Criminology In Canada Theories, Patterns, And Typologies PDF

McCormick Siegel Eighth Edition Criminology in Canada C...

McCormick Siegel Eighth Edition Criminology in Canada Criminology in Canada Theories, Patterns, and Typologies Larry J. Siegel / Chris McCormick and Typologies Theories, Patterns, Eighth Edition 9781774747827_cvr_hr.indd All Pages 30-01-2023 17:24:23 Synopsis of Criminological Theories CLASSICAL THEORY POSITIVIST THEORY ORIGIN About 1764 ORIGIN About 1810 FOUNDERS Cesare Beccaria, Jeremy Bentham FOUNDERS Franz Joseph Gall, Johann Spurzheim, J. K. Lavater, Cesare Lombroso, MOST IMPORTANT WORKS Beccaria, On Crimes Enrico Ferri, Raffaele Garofalo, Earnest and Punishments (1764); Bentham, Moral Hooton, Charles Goring Print Collector/Hulton Archive/Getty Images Calculus (1789) MOST IMPORTANT WORKS Lombroso, Criminal CORE IDEAS People choose to commit crime Man (1863); Garofalo, Criminology (1885); after weighing the benefits and costs of their Ferri, Criminal Sociology (1884); Goring, The actions. Crime can be deterred by certain, English Convict (1913); William Sheldon, severe, and swift punishment. Varieties of Delinquent Youth (1949) MODERN OUTGROWTHS Rational Choice Theory, CORE IDEAS Some people have biological and Routine Activities Theory, General Deterrence mental traits that make them crime prone. Theory, Specific Deterrence, Incapacitation These traits are inherited and are present at birth. Mental and physical degeneracies are Cesare Lombroso the cause of crime. MODERN OUTGROWTHS Biosocial and Psychological Theory, Cognitive Theory, Behavioural Theory, Evolutionary Theory, Arousal Theory Marka/Universal Images Group/Getty Images MARXIST/CONFLICT THEORY ORIGIN About 1848 Cesare Beccaria FOUNDERS Karl Marx, Willem Bonger, Ralf Dahrendorf, George Vold MOST IMPORTANT WORKS Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (1848); The Print Collector/Alamy Stock Photo Bonger, Criminality and Economic Conditions (1916); George Rusche and Otto Kircheimer, Punishment and Social Structure (1939); Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (1959) CORE IDEAS Crime is a function of class struggle. The capitalist system’s emphasis on competition and wealth produces an economic and social environment in which Jeremy Bentham crime is inevitable. MODERN OUTGROWTHS Critical Theory, Conflict Theory, Radical Theory, Radical Feminist Theory, Left Realism, Peacemaking, Power-Control Theory, Postmodern Theory, Reintegrative Shaming, Restorative Justice  SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY ORIGIN 1897 FOUNDERS Émile Durkheim, Robert Ezra Park, Ernest Burgess, Clifford Shaw, Walter Reckless, Frederic Thrasher MOST IMPORTANT WORKS Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society (1893), and Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo Suicide: A Study in Sociology (1897); Park, Burgess, and John McKenzie, The City (1925); Thrasher, The Gang (1926); Shaw et al., Delinquency Areas (1925); Edwin Sutherland, Criminology (1924) CORE IDEAS A person’s place in the social structure determines his or her behaviour. Disorganized urban areas are the breeding ground of crime. A lack of legitimate Émile Durkheim opportunities produces criminal subcultures. Socialization within the family, the school, and the peer group controls behaviour. MODERN OUTGROWTHS Strain Theory, Cultural Deviance Theory, Social Learning Theory, Social Control Theory, Social Reaction Theory, Labelling MULTIFACTOR/INTEGRATED THEORY ORIGIN About 1930 FOUNDERS Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck MOST IMPORTANT WORKS Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck: Five Hundred Delinquent Women (1934); Later Criminal Careers (1937); Criminal Careers in Retrospect (1943); Juvenile Delinquents Grown Up (1940); Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency (1950) CORE IDEAS Crime is a function of © Boston/FayFoto environmental, socialization, physical, and psychological factors. Each makes an independent contribution to shaping and directing behaviour patterns. Deficits in these Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck areas of human development increase the risk of crime. People at risk for crime can resist antisocial behaviours if these traits and Clu/DigitalVision Vectors/Getty Images conditions can be strengthened. MODERN OUTGROWTHS Developmental Theory, Life Course Theory, Latent Trait Theory Karl Marx 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 1 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Colin Temple/Alamy Stock Photo Eighth Edition Criminology in Canada Theories, Patterns, and Typologies Larry J. Siegel Professor Emeritus, University of Massachusetts, Lowell Chris McCormick St. Thomas University Australia Brazil Canada Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 3 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Criminology in Canada: Theories, Patterns, © 2024, 2020 Cengage Learning Canada, Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. and Typologies, Eighth Edition Larry J. Siegel, Chris McCormick Adapted from Criminology, Eighth Edition, by Larry J. Siegel. Copyright © Cengage Learning, Inc., 2023. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage. 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Art Director: Sara Greenwood Text and Cover Designer: Courtney Hellam Cover Image: Colin Temple/Alamy Stock Photo Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication: Title: Criminology in Canada : theories, paterns, and typologies / Larry J. Siegel, Professor Emeritus, University of Massachusets, Lowell, Chris McCormick, St. Thomas University. Names: Siegel, Larry J., 1947– author. | McCormick, Chris, 1956– author. Descripton: Eighth editon. