Criminology Final Exam Study Guide PDF

Final Exam Study Guide This study guide highlights some of the important issues/topics/concepts included on the Final Exam. It includes a note on the big picture concepts from the semester that you should review, as well as Lessons 8-11 and the corresponding assigned readings. This is not an exhaust...

Final Exam Study Guide This study guide highlights some of the important issues/topics/concepts included on the Final Exam. It includes a note on the big picture concepts from the semester that you should review, as well as Lessons 8-11 and the corresponding assigned readings. This is not an exhaustive list of content, so you should refer to your own notes from lecture and discussion, as well as the chapters of the textbook (and other assigned readings). Big Picture Concepts: Define criminology, criminal justice study of making and breaking of laws; subset of sociology - looking at context and influence How to cops, courts and justice work together to achieve just is NOT part of criminology Defining deviance (based on norms; varies by time, place, circumstance/context), laws, crime concept of all behaviors that fall out of the norm or what is expected ; can change over time (ex. Drinking alcohol) Not all deviance is criminal, but all crime is deviant to some standard Mala in se vs. mala prohibita mala in se are behaviors that are inherently bad in all time, place, and space, also legislated more harshly; laws regarding them are relatively stable Mala prohibita are public order crimes - prostitution, gambling, drug abuse/use; bad because somebody said they are bad UCR Part I index offenses – 4 violent, 4 property (general patterns for offending and victimization) Violent : homicide, forcible rape, aggravated assault, and robbery Property : burglary, larceny, arson, motor vehicle theft Methods for measuring/studying crime – UCR/NIBRS vs. NCVS Key differences, chief benefits/drawbacks UCR/NIBRS : arrests and reports; most crime is not reported and doesn’t end in arrests NCVS : victimization survey, don't ask about arson or homicide, random sample of people in those households, they tell you all the types of things that could constitute victimization Challenge with comparing crime cross-nationally? Legal definitions vary among nations, reporting practices are different, data collection methods vary, cultural attitudes toward crime vary by country, as well as language barriers makes it difficult to compare  “dark figure of crime” The number of unreported or undiscovered crimes ○ Rough estimates re: crimes unreported (more than 50%) Important because it highlights that official crime statistics don’t capture all criminal activity NIBRS replaced the UCR in Jan. 2021 – and does not employ the hierarchy rule (understand/be able to apply this difference) Triangulation – multiple methods used for the same study/to answer the same research question Different means of measure combined to get a more thorough and accurate answer Conflict vs. Consensus views on crime – basic assumptions of each Consensus perspective : we all agree about right and wrong - law reflects this agreement and it does not matter on our differences (murder) Conflict perspective : we use conflict as a tool to get our ideas codified and therefore supported; views society as a place where people and groups compete for power, resources, and interests - whoever has the most power will dictate the laws and rules General patterns of crime over time Going down in recent years in all categories of crime - both property and violent How are these measured? Triangulation - looking at official statistics, victim surveys, as well as offender surveys to get the most accurate representation of information Do these sources tell the same story? Are they cherry-picking information? Correlates and predictors of crime – the big 5 (what crimes do they not cleanly apply to?) Age : younger people are more likely to engage in crime, and be victims Socioeconomic status : poor people are more likely to commit crime and be victims Gender : men are more likely to do crime, the gender gap is especially bigger on violent crimes and lessens the less severe the crime is (larceny/shoplifting) although men still dominate Race : black people are overrepresented in terms of both victimization and perpetration Location : south used to be the most but not anymore, west now dominates For example, it is important to know that men and women commit crime to very different extents and also experience victimization very differently.  You should understand likelihood of offending and victimization increase at lower SES Differential Association Theory Definitions, opportunities, techniques Labeling theory Labeling someone as deviant makes them feed into the deviant behavior Self-fulfilling prophecy Anomie (Institutional) Theory We all want to get to the American dream but we start from different starting points and don’t all have the means to get there Economic success Consensus theory Does not apply to white collar crime (those with the means and success would not have to commit crime according to this theory) Routine Activities theory Motivate offender, suitable target, guardianship Types and general trends (over time, by demographic correlates) for property and violent crime Application of primary criminological theories noted above Most and least common index offenses Larceny theft is the most common property crime, followed by motor vehicle theft and burglary Aggravated assault is the most common violent crime, followed by robbery, rape, and lastly murder Magnitude of violent crime compared to property crime (and how this is portrayed through news and media – skewed portrayal) Although news and the media reports on violent crime much more often, it gives the perception that violent crime