Cyberpsychology Week 2: Research Methods & The Online Self PDF

CYBER PSYCHOLOGY WEEK 2: RESEARCH METHODS & THE ONLINE SELF RESEARCH METHODS WHAT IS RESEARCH? Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information in an effort to contribute to knowledge on a particular phenomenon Considering what is currently known about a...

CYBER PSYCHOLOGY WEEK 2: RESEARCH METHODS & THE ONLINE SELF RESEARCH METHODS WHAT IS RESEARCH? Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information in an effort to contribute to knowledge on a particular phenomenon Considering what is currently known about a topic Articulating a specific question about it Designing a way to collect information Executing the information-finding strategy Analyzing the findings Communicating the results MEASUREMENT Measurement involves using a specified procedure to convert an observation to a number E.g., To measure a fever, the thermometer is placed in your mouth, and after a period of time it shows you a number by which you determine if you have a fever Specified procedures that result in the collection of numbers are known as research methods; these numbers are then used in various analyses as evidence to reach certain conclusions in science MEASUREMENT Reliability and validity are crucial in measurement Reliability refers to the consistency of the value obtained as the measurement is repeated (e.g., the thermometer displays similar values each time you take your temperature) Validity refers to the extent to which a measure actually measures what it says it does (e.g., the thermometer measures your temperature and not the temperature of your surroundings) MEASUREMENT Common types of measures include: Scales/questionnaires (e.g., personality traits) Behavioral tasks (e.g., tasks to assess memory) Tracking computer interactions (e.g., eye movements, mouse movements, screen touches) TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (1) Observational Designed to capture behavior in an ongoing fashion (e.g., users can provide verbal statements of what they are doing as they interact with an app) If people are aware that they are being observed, their behavior often changes (i.e., the Hawthorne effect). Yet covert observation may not always be ethically possible Observer bias may also occur when a researcher's expectations, opinions, or prejudices influence what they perceive and record in a study TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (2) Correlational The goal of a correlational design is prediction — a researcher measures two or more variables and tries to determine if changes in one variable are related to another E.g., Relationship between Facebook use and self-image perceptions Different questionnaires would be used to measure aspects of Facebook usage and self-image TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (2) Correlational A major concern in correlational studies is external validity, or the ability to apply obtained results to people and situations outside of the study (i.e., generalizability) Factors that influence external validity include: Having valid measures A representative sample of participants TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (2) Correlational Scales should be constructed carefully as questions can be asked in many ways Reliability can be established using the test-retest method, where a scale is taken more than once Validity can be established by correlating a scale with other scales that measure the same variable, or different but related variables TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (2) Correlational Researchers need to collect a subset of the group (i.e., a sample) that in some way represents the wider population This sample should ideally be random, such that every member of the population has an equal chance of participating in the study However, a truly random sample is difficult to obtain, so researchers often fall back on a convenience sample (i.e., a sample from a group of potential participants to which the researcher has access) Random sampling You’re studying new interventions for boosting employee engagement in a large company. You use a simple random sample to collect data. Because you have access to the whole population (all employees), you can assign all 8000 employees a number and use a random number generator to select 300 employees. These 300 employees are your full sample. By using a random sample, you can be reasonably confident that your results are applicable across the whole company. TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (2) Correlational Limitations Causal conclusions should not be made from correlational data; correlation does not imply causation E.g., Messerli (2012) reported a strong positive correlation between national per capita chocolate consumption and the per capita number of Nobel prizes won by the country. Should we conclude that consuming more chocolate in Singapore would cause more Nobel prizes to be won? TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (3) Experimental The core elements of an experimental design are manipulation, control and careful measurement of the outcome; when conducted correctly, experiments allow us to make causal statements (i.e., a change in X causes a change in Y) The independent variable (IV) is manipulated; the dependent variable (DV) is measured; everything else in the experiment must be controlled so that it remains the same https://youtu.be/yihMw0e8pV4 TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (3) Experimental E.g., Which type of button helps users to respond faster when using an app? If we control all elements of the experiment other than the button type, and find that users respond faster when using touch buttons, we can conclude that touch buttons result in faster responses If the touch button is also 4x the size of the mouse click button, the results could now be due to either the button type or the button size (i.e., a confound variable) TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (3) Experimental E.g., Which type of button helps users to respond faster when using an app? IV (manipulated by the researcher): type of button DV (the outcome that is measured): users’ response times Control variables (to avoid confounds): size of the button, color of the button, location of the button... etc. Different levels of an IV In a clinical trial, you investigate the effect of iron supplements (IV) on energy levels (DV). You use three groups of participants that are each given a different level of the independent variable: A control group that’s given a placebo (no dosage, to control for a placebo effect) An experimental group that’s given a low dosage A second experimental group that’s given a high dosage TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (3) Experimental A major concern in experimental studies is internal validity, or the extent to which the design and conduct of the study are able to support a causal conclusion Factors that influence internal validity include: Variability between people/within a person Presence of confounding variables TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (3) Experimental When different participants are subject to different conditions of an experiment, a researcher must verify that the differences in outcome is due to the independent variable (rather than because each group had different people in it) Random assignment (i.e., each participant has an equal probability of being in any condition of the experiment) is important in ensuring that there are no systematic differences between participants in each group Non-random assignment In your clinical study, you recruit participants using flyers at gyms, cafes, and local community centers. You use a haphazard method to assign participants to groups based on the recruitment location: Participants recruited from cafes are placed in the control group Participants recruited from local community centers are placed in the low dosage experimental