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identfers: Canadiana (print) 2023014828X | Canadiana (ebook) 20230148409 | ISBN 9781774747827 (sofcover) | ISBN 9781778412127 (EPUB) Subjects: LCSH: Criminology—Textbooks. | LCSH: Crime—Canada—Textbooks. | LCGFT: Textbooks. Classifcaton: LCC HV6025.S54 2023 | DDC 364.971—dc23 ISBN: 978-1-77474-782-7 Ebook ISBN: 978-1-77841-212-7 Cengage Canada 333 Bay Street, #2400 Toronto, ON M5H 2T6 Canada Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at www.cengage.ca/repfinder. To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, register or access your online learning solution, or purchase materials for your course, visit www.cengage.ca. Printed in Canada Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2023 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 4 07/02/23 11:39 AM  This book is dedicated to my children, Eric, Julie, Rachel, and Andrew; my grandchildren, Jack, Brooke, and Kayla Jean; my sons-in-law, Jason Macy and Patrick Stephens; and my wife, partner, and best friend, Therese J. Libby. —Larry J. Siegel For my students, to inspire them with a multidisciplinary way of thinking about today’s problems of crime, deviance, and control in a way that is critical and progressive. —Chris McCormick 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 5 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Brief Contents Preface xv Section 3 About the Authors xxiii Crime Typologies 317 Chapter 10 Section 1 Violent Crime 318 Concepts of Crime, Law, and Chapter 11 Property Crimes 349 Criminology 1 Chapter 12 Chapter 1 Crimes of Power: White-Collar, Corporate, Crime and Criminology 2 Green, and Organized Crime 380 Chapter 2 Chapter 13 The Criminal Law and Its Process 27 Public Order Crimes: Legislating Chapter 3 Morality 415 The Nature and Extent of Crime 55 Chapter 14 Chapter 4 Crimes in the 21st Century 449 Victims and Victimization 96 Glossary 481 Section 2 Index 487 Theories of Crime Causation 133 Chapter 5 Choice Theory 134 Chapter 6 Trait Theories 171 Chapter 7 Social Structure Theories 207 Chapter 8 Social Process Theories 245 Chapter 9 Social Conflict Theory 284 vii 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 7 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Contents Preface xv The Interactionist View of Crime 16 Defining Crime 17 About the Authors xxiii Concept Summary 1.4: The Definition of Crime Affects How Criminologists View the Cause and Control of Illegal Section 1 Behaviour and Shapes Their Research Orientation 17 Concepts of Crime, Law, and The Politics of Crime 18 Criminology 1 Doing Criminology 18 Survey Research 18 Chapter 1 Longitudinal (Cohort) Research 18 Aggregate Data Research 19 Crime and Criminology 2 Experimental Research 19 Introduction 3 What Is Criminology? 4 Focus on Research: Canadian Crime Trends, 2019 20 Criminology and Criminal Justice 5 Analyzing Policy 21 Criminology and Deviance 5 Observational and Interview Research 21 Key Court Case: R. v. Sharpe (2001) 7 Ethical Issues in Criminology 21 Profile of a Crime: Canada’s Deadliest Concept Summary 1.1: Criminology, Criminal Justice, and Serial Killers 22 Deviance 7 Summary 23 A Brief History of Criminology 7 Classical Criminology 8 Applying Criminology 24 19th-Century Positivism 8 Positivist Criminology 9 Cesare Lombroso and the Criminal Man 9 The Development of Sociological Criminology 10 Chapter 2 The Chicago School and the McGill School 11 Conflict Criminology 11 The Criminal Law and Its Process 27 Criminology Today 11 Introduction 28 The Origins of Law 28 Concept Summary 1.2: The Major Perspectives of Early Legal Codes 28 Criminology 12 Early Crime, Punishment, and Law 29 What Criminologists Do: The Criminological Enterprise 12 Origins of Common Law 29 Criminal Statistics 12 The Common Law 30 Common Law and Statutory Law 31 Concept Summary 1.3: The Criminological Enterprise 13 Concept Summary 2.1: Common-Law Crimes 31 Sociology of Law 13 Theory Construction 14 The Development of Law in Canada 32 Criminal Behaviour Systems 14 Classification of Law 33 Penology 14 Criminal and Civil Law 33 Victimology 14 Indictable and Summary Offences 34 How Do Criminologists View Crime? 15 Mala in Se and Mala Prohibitum 35 Functions of the Criminal Law 35 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Unmarked Burials Found at Providing Social Control 35 Former Residential School 15 Discouraging Revenge 37 The Consensus View of Crime 16 Expressing Public Opinion and Morality 37 The Conflict View of Crime 16 Deterring Criminal Behaviour 37 viii 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 8 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Focus on Research: What Happens When People Go Outside Tertiary Sources of Crime Data 78 the Law to Uphold Justice 38 Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review 78 Data-Mining 78 Maintaining the Social Order 39 Crime-Mapping 78 The Legal Definition of a Crime 40 Crime Patterns 79 Actus Reus 40 The Ecology of Crime 79 Mens Rea 40 Social Class and Crime 80 Strict Liability 41 Age and Crime 81 Criminal Defences 41 Ignorance or Mistake 41 Key Court Case: The Murder of Reena Virk 82 Not Criminally Responsible on Account of Mental Gender and Crime 84 Disorder 41 Criminal Careers 86 Intoxication 43 Summary 89 Duress 43 Necessity 43 Applying Criminology 89 Self-Defence 44 Entrapment 44 The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 44 Profile of a Crime: Wrongfully Convicted 46 Chapter 4 Changing the Criminal Law 47 Victims and Victimization 96 Key Court Case: Legal Rights and the Charter 48 Introduction 97 Summary 51 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Police Shootings and the Reaction 98 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Lobster Fishery Dispute and the Rule of Law 52 Problems of Crime Victims: Loss and Suffering 99 The Perception of the Risk of Being a Victim 100 Applying Criminology 52 Problems of Crime Victims: Antisocial Behaviour 102 The Nature of Victimization 102 The Social Ecology of Victimization 103 Victim Characteristics 103 Repeat Victimization 107 Chapter 3 Profile of a Crime: A Woman Who Killed 108 The Nature and Extent of Crime 55 Theories of Victimization 109 Introduction 56 Victim Precipitation Theory 109 The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) 56 Key Court Case: R. v. Keegstra 112 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: The Pandemic and Crime Patterns, 2020 57 Lifestyle Theories 114 Routine Activities Theory 116 Collecting the UCR 57 Caring for the Victim 118 The Accuracy of the UCR 60 The Government’s Response 120 Self-Report Surveys 63 Victim Impact Statements 120 Concept Summary 3.1: Data Collection Methods 63 Victim Compensation 121 The Focus of Self-Reports 63 Court Services 121 The Accuracy of Self-Reports 64 Public Education 121 The “Missing Cases” Issue 64 Focus on Research: The Impact of Wrongful Convictions on Victim Surveys 65 Crime Victims 122 Are Crime Statistics Sources Compatible? 