is at much higher rates than it is in reality ○ Truly it’s at an all time low and is much less common than property crime which is reported on and discussed less Definitions/types of white-collar crime – distinction between corporate and occupational; extent of harm, punishment Profit over morality suggests that the economic institutions dominance over others promotes crime (institutional anomie) Lecture 8 – White-Collar Crime (WCC) Definitions (types) – Sutherland, type-fold typology, organizational; examples Definitions include three key elements 1. Conspiracies by members of the wealthy class  2. Use of their position in commerce and industry 3. For personal gain Cost of WCC More than $300 Billion annually according to FBI Major threats according to the FBI (lecture) Bankruptcy fraud Money laundering Insurance fraud Health care fraud Identity theft Extent of WCC – classic/contemporary estimates (hint – it is a lot!) WCC vs. street crime – cost, punishment WCC = $338 billion Less convictions than crimes of the poor - and when they are convicted it is for far less sentences and far less time is actually serves Property street crime = $18 billion Occupational crimes vs. corporate crimes – distinguishing characteristics (be able to identify examples – Enron) Corporate crimes : crimes on behalf of the corruption, primary benefit is to the company (ex. Price fixing, illegal mergers, environmental law violations, etc.) Occupational crimes : crimes by individuals, for personal gain (ex. Pilferage, embezzlement, etc.) Occupational: Pilferage: the act of stealing things of little value Reasons for the behavior Techniques of neutralization : the average employee doesn’t consider themselves to be criminal - a lot plays into their satisfaction, everybody is doing it, those things we tell ourselves to neutralize the harm and guilt Workplace culture Employee satisfaction (pay, conditions, treatment) Embezzlement: not just stealing things but the misappropriation of resources Taking the company credit card and buying things they’re not supposed to, pocketing money, skimming off the top of the register, hitting the cash back when checking someone out and then pocketing it, etc Reasons for the behavior The embezzlement “triangle” – Donald Cressey Incentive : have something happen where there is an immediate need; something that triggers their need and willingness to engage  Opportunity : in a position where people are trusting you with money and nobody is checking your work - essentially an opportunity to commit the crime and not get caught Rationalization : most common is “I was going to pay it back” - the attempt to neutralize the guilt Corporate crime: Extent : average was 4.4 convictions per organization ○ Over half of these organizations were engaging in white collar crime ○ Found that 64% of fortune 500 companies had engaged (got caught) in white collar crime Explaining corporate crime: be able to list/define/identify examples Industry variation ○ Very large part of why corporations may engage in corporate crime ○ In industry, where there is an intense extreme competition, there is going to be this inclination or tendency for organizations to do whatever it takes in order to win ○ In realms of industry where there is no competition (monopoly), it allows them to do whatever they want Drive for profit ○ Drive for profit is an absolutely necessary component of a capitalist economy; minimize costs, maximize profit ○ In and of itself it’s not bad, however, in corporate corporations where the drive for profit becomes more important than ethical behaviors it becomes a crime ○ They put money and profit over people Structure of organization ○ Longstanding and hard to change - structure will stay the same even as people come in and out ○ Diffusion of responsibilities : if you have a lot of people doing the same role and behavior it becomes very hard to pinpoint who was engaging in illegal behavior - adds a layer of protection ○ Lack of checks and balances ○ pay/reward structures Culture of organization ○ Breeds a culture of competition - you need to be at the top or you lose, people will do whatever it takes to win ○ The norms and the values and the beliefs - what you learn on the job ○ Constantly rewarding risky behavior ○ Punishing people who speak out breeds a culture of white collar crime Lecture 9 – Political Crime and Terrorism  Political Crime Definition (against the state; by the state) – behaviors are the same as those of other criminals, the ideology behind the behavior distinguishes crimes as political Criminal acts committed for ideological purposes; necessary means to higher ideological goal DAT – political offenders as being socialized into their belief system by similarly minded individuals 4 characteristics of political criminals – key takeaway: they are uncharacteristic! Violent Nonviolent They are uncharacteristic Often times misrepresented by the media Non-violent crimes against the state: examples Civil disobedience and nonviolence : refusing to obey certain laws because they are unjust Social movements : women’s suffrage, civil rights, student protests, BLM Ideological aims : don’t intend to violate laws, states often impose laws to squelch protest - a conflict theory explanation Forms and results? Example – spying: behavior, motivations (mercenary spies – do it for monetary gain) Violent crimes against the state: examples Various ideological aims How do these escalate from non-violent to violent? Often one small thing causes an escalation which turns the entire protest into a violent act ○ Ex. police tried to disperse crowd and a bomb is thrown and everything escalates Political assassination James Clark – five types Political : selfless act for political reasons; view their behavior as a selfless act that they commit for political reasons - not about them, but about removing the figure to change something in the system ○ John Wilkes Booth assassinating Lincoln Egocentric : overwhelming and aggressive egocentric need for recognition/status ○ Lee Harvey Oswald assassinating John F. Kennedy Psychopathic (unable to relate to others) Insane  atypical Terrorism Definition – why is it hard to define? “The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives” - FBI definition Hard to define because there’s competing definitions that don’t necessarily align which makes tracking and understanding these things very difficult Revolutionary vs. Repressive Repressive : form of terrorism that occurs when an established government uses violence against its citizens Revolutionary : political strategy that uses violence to achieve revolutionary goals, such as overthrowing a political system or asserting ethnic identity Types of terrorism (categories and Gurr’s types) Vigilante terrorism : aim to maintain/return to the status quo; usually a single interest terrorism - goal is to incite fear and change on a specific topic Private groups/citizens against other groups/citizens (ex. abortion) Insurgent terrorism : aim to change political policies through direct threats Targeting public figures, buildings, and transportation (ex. Oklahoma city bombing) Transnational terrorism : occurs when nonindigenous terrorists cross national borders (ex. 9/11) State terrorism : government acts to repress the citizenry Generally involve government using their entities (police, national guard) to enforce rules and regulation Research (and challenges of research) on terrorism Challenges are faced due to the difficulty is accessing reliable data, ethical concerns related to studying potential perpetrators, and the complex nature of identifying and defining terrorist acts Major findings of contemporary research on U.S. terrorism/terrorist threats Terrorism by anti-US groups (LaFree article) – big picture findings Varied reactions to terrorism by/against the state – do we react to and punish to the same extent? No, since terrorism by the state is being conducted by the government itself, it is not punished even close to as harshly, even if it is at all Oftentimes they try to convince the citizens that it was the right thing to do and that they didn’t really do anything wrong - it was necessary  Counterterrorism measures International cooperation Preventing radicalization Using technology and gathering intelligence Strengthening national efforts Protecting human rights Crimes by the state Violent crimes genocide (define/examples) Deliberate extermination of a groups of people from a particular nation or ethnic group ○ Nazi genocide of Jews during WWII ○ Russian genocide of Jews in the 1800s ○ Mass murder of africans in sudan in the 2000s assassinations (Clarke’s types of assassins) assault (various forms that fall short of genocide) Torture and beatings Executions and mass murder Other related actions (forced expulsion) Non-violent crimes – surveillance, infiltration, disruption, legal repression, corrupt campaign practices, etc. Freedom of movement and lawful dissent are a cornerstone of democracy Surveillance, infiltration, and disruption are key tools for repression Met with opposition but little change in behavior Extent and consequences are hard to gauge Myth of Peaceful Progress The belief that throughout US history disadvantaged groups have (can) gain power via peaceful means This is false however Dissenter violence is hardly atypical Lecture 10 - Organized Crime U.S. Organized Crime General history of syndicated crime in the US – group solution to economic realities (anomie) In the early 1900s the government control hugely contributes to organized crime efforts  The volstead act, 1919 : attempt to control the manufacturing, sale, and distribution of alcohol - groups selling alcohol became much more violent and strategic in selling Organized crime in the modern age is an area where diverse ethnic and racial groups have pursued economic opportunities and the American Dream Definitions of organized crime – elements including violence, illicit services, measures for immunity, etc. How and why they are organized is important : are there associations within the network, what types of behaviors are they committing, etc 6 elements of organized crime 1. Rational profit through crime 2. Demand for service 3. Monopoly over market(s) 4. Organized hierarchy 5. Use or threat of force 6. Corruption to gain immunity from sanctions Most useful to conceive organized crime as a matter of degree – group crime lying somewhere on a continuum of organization Where would a violent street gang lie on this continuum compared to the American Mafia? Different people serve different roles and different roles have different purposes Hierarchy of positions Defined roles Membership rules Normative codes Emphasis on profit Procedures for immunity Proposed models of organized crime (key variant? Be sure to understand the difference between these proposed models): La Cosa Nostra : argues that in the US the Italian mafia are the ones who control everything - the network is very centralized and has a very specific and rigid framework - nationwide and centralized Enterprise-Power : key proposition is that there are two distinct types of syndicates 1. Enterprise syndicates : crime groups who operate like a business (will use violence if they need to but are less about violence) - clear distinct structure with an obvious distribution or roles - usually more organized and successful  2. Power syndicates : most of what they do is strong arm tactics to get what they want - loan sharking, extortion; no division of labor Patron-Client : much more about movement and flow - it’s not the same rigid structure, it’s more about the eb and flow on a smaller