group Participants recruited from gyms are placed in the high dosage group Non-random assignment Gym-users may tend to engage in more healthy behaviors than people who frequent cafes or community centers, and this would introduce a healthy user bias in your study. If your study outcomes show more energy in the high dosage group, you might not be able to attribute this result solely to the manipulation of your IV (the iron supplement). Instead, this result may come from the interaction between the participants’ characteristics and the IV. Random assignment Using the same method of recruiting participants using flyers at gyms, cafes and local community centers, this time you take the complete list of participants and assign each one a number. You then use a random number generator to place each participant in one of the three groups. By using random assignment, you can be reasonably confident that any differences in energy across groups are an effect of the IV (and not any systematic differences across groups). RANDOM SAMPLING VS ASSIGNMENT Random sampling is an important consideration in the external validity (generalizability) of results from the sample to the population Random assignment is necessary to ensure that the differences between groups reflect differences in the experimental treatments (IV) and nothing more (internal validity) Random assignment is arguably more important than random sampling  Random sampling No random sampling Can determine causal relationships in Can determine causal relationships in the Random the population. This design is relatively sample only. This design is where most assignment rare in the real world. experiments would fit. Can detect relationships in the Can detect relationships in the sample population, but cannot determine No random only, but cannot determine causality. This causality. This design is where many assignment design is where many unscientific surveys surveys and observational studies and polls would fit. would fit. https://youtu.be/8B271L3NtAw TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS (4) Field experiments While most experiments are conducted within a laboratory, it is sometimes necessary to conduct experiments in a real-world situation (5) Online research methods The web also provides unique opportunities for cyberpsychology research (e.g., recruiting participants online; analyzing Facebook feeds)  Quantitative Qualitative Data that can be numerically Non-numerical data that describes Definition analyzed and quantified qualities, opinions, feelings Online, in-person, and phone Open-ended survey questions; Research interviews with close-ended unstructured interviews; focus methods questions; controlled experiments groups; observation Drawing conclusions through Formulating hypotheses and Best for larger-scale studies, conducting gathering detailed information from statistical analysis smaller groups Statistical analysis through charts, Manual analysis through grouping of Analysis tables, statistical programs common themes and other methods Question Did you buy ice cream today? Why did you buy ice cream today? example (1) Yes (2) No "I saw ice cream on sale by the Data 67% of respondents bought ice checkout and it was an impulse buy. example cream today I wanted to treat myself.” IN SHORT... As you engage with the readings moving forward, there are two key questions to bear in mind: “How do we know?” and “Are we right?” These questions can be answered by considering the following: Was the appropriate research method used to answer the research question? Are the conclusions justified by the method? Are the measures reliable and valid? Does the experiment have any confounds? Were there proper controls? THE ONLINE SELF WHAT DO YOU NEED TO USE THESE APPS?  WHAT IS “THE SELF”? “It is you... all of the psychological and physiological features that come together to give you a personal identity. It is how you think and feel, and how you interpret, react to, and behave in diverse situations. It is the person you talk about when you use the pronouns ‘I’ and ‘we’... This list is not exhaustive.” THE ONLINE SELF The online self is the person you are when perusing the Internet, interacting with others or even simply observing others in their online activities In order to complete any task or partake in any activity online, we need an online self-identity E.g., We need to input our details on a website to use it; when we do so, we are sharing information about ourselves that enables others to create an image or profile of us — we are putting our “self” online THE ONLINE SELF This does not mean that the offline self is irrelevant The offline self shapes and influences who we are in our online activities (vice versa), but there are likely changes and distinctions between the two E.g., Differences in how we create our online vs. offline selves based on the time we are afforded to explore how we want to portray ourselves — an advantage we rarely have offline We can create, edit, and re-edit who we are before we share information about ourselves with others, giving us full control of who we want to be online THE ONLINE SELF Note that in the early days, researchers often referred to an online world and a “real” (offline) world Such terminology negates the effects that online behavior can have offline and vice versa (e.g., the effects of cyberbullying on a teenager’s offline social life) The self is the self, regardless of whether this is online or offline  COGITO, ERGO SUM (I THINK, THEREFORE I AM), BUT WHO AM I? SELF-CONCEPT The self is not a simple object, but a construct A person, with the help of others, builds up a body of beliefs about itself The accumulation of this set of beliefs is, in essence, the construction of the self At the most fundamental level, the self-concept refers to our concept of who we are and how we fit into the world; this is most clearly demonstrated through our answer(s) to the question “Who am I?” SELF-CONCEPT Self-concept is defined as a learned, organized, and dynamic system of beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence (Purkey, 1988) Self-concept is different from self-esteem, which refer to feelings of personal worth and levels of satisfaction regarding oneself It is also different from self-report, or what a person is willing and able to disclose SELF-CONCEPT Three key aspects: (1) Self-concept is learned; it evolves throughout our lives as a result of interacting with the social world (e.g., parents, teachers, peers) which help us to form a perception of who we are Because it is a social product, our self-concept may differ from how others actually perceive us and may differ across life stages Jane was required to take a foreign language course at her school. She chose to learn German because relatives on her mother’s side lived in Germany, and her family was planning a visit in the summer. Unfortunately, Jane’s few months of German class were not fun. She had a teacher who was very strict in her lesson plans and grading of the students. Additionally, Jane fell behind in the class work due to an after school sports injury; she was out for two weeks. When she returned to class, her teacher called her out in front of other students because she didn’t know the correct vocabulary terms and proper responses. When summer arrived, Jane’s family went to Germany as planned to visit their relatives. During her stay, Jane tried to practice her German but stopped trying after her relatives told her, “Your pronunciation is so poor, are you sure you’ve been taking German classes?” As a result, Jane withdraws from learning the language and culture. How are these experiences likely to have impacted Jane’s self-concept? Jane is likely to develop a self-concept that consists of any of the following: I will never learn the German language and culture I’m terrible at learning new languages I should just do what I’m good at I cannot make mistakes or people will criticize me SELF-CONCEPT (2) Self-concept is organized; it