66 Crisis Intervention 123 Alternative Sources of Information 67 Victim–Offender Reconciliation Programs 123 Explaining Crime Trends 68 Victims’ Rights 123 Focus on Research: The Politics of Statistics 71 Focus On Research: Victims’ Rights 124 What the Future Holds 76 Self-Protection 124 Profile of a Crime: A Serial Killer Stalked Toronto’s Gay Reasons for Not Reporting Crime 124 Village 77 Fighting Back 125 Contents ix 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 9 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Community Organization 126 Key Court Case: Effects of the Charter on Deterrence 160 Summary 126 Incapacitation Strategies 161 Applying Criminology 127 The Logic of Incarceration 161 Selective Incapacitation: The Special Case of Three Concept Summary 4.1: Victim Theories 127 Strikes and You’re Out 162 Policy Implications of Choice Theory 162 Concept Summary 5.2: Choice Theories 163 Summary 164 Section 2 Applying Criminology 164 Theories of Crime Causation 133 Chapter 5 Choice Theory 134 Chapter 6 Introduction 135 Trait Theories 171 The Development of Classical Theory 135 Introduction 172 Choice Theory Emerges 136 Biological Trait Theory 173 Does Crime Pay? 137 Development of Biological Theories 173 The Concepts of Rational Choice 137 Biochemical Conditions and Crime 175 Profile of a Crime: The Curious Career Choice of Edwin Concept Summary 6.1: Biosocial Theories of Crime 175 Alonzo Boyd 138 Offence and Offender Specifications 138 Focus on Research: Diet and Crime: An International Rational Choice and Routine Activities 139 Perspective 176 Is Crime Rational? 143 Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime 179 Are Street Crimes Rational? 143 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Environmental Factors Focus on Research: How Auto Thieves Plan Their Implicated in Crime 180 Crimes 144 Genetics and Crime 182 Is Drug Use Rational? 145 Can Violence Be Rational? 145 Focus on Research: Teenage Behaviour: Is It the Brain? 183 What Are the Seductions of Crime? 145 Evolutionary Views of Crime 184 Evaluation of the Biological Branch Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: MAID and the Right to of Trait Theory 185 Choose 146 Psychological Trait Theories 186 Eliminating Crime 146 Psychodynamic Perspective 186 Situational Crime Prevention 146 Concept Summary 6.2: Psychological Trait Theories 186 Concept Summary 5.1: Crime Control Strategies Based on Rational Choice 148 Profile of a Crime: Kenneth Parks, Sleepwalker 188 Crime Prevention Strategies 148 Behavioural Theories 189 Targeting Specific Crimes 149 Key Court Case: Women and Insanity in Canadian Crime Discouragers 150 Society 190 Ramifications of Situational Prevention 151 General Deterrence 151 Cognitive Theory 191 Certainty of Punishment 151 Mental Illness and Crime 192 Severity of Punishment 153 Personality and Crime 192 Perception and Deterrence 154 Intelligence and Crime 195 Informal Sanctions 154 Social Policy Implications 197 Public Surveillance 155 Summary 198 General Deterrence in Review 157 Concept Summary 6.3: Biological and Psychological Specific Deterrence in Review 157 Theories 199 Pain versus Shame 158 Rethinking Deterrence 160 Applying Criminology 200 x Contents 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 10 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Peer Relations 249 Chapter 7 Institutional Involvement and Belief 250 Branches of Social Process Theory 250 Social Structure Theories 207 Social Learning Theory 251 Introduction 208 Differential Association Theory 251 Sociological Criminology 208 Economic Structure and Crime 209 Profile of a Crime: Brock Turner 252 Inequality 209 Differential Reinforcement Theory 254 Are the Poor Undeserving? 211 Neutralization Theory 255 Unemployment and Crime 211 Are Social Learning Theories Valid? 257 Social Control Theories 257 Profile of a Crime: Seeds of Hope at the Missing and Self-Concept and Crime 257 Murdered Indigenous Women Inquiry 212 Containment Theory 257 Branches of Social Structure Theory 212 Social Control Theory 258 Social Disorganization Theory 214 Concentric Zone Theory 214 Profile of a Crime: Fateful Turns in the Difficult Life Course The Social Ecology School 216 of Tyrone Conn 261 Focus on Research: Carl Dawson and the McGill School 218 Labelling Theory 261 Crime and Labelling Theory 262 Concept Summary 7.1: Social Disorganization Theories 222 Differential Enforcement 262 Strain Theory 222 Becoming Labelled 264 Anomie Theory 222 Consequences of Labelling 264 Primary and Secondary Deviance 264 Profile of a Crime: Women Who Kill Their Children 224 General Theory of Deviance 265 Institutional Anomie Theory 224 Differential Social Control 265 Relative Deprivation Theory 225 Research on Labelling Theory 266 Is Labelling Theory Valid? 266 Key Court Case: Henry Morgentaler 226 Key Court Case: John Martin Crawford 267 General Strain Theory 227 Concept Summary 7.2: Strain Theories 231 New Directions in an Integrated Developmental Theory 267 Cultural Deviance Theory 231 Focus on Research: Women, Desistance, and Fearful Conduct Norms 231 Futures 268 Focal Concerns 231 Overview of Integrated Theories 269 Theory of Delinquent Subcultures 232 The Social Development Model (SDM) 269 Theory of Differential Opportunity 234 Elliott’s Integrated Theory 270 Concept Summary 7.3: Cultural Deviance Theories 235 Integrated Structural Marxist Theory 271 The Glueck Research 271 Evaluation of Social Structure Theories 236 Life Course Emerges 271 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Muskrat Falls and the An Evaluation of Social Process Theory 272 Controversy over Hydro Development 236 Social Process Theory and Social Policy 272 Social Structure Theory and Social Policy 237 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Systemic Racism and Community Policing 237 Changing Perceptions 273 Summary 238 Summary 274 Applying Criminology 238 Concept Summary 8.1: Social