scale - shifting and complex network of relationships Operate on small, local units and are less about the big national unit Values significant others, familiarity of social and economic environments, traditions Patterns of organized crime (levels of organized crime) – behaviors groups engage in and movement through those behaviors over time Characteristics of organized criminals Crime is their main source of income However, most are low income unless really high up in the organization They identify as criminal Normative code of secrecy (family connections and don’t associate with outsiders) Most are from disadvantaged backgrounds Explanations for syndicate crime Anomie theory explanation All these people came here for the American Dream and economic success but they have no means to achieve it Blocked means equals a group solution Group forms of innovation DAT theory explanation Through interactions, criminals learn definitions favorable to crime (crime as a respected “job”), techniques, and opportunities Global organized crime Thrives in what types of regimes? Corrupt dictatorships Liberal democracies Examples of global organized crime groups – most powerful The Japanese Yakuza The Chinese Triad Societies Russian Organized Crime (Russian Mafia) Common endeavors: Money laundering – basic steps, aim Hiding the source of “illegal” money  When they deal with business using illegal cash, the cleaner you can make that money the more protected you are Finding ways to turn and hide your illegal money and make it look legitimate Steps : 1. Filtering, placement 2. Layering, hiding, camouflage 3. Integration, mainstream circulation Broad definition for trafficking – does not apply solely to people Deal or trade in something illegal Human trafficking – movement of people for a variety of reasons (sex, labor, domestic servitude) Factors (Orlova article) that contribute to international human trafficking Migrant smuggling : procurement for financial/other benefit for illegal entry of a person into a State of which that person is not a national or resident Drug trafficking : illicit trade involving the cultivation, manufacture, distribution, and sale of substances which are subject to drug prohibition laws Costs of global organized crime – estimates (how do we get these?) UNODC : $870 billion FBI : $1 trillion Control of global crime – key example of attempt to control in the U.S.? RICO Everybody across the world is recognizing that it’s a problem but the ways that different countries deal with it vary vastly - some won’t do anything but will extradite, others will set laws and regulations and arrest for it, others will make efforts to stop the manufacturing and distribution RICO : when they can prove RICO they will attach a very lengthy prison sentence, and anyone and everyone involved can get these prison sentences They can seize your property, money, anything that can be proved as parts of it - essentially all assets (and the assets of other engaged and related to the crime) Lecture 11 – Public Order Crime (Chapter 14) Definition – mala …? prohibita Legislated morality, “victimless” Social control/policing often works from a “broken windows” hypothesis  ○ Deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill without adequate follow-up or community treatment facilities has added yet another population to an already existing homeless problem ○ The neglectful deinstitutionalization of people with mental illness brings them into oftentimes unpleasant contact with noninstitutionalized people who then have a sense of public despair Most often designated as a misdemeanor Examples of public order crime Types of prostitution Street workers/hookers : parade and negotiate the sale of their wares on the public street “Working girls” : earn the lowest fees of all prostitutes and are the most vulnerable to police interference Bar girls : are common in seaport cities and areas serving military populations - entice customers to buy them drinks while also arranging for “tricks’, which may occur on premise or at a nearby hotel Call girls : top of the prostitution profession ; generally are very selective in their clientele and are highly rewarded Massage parlor : forms of commercial sex is sold under the guise of a health spa or massage service Law and public order crimes – how do these crimes become law? (Understand the importance of public sentiment or belief as it relates to creation of public order laws) rules/laws are the result of moral panics When a previously peripheral issue is perceived as a serious social menace; reinforced the values of moral entrepreneurs Social control perspective on public order crimes Drug legislation as a means for groups to control other groups Control of “threatening” groups through laws Public order laws as the result of moral crusades Who are moral entrepreneurs? Examples of rule enforcers? ○ Moral entrepreneurs : individuals who convince the public that a specific (usually victimless) act is menace to society, and personally benefits ○ Rule enforcers : they have to sell this narrative - their existence and wellbeing is dependent on selling the idea that the given behavior is wrong and bad  Define and describe the role of overcriminalization and decriminalization in drug policy Overcriminalization : extension of the criminal law to inappropriate areas of moral conduct Decriminalization : refers to the process of lessening the penalties attached to particular offenses - the issue is a matter of degrees of regulation or deregulation rather than of categorical legalization of illegalization Applying theory – how does labeling theory apply to public order crime? Most of these crimes are considered deviant but not need by handled by the criminal law Sin, amorality, and bothersome behavior became criminal when defined so by criminal law