Opportunities in Pakistan when classified as “By Industry”.............................................. 28 Figure 3: Market share of Search Engines [gs.statcounter.com/search-engine-market-share].................. 31 Figure 4: Google Search Engine home page........................................................................................... 31 Figure 5: Weather searching on Google................................................................................................. 33 Figure 6: Calculations on Google........................................................................................................... 33 Figure 7: Currency conversion on Google.............................................................................................. 34 Figure 8: Searching in Social media over Google................................................................................... 35 Figure 9: searching for a price at Google................................................................................................ 35 Figure 10: Searching Hash tag............................................................................................................... 36 Figure 11: Abacus................................................................................................................................. 42 Figure 12: Gear Technology.................................................................................................................. 43 Figure 13: Punch Cards......................................................................................................................... 43 Figure 14: ENIAC................................................................................................................................. 44 Figure 15: AND, OR Boolean operation................................................................................................ 48 Figure 16: XoR, Not operation............................................................................................................... 49 Figure 17: Flip flop................................................................................................................................ 51 Figure 18: Byte organization in memory................................................................................................ 51 Figure 19: Memory arranged with respect to addresses.......................................................................... 52 Figure 20: Disk Storage System............................................................................................................. 53 Figure 21: Data storage in CD............................................................................................................... 55 Figure 22: ASCII code example............................................................................................................. 57 Figure 23: Encoding the amplitude of the sound.................................................................................... 60 Figure 24: Algorithm for converting positive decimal to binary number................................................. 61 Figure 25: Algorithm working for converting positive decimal to binary................................................ 62 Figure 26: Binary Addition basics.......................................................................................................... 63 Figure 27: Example 1 of Binary Addition.............................................................................................. 63 Figure 28: Example 2 of Binary Addition.............................................................................................. 63 Figure 29: Example 3 of Binary Addition.............................................................................................. 64 Figure 30: Radix point example............................................................................................................. 65 Figure 31: Understanding Fraction represented in Binary....................................................................... 65 Figure 32: Binary addition..................................................................................................................... 65 Figure 33: 2's complement notation for three bits patterns...................................................................... 66 Figure 34: 2's complement notation for four bits patterns....................................................................... 66 Figure 35: Addition in 2's complement notation..................................................................................... 67 Figure 36: Excess eight notation............................................................................................................ 68 Figure 37: Excess Four notation............................................................................................................. 68 Figure 38: Excess four notation comparisons......................................................................................... 69 Figure 39: Floating-point notation components...................................................................................... 70 Figure 40: Encoding the value 25⁄8.......................................................................................................... 72 Figure 41: CPU and main memory connected via a bus.......................................................................... 78 Figure 42: Adding values stored in memory........................................................................................... 79 Figure 43: CPU and Main memory linkage using Bus............................................................................ 83 Figure 44: Machine Cycle...................................................................................................................... 83 Figure 45: Machine Instructions for adding two numbers....................................................................... 84 Page 20 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Figure 46: Machine instructions loaded in the main memory.................................................................. 85 Figure 47: Arithmetic Operations Examples........................................................................................... 90 Figure 48: Controllers attached to a machine’s bus................................................................................ 91 Figure 49: Serial communication........................................................................................................... 93 Figure 50: Batch Processing.................................................................................................................. 95 Figure 51: Interactive Processing........................................................................................................... 96 Figure 52: Time Sharing........................................................................................................................ 97 Figure 53: Software Classification......................................................................................................... 99 Figure 54: Components of OS.............................................................................................................. 101 Figure 55: process of Booting.............................................................................................................. 104 Figure 56: Multiprogramming between process A and process B......................................................... 107 Figure 57: Resource Allocation Issues................................................................................................. 109 Figure 58: Deadlock Situation............................................................................................................. 112 Figure 59: Two popular network topologies......................................................................................... 117 Figure 60: Communication over a bus network.................................................................................... 118 Figure 61: The hidden terminal problem.............................................................................................. 119 Figure 62: Building a large bus network from smaller ones.................................................................. 120 Figure 63: Routers connecting two WiFi networks and an Ethernet network to form an internet........... 121 Figure 64: The client/server model compared to the peer-to-peer model............................................... 122 Figure 65: Internet composition........................................................................................................... 125 Figure 66: Email procedure................................................................................................................. 130 Figure 67: A typical URL.................................................................................................................... 134 Figure 68: A simple webpage.............................................................................................................. 136 Figure 69: An enhanced simple webpage............................................................................................. 137 Figure 70: tag on w3school........................................................................................................... 138 Figure 71: Code and output for tag............................................................................................... 138 Figure 72: The first two bars of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony.............................................................. 139 Figure 73: Package-shipping example.................................................................................................. 143 Figure 74: The Internet software layers................................................................................................ 144 Figure 75: Following a message through the Internet........................................................................... 145 Figure 76: Choosing between TCP and UDP....................................................................................... 148 Figure 77: Public key encryption......................................................................................................... 155 Figure 78: Folding a bird from a square piece of paper......................................................................... 161 Figure 79: Origami primitives.............................................................................................................. 162 Figure 80: The function Greetings in pseudocode................................................................................ 166 Figure 81: Analyzing the possibilities.................................................................................................. 168 Figure 82: The sequential search algorithm in pseudocode................................................................... 173 Figure 83: Components of repetitive control........................................................................................ 175 Figure 84: Pretest and Posttest loop..................................................................................................... 179 Figure 85: Sorting the list Fred, Alex, Diana, Byron, and Carol alphabetically..................................... 181 Figure 86: Applying our strategy to search a list for the entry John...................................................... 183 Figure 87: A first draft of the binary search technique.......................................................................... 183 Figure 88: The binary search algorithm in pseudocode......................................................................... 184 Figure 89: Separating the chain using only three cuts........................................................................... 188 Page 21 of 381 Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan Introduction to Computing – CS101 VU Figure 90: Solving the problem with only one cut................................................................................ 189 Figure 91: Generations of programming languages.............................................................................. 195 Figure 92: The evolution of programming paradigms........................................................................... 196 Figure 93: A function for checkbook balancing constructed from simpler functions............................. 199 Figure 94: A two-dimensional array with two rows and nine columns.................................................. 203 Figure 95: The conceptual layout of the structure Employee................................................................ 204 Figure 96: Spawning threads................................................................................................................ 210 Figure 97: The software life cycle........................................................................................................ 217 Figure 98: The traditional development phase of the software life cycle............................................... 218 Figure 99: A simple structure chart...................................................................................................... 224 Figure 100: The interaction between objects resulting from PlayerA’s serve........................................ 225 Figure 101: Logical and functional cohesion within an object.............................................................. 227 Figure 102: Factory Design Pattern...................................................................................................... 231 Figure 103: Shopping Cart Design Pattern........................................................................................... 232 Figure 104: Lists, stacks, and queues................................................................................................... 244 Figure 105: An example of an organization chart................................................................................. 245 Figure 106: Tree terminology.............................................................................................................. 245 Figure 107: Novels arranged by title but linked according to authorship............................................... 247 Figure 108: A file versus a database organization................................................................................. 248 Figure 109: The conceptual layers of a database implementation.......................................................... 251 Figure 110: A relation containing employee information...................................................................... 253 Figure 111: A relation containing redundancy...................................................................................... 254 Figure 112: An employee database consisting of three relations........................................................... 255 Figure 113: The SELECT operation..................................................................................................... 257 Figure 114: The PROJECT operation................................................................................................