Process Theories 275 Concept Summary 7.4: Social Structure Theories 239 Applying Criminology 276 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Social Process Theories 245 Social Conflict Theory 284 Introduction 246 Introduction 285 Social Processes and Crime 246 Family Relations 246 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Capitalism Destroys the Educational Experience 248 Planet 287 Contents xi 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 11 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Marxist Thought 287 Substance Abuse 324 Productive Forces and Productive Relations 287 Firearm Availability 324 Marx on Crime 288 Sexual Assault 325 Developing a Social Conflict Theory of Crime 288 History of Rape 326 Willem Bonger 288 Sexual Assault and the Military 326 Ralf Dahrendorf 288 Incidence of Sexual Assault 326 George Vold 288 Types of Rapists 327 Modern Conflict Theory 288 Types of Rape 328 Conflict Criminology 289 The Cause of Sexual Assault 328 Research on Conflict Theory 291 Focus on Research: Masculinity and Sexual Violence among Focus on Research: Wrongful Convictions 293 the Urban Poor 329 Sexual Assault and the Law 329 Key Court Case: R. v. Gladue 294 Homicide 330 Degrees of Homicide 330 Profile of a Crime: The Case of Colten Boushie 295 Analysis of Conflict Theory 295 Key Court Case: Arthur Lucas and Ronald Turpin 331 Marxist Criminology 296 The Nature and Extent of Homicide 332 The Development of a Radical Criminology 297 Murderous Relations 332 Fundamentals of Marxist Criminology 297 Homicide Networks 334 Economic Structure and Surplus Value 298 Types of Murderers 334 Instrumental Marxism 298 Serial Homicide 335 Structural Marxism 299 Assault 337 Research on Marxist Criminology 300 Assault in the Home 337 Critique of Marxist Criminology 301 Causes of Child Abuse 338 Other Directions in Critical Criminology 302 Spouse Abuse 339 Left Realism 303 Robbery 340 Feminist Theory 304 The Ecology of Robbery 340 Deconstructionism 307 Robber Typologies 341 Restorative Justice 308 Evolving Forms of Violence 341 Peacemaking Criminology 309 Workplace Violence 341 Summary 310 School Violence 342 Summary 343 Applying Criminology 310 Applying Criminology 343 Concept Summary 9.1: Social Conflict Theories 311 Section 3 Chapter 11 Crime Typologies 317 Property Crimes 349 Introduction 350 Chapter 10 Some Basic Patterns 350 Violent Crime 318 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Fairy Creek and Competing Introduction 319 Definitions of Commodity 351 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: London, Ontario, A Brief History of Theft 352 Van Attack 320 Modern Thieves 352 The Roots of Violence 321 Occasional Criminals 353 Professional Criminals 353 Profile of a Crime: Two Killers 321 Focus on Research: On the Run 354 Personal Traits 322 Ineffective Families 322 The Non-professional Fence 356 Evolutionary Factors/Human Instinct 323 Theft 357 Cultural Values 323 Theft Today 358 Regional Values 323 Shoplifting 358 xii Contents 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 12 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Auto Theft 360 The Self-Control View 399 False Pretences or Fraud 363 Controlling White-Collar Crime 399 Identity Theft 365 White-Collar Law Enforcement Systems 400 Bad Cheques 367 Corporate Policing 400 Computer Fraud 367 White-Collar Control Strategies: Compliance 400 Credit Card Fraud 368 White-Collar Control Strategies: Deterrence 401 Embezzlement 368 Organized Crime 402 Break and Enter 369 Characteristics of Organized Crime 402 The Extent of Break and Enter 369 Activities of Organized Crime 402 Careers in Burglary 370 Organized Crime and Legitimate Enterprise 403 Burglars on the Job 370 The Concept of Organized Crime 403 The Female Burglar 371 The Development of a Syndicate 403 Arson and Vandalism 372 Organized Crime Groups 404 Transnational Organized Crime 405 Key Court Case: Arson and a Wrongful Conviction 373 Profile of a Crime: Human Trafficking 406 Profile of a Crime: Protesting for the Environment: Arson, Controlling Organized Crime 408 Vandalism, and the Case of Wiebo Ludwig 374 The Future of Organized Crime 408 Cybervandalism: Crime with Malicious Intent 374 Summary 409 Summary 375 Applying Criminology 410 Applying Criminology 375 Chapter 13 Chapter 12 Public Order Crimes: Legislating Crimes of Power: White-Collar, Corporate, Morality 415 Green, and Organized Crime 380 Introduction 416 Introduction 381 Law and Morality 416 White-Collar Crime 383 Debating Morality 417 Redefining White-Collar Crime 383 Profile of a Crime: The Case of Everett Klippert 417 The White-Collar Crime Problem 383 International White-Collar Crime 383 Criminal or Immoral? 418 Components of White-Collar Crime 384 Moral Crusades 418 Types of White-Collar Crime 385 Illegal Sexuality 419 Stings and Swindles 385 Paraphilia 419 Chiselling 385 Sex Work 419 Individual Exploitation of Institutional Position 386 Pornography 422 Influence Peddling and Bribery 387 Distributing Illegal Sexual Material 423 Embezzlement and Employee Fraud 387 Controlling Sex for Profit 424 Client Frauds 389 Substance Abuse 424 Corporate Crime 389 When Did Drug Use Begin? 425 Alcohol and Its Prohibition 425 Focus on Research: Is Chicken Farming Foul? 391 Commonly Used and Abused Drugs 426 Green Criminology 391 The Extent of Substance Abuse 428 AIDS and Drug Use 430 Key Court Case: Deepwater Horizon 392 The Cause of Substance Abuse 431 Defining Green Crime 394 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: The Opioid Epidemic 432 Forms of Green Crime 395 Drugs and Crime 433 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Wet’suwet’en Protest against Research Methods 433 Pipeline 395 The Cycle of Addiction 434 The Causes of White-Collar Crime 398 Drugs and the Law 434 Greedy or Needy? 398 Alcohol Abuse 435 Corporate Culture Theory 398 Drug Control Strategies 435 Contents xiii 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 13 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Source Control 435 Cybercrime 455 Cybertheft: Cybercrime for Profit 455 Focus on Research: Drug Courts 436 Cybervandalism: Cybercrime with Malicious Intent 459 Law Enforcement Strategies 436 Cyberstalking 462 Community Strategies 437 Cyberbullying 463 Drug Testing Programs 437 Cyberspying 464 Legalization 438 Cyberwarfare: Cybercrime with Political Motives 465 Other Issues 439 The Extent and Costs of Cybercrime 465 Euthanasia 439 International Treaties 466 Gambling 439 Key Court Case: The Lost Boy Case 466 Key Court Case: Sue Rodriguez 440 Cybercrime Enforcement 467 Prostitution 442 Concept Summary 14.1: Types of Cybercrime 467 Cannabis (Marijuana) 442 Summary 443 Terrorism 467 A Historical Perspective on Terrorism 468 Applying Criminology 443 Focus on Research: Transnational Terrorism 468 Forms of Terrorism 469 How Are Terrorist Groups Organized? 472 Chapter 14 Funding Terrorist Activities 473 What Motivates Terrorists? 473 Crimes in the 21st Century 449 Cyberterrorism: Using Cyberspace to Introduction 450 Inflict Terror 474 The Nature of Political Crimes 450 The Extent of Terrorism 475 Becoming a Political Criminal 451 Responses to Terrorism since 9/11 476 Types of Political Crimes 451 Summary 477 Development of High-Tech Crime 452 Applying Criminology 477 Profile of a Crime: Edward Snowden 453 Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Dark Commerce: Globalization and Crime 454 Glossary 481 Cybercrime: An Overview 455 Index 487 xiv Contents 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 14 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Preface W riting a preface is the last thing, and one of the and Dean Lisowick. McArthur was married and had children, hardest things, to do in writing a book. It must but the media reported that by 1999, he was socializing with introduce the book without saying too much. members of Toronto’s gay community, including Skandaraj It must be inviting and interesting enough to Navaratnam, a gay man who went missing in 2010. Targeting inspire more reading. It must embody the challenge of dif- predominantly men of colour, McArthur dismembered his ference and the warmth of familiarity. For this reason, using victims and buried them in planters on a property where he interesting stories is a good way to begin each edition. worked as a gardener. He had a criminal record for assault, This is because stories about criminal acts capture public was prohibited from using amyl nitrate, and was also prohib- attention in a way that nothing else does. Think Paul Ber- ited from associating with male sex workers. The media por- nardo, Karla Homolka, Luka Magnotta, Karl Toft, Clifford trayed him as Toronto’s Pickton. This parallel is a shorthand Olson, Alan Legere, Marc Lepine, Robert Pickton, Russell way to make sense of the killings, but it also masks important Williams, Bruce McArthur, Richard Leung, and so on. These differences in the crimes. For example, there is an allegation names are so familiar they are part of popular culture. Yet that police were disinclined to investigate cases of missing gay our ability to determine the validity of those news stories, men of colour, something they of course have denied. But in television documentaries, and magazine articles is compro- 1980, police were responsible for raids on gay bathhouses, mised because most of us have little independent knowledge an event that became a lightning rod for gay rights activism, of crime and criminal justice. Unless you hang out with cops which some have compared to the Stonewall Riots in New (or criminals), what you know about crime is more than York in 1969. They were also accused of ignoring reports of likely superficial, gleaned from the media without important gay bashing in the 1980s, a complaint that helped introduce nuances. To start with, these are murderers, but they are in community policing to Toronto. different categories: mass murder, serial homicide, femicide, The McArthur case and its comparison to Robert Pickton’s contract killers, and so on. Each has its own motivations and is a good introduction to this book because it is sensational but methods. also illustrates the ambiguous role the media play in modern In the case of the Pickton murders, for example, we can society. The media do a good job of reporting crime, but they analyze a type of murder and also the role of the media. also seem to have an inordinate interest in notorious killers, Dozens of women had gone missing from Vancouver’s Down- serial murderers, drug lords, and sex criminals. It is not sur- town Eastside in the 1980s in a series of slayings that had prising then that many of us are more concerned about vio- people convinced that a serial killer was operating in their lent crime than about almost any other social problem. We midst, an idea the media popularized. However, the police worry about becoming victims of violent crime, having our denied it, and despite geographic profiling evidence that houses broken into, or having our cars stolen, even though the confirmed links between the cases, they failed to make the odds are quite low. We alter our behaviour to limit the risk of connection until more than 50 women had been murdered. victimization, and we question whether legal punishment alone If this case were used today, it would be updated to include can control criminal offenders. We are shocked by graphic news reference to more than 600 missing Indigenous women, some accounts of shootings, police brutality, and prison riots. We are of whom vanished along the infamous Highway of Tears in fascinated by books, movies, and TV shows about law firms, British Columbia. Pickton has literally become a metaphor for clients, fugitives, and hardened killers. Yet the media do little the serial killer, and untangling his motives and methods is to enlighten us as to the causes of criminal behaviour or its pre- the work of criminology. Also, what do we know about those vention. Furthermore, they encourage us to think of problems laws and police practices that forced women into the shadows as requiring crime-related solutions, rather than better health where a serial killer could work? Answering that question is care, education, and welfare programs. the work of criminal justice studies. In a more current example, Alexandre Bissonnette, who Similarly, in 2018, Bruce McArthur was charged with first- murdered six people in a Quebec City mosque in 2017, is degree murder in connection with disappearances in Toronto’s back in the news. At issue is whether his eventual eligibility Gay Village. It is possible that he is responsible for even more for parole will be weighed consecutively for each first-degree murders yet unknown. In 2019, McArthur pled guilty to eight conviction or concurrently. Under a 2011 “getting tough counts of first-degree murder, including the deaths of Andrew on crime” law, he faced the former. However, in 2022, the Kinsman, Selim Esen, Majeed Kayhan, Soroush Mahmudi, Supreme Court ruled that this was unconstitutional, for it xv 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 15 06/02/23 3:52 PM  amounted to cruel and unusual punishment. The law repre- view aggressive, antisocial behaviour as a product of mental sented a conservative attitude to punishment, fuelled by the and physical abnormalities that persist throughout the life media and moral outrage. course. Genetic, neurological, and physiological factors are This book addresses more fundamental questions about also felt to influence criminality. Still another view is that crime, such as why offenders behave the way they do. What crime is a rational choice of greedy, selfish people who can be causes one person to become violent and antisocial, while deterred only through the threat of harsh punishments. For another channels their energy into work, school, and family? these people, there can be no treatment—only punishment. How do we explain the at-risk kid in a high-crime neighbour- As new research uncovers factors that affect crime, the debate hood who successfully resists the temptations of the streets? over the nature and cause of crime develops. What accounts for the behaviour of the multimillionaire Debate also continues over how the criminal justice system who cheats on their taxes and engages in other fraudulent should best treat known criminals. Should they be punished by schemes? The former has nothing, yet is able to resist crime; being locked up? Or should they be given a second chance and the latter has everything and falls prey to its allure. Is behav- diverted into alternative justice programs? Should the correc- iour a function of personal characteristics or of upbringing tional system be retributive or restorative? Should crime control and experience? Is it influenced by culture or environment? policy focus on punishment or rehabilitation, or even on med- Or is it a combination of all these? And why are there regional ical treatment? If the underlying cause is poverty, how can this differences—for example, why so many mass shootings in the be remedied? Many of these questions are tied to the current US compared to Canada? events we learn about through the media. When a group of This text addresses some of these difficult questions teenagers was accused of luring Reena Virk to a secluded spot through a typology-based approach. This means looking for only to assault and then kill her, it fuelled the call for reforms patterns to better predict behaviour and to learn how to con- to juvenile justice. When Melanie Carpenter was abducted trol it. It may mean looking at the role of gender or the influ- in broad daylight from her place of work in Surrey, British ence of social class. It may mean looking at opportunities for Columbia, sufficient public alarm ensued that the dangerous deviant behaviour and the influence of peer groups. It may offender legislation was amended. Similarly, when Georgina mean looking at the role of government regulation in disas- Leimonis was shot in a Toronto café, the public called for the ters such as the railcar explosion in Lac-Mégantic, Quebec— deportation of violent criminals. Other events involving the sui- regulation that allowed a train carrying highly explosive oil cides of Amanda Todd and Rehtaeh Parsons have fuelled debate to sit idle on a siding with no one on board, only to slip over cyberbullying, sparked changes to cybercrime laws, and away during the night and coast downhill into the middle renewed the focus on the victim. of a town, where it derailed and exploded, killing almost 50 Because interest in crime and justice is so great and so people. Such a disaster could have been predicted, and thus timely, this text reviews these ongoing issues and covers the prevented, if only our attention hadn’t been so distracted by field of criminology in an organized and comprehensive serial killers, perhaps. manner. It is meant as a broad overview of the field, designed As a professor of criminology, I have taught thousands to whet the reader’s appetite and encourage further and more of students. To me, what is important is communicating my in-depth exploration. Numerous students have kept this book interests in crime, law, and justice to my students and inspiring throughout university, using it as a criminology reference text them to explore their interests, whether their eventual goal is beyond first year. That has inspired me to keep working to policing or social work. My goal has always been to help stu- design this book to suit student needs, while meeting my dents understand a very broad field in a way that is easy to interest in communicating my enthusiasm for a rich, growing grasp. What could be more important or fascinating than a field of study. field of study that deals with such wide-ranging topics as the And to throw a wrench in the works, in a once-in-a- motivation for mass murder, the association between media generation-event, we also must consider the effects of the violence and interpersonal aggression, the family’s influence COVID-19 pandemic. These are addressed in various chapters, on drug abuse, the causes of wrongful convictions, and the but to throw out just a few highlights, it is apparent that some history of organized crime? Criminology is a dynamic field, crime trends have gone down, while some have increased. changing constantly with the release of major research studies, For example, firearm-related homicides increased 5 percent Supreme Court rulings, and government policy. Its dynamism from 2019 to 2020. Increases in child sexual exploitation and and diversity make it an important and engrossing area of abuse also increased during the first year of the pandemic. study, for it incorporates history, psychology, economics, and In addition, cybercrime in general increased 31 percent in more. In this edition, I have sought to find examples and cases 2020, child pornography was 35 percent higher, and online that make the field come alive. sexual offences were up 10 percent. Decreases were noted What makes criminology difficult, but also interesting, is in many crimes because of pandemic lockdowns, but while the ongoing debate regarding the nature and extent of crime interpersonal violence decreased in general, domestic violence and the causes and prevention of criminality. Some people increased. It will remain for research to tease out the rela- view criminals as society’s victims, who are forced to violate tionship between pandemic measures and crime rates. The the law because of poverty and lack of opportunity. Others anomalies need to be researched. xvi Preface 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 16 06/02/23 3:52 PM  In this eighth edition, I have made every effort to make “Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: The Pandemic and the presentation of material interesting, balanced, objective, Crime Patterns, 2020”; new discussion on the pandemic and, especially, as distinctly Canadian as possible. There is and its impact on the economy and crime trends, and a strong theme of social justice and protest, but otherwise, new discussion and data on hate crimes no single political or theoretical position dominates the text; Chapter 4: Victims and Victimization: Updated material instead, this text presents the multitude of views that are con- on victimization, including new victimization survey data tained within criminology and that display the field’s diverse and figures; updated discussion on victim-blaming; new nature. This multidisciplinary field ranges from biology to features, “Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Police Shootings sociology and many disciplines in between. The text analyzes and the Reaction” and “Focus on Research: The Impact of the most important scholarly works and scientific research Wrongful Convictions on Crime Victims” reports, while also presenting topical information on recent Section 2: Theories of Crime Causation outlines the cases and events. The cases should inspire and inform, as well theoretical issues of criminology. It contains five chapters that as educate and excite the reader to study criminology. cover the main theories: criminal choice (Chapter 5); biolog- —Chris McCormick ical and psychological views (Chapter 6); structural, cultural, and ecological theories (Chapter 7); social process theories that focus on socialization and include learning and control Organization of the Text and What (Chapter 8); and theories of social conflict (Chapter 9). Of particular interest are the materials on closed circuit televi- Is New in This Edition sion (CCTV) in Chapter 5, real cases of sleepwalking used as a defence in Chapter 6, early research done at McGill Uni- versity on sexuality in the 1920s in Chapter 7, and research The text has been carefully structured to cover relevant mate- on ethnicity and criminality in Chapter 9. All these chapters rial in a comprehensive, balanced, and objective fashion. With address ongoing issues such as inequality and life chances— marginal notes and clearly defined learning objectives, lesson for example, how the risk of crime in a society increasingly concepts are also easy to understand. The text has three main oriented toward mandatory minimum sentences connects the sections or topic areas. individual to wider social structures. New and updated mate- Section 1: Concepts of Crime, Law, and Criminology rials in this section include provides a framework for studying criminology and lays Chapter 5: Choice Theory: Updated discussion on out the basic issues in criminology. Chapter 1 defines the crime mapping, with a new figure; new features, “Focus field and discusses its most basic concepts: the definition on Research: How Auto Thieves Plan Their Crimes”; and of crime, the component areas of criminology, its history, “Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: MAID and the Right to research methods, and the ethical issues that confront the Choose” field. Chapter 2 covers criminal law and its functions. Some Chapter 6: Trait Theories: New feature, “Crime, controversial issues are discussed, such as how wrongful Conflict, and Disorder: Environmental Factors convictions illustrate that mistakes can happen in even the Implicated in Crime” most rationally organized legal system. Chapter 3 deals with Chapter 7: Social Structure Theories: New exhibits, the nature, extent, and patterns of crime, covering the var- “Childhood Poverty” and “Social Class and Living ious ways we learn about crime in our society: police sta- Conditions,” in the discussion on economic structure tistics, victimization surveys, and the media. Criminologists and crime; new discussion on “storylines” about how attempt to reconcile these different sources to understand people cope with strain; new features, “Crime, Conflict, crime patterns. Chapter 4 is devoted to an important and and Disorder: Muskrat Falls and the Controversy relatively new area of criminology: the nature of victims, over Hydro Development” and “Experiments with a theories of victimization, and programs designed to help Guaranteed Income,” related to social structure theory them. A section on hate crime is especially relevant, as we and social policy see a rise in anti-Asian hate crime during the pandemic. New Chapter 8: Social Process Theories: New section on and updated materials in this section include family relations relating to social processes and crime; Chapter 1: Crime and Criminology: Updated material new material on family violence, retrospective reading, on sociology of law and victimology, and updated and labelling; new features, “Focus on Research: discussion and data on Canadian crime trends Women, Desistance, and Fearful Futures” and “Crime, Chapter 2: The Criminal Law and Its Process: A new Conflict, and Disorder: Systemic Racism and Changing feature, “Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Lobster Fishery Perceptions” Dispute and the Rule of Law” Chapter 9: Social Conflict Theory: New feature, Chapter 3: The Nature and Extent of Crime: “Profile of a Crime: The Case of Colten Boushie”; new Extensively updated crime statistics and data, including section on queer criminology; updated discussion and new figures from Statistics Canada; a new feature, data on restorative justice. Preface xvii 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 17 06/02/23 3:52 PM  Section 3: Crime Typologies, is devoted to the major forms Definitions of Commodity”; new discussion on basic of criminal behaviour. Chapters 10 to 13 cover violent crime, crime patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic; common theft offences, white-collar and organized crimes, updated discussion and data on auto theft; updated and public order crimes, including sex offences and substance discussion and data on fraud, including computer fraud abuse. These chapters on crime patterns and trends lay out and credit card fraud current and controversial issues and highlight the most recent Chapter 12: Crimes of Power: White-Collar, information, such as statistics on patterns of violent crime in Corporate, Green, and Organized Crime: New Chapter 10 (i.e., murder, sexual assault, and family violence). feature, “Crime, Conflict, and Disorder: Wet’suwet’en Chapter 11, with its focus on property crime, discusses trends Protest against Pipeline”; new material on deferred such as those in auto theft, while Chapter 12 highlights crimes prosecution and the case of SNC-Lavalin; updated of power, such as white-collar crime, green crime, and orga- discussion and data on organized crime groups, nized crime. Chapter 13 looks at moral issues and crime, such including new figure as medical assistance in dying (MAID). Chapter 14 looks at Chapter 13: Public Order Crimes: Legislating crimes that are evolving in the 21st century, from cybercrime Morality: New discussion on sex work, the internet and to terrorism. New and updated materials in this section sex tourism; updated discussion on the opioid fentanyl; include updated discussion and data on drug use among youths, including new figures Chapter 10: Violent Crime: New feature, “Crime, Chapter 14: Crimes in the 21st Century: Updated Conflict, and Disorder: London, Ontario, Van Attack”; discussion on cyberwarfare; new feature, “Focus on updated discussion using the 2019 General Social Research: Dark Commerce: Globalization and Crime”; Survey; updated discussion on workplace violence updated discussion and data on ransomware, phishing, Chapter 11: Property Crimes: New feature, “Crime, and cyberbullying Conflict, and Disorder: Fairy Creek and Competing xviii Preface 47827_fm_hr_i-xxiv.indd 18 06/02/23 3:52 PM  cedure indicates that people who are violence-prone are able questions about institutional abuse, exploitation of margin- to answer much more quickly than the nonviolent, especially alized communities, and the role of the state in investigating when the images depict aggression and bloodshed. When used the treatment of Indigenous peoples. And furthermore, any with samples of adolescents, the procedure has been able to and all of these issues must be considered in context—for distinguish the violence-prone with 75 percent accuracy. The example, how society changed during the COVID-19 pan- criminologist who devised the procedure believes it could help demic beginning in 2020. reduce violence rates if children were tested and those identi- fied as violence-prone were carefully monitored by teachers and Key Features social service professionals. Those at risk for future violence could be placed in special programs as a precaution. Although the program seems worth considering, a number of important ethical issues must still be addressed: Thematic Connections link the material being currently dis- Connections cussed with1.relevant Is it fair or ethical to label people as potentially criminal information located elsewhere in the text. Knowing how criminology studies crime means under- and violent, even though they have not yet exhibited any Connections either expand on the subject matter or show how it antisocial behaviour? standing the system within which crime is defined and can be applied 2. Is there a chance or to other areas topics. In prophecy—kids of self-fulfilling such a comprehensive labelled its control enforced. In the next chapter, we look at a book, these connections as potentially violent become violent because ofthe help organize and coordinate thematerial stigma history of the Canadian criminal justice system, how between chapters theyfornowquicker carry? learning. it has evolved, and some current developments and 3. Do the risks of such a procedure outweigh its benefits? controversies. Another feature, Profile of a Crime, highlights cases his father, and he became a bully, killing later charged with obstruction of justice for local dogs and cats. He was later assaulted concealing a set of videotapes Bernardo had that illustrate the application of theoretical concepts. Key Terms by guards in a reformatory. His criminal made of his assaults. He was denied parole Profile career eventually included sexual assault, for the second time in 2021. For example, in Chapter 3, police are looking at links break and enter, forgery, and dangerous of a Crime driving. In 2010, while in custody, he alleg- He Did It for Money between alleged serial killer Bruce McArthur and other edly killed his cellmate in Rocky Mountain Yves “Apache” Trudeau, 58, a former hit Penitentiary. man for Hells Angels, became a police infor- 40-year-old murders in Toronto’s gay community. anomie p. 10 criminal mant after justice discovering that system Hells Angels had p. 3 intimate violence p. 3 atavistic anomalies A Deal with a Devil (or traits) put out a contract for his death. In exchange Within that community, there were rumours of a serial Clifford Robert Olson had p. 9 his- a criminal criminological for placement enterprise in a witness protection pro- p. 12 longitudinal research p. 18 killer, but it took years for McArthur to be caught and Canada’sbourgeoisie Deadliest p. 11 tory that included break and enter, bur- glary, fraud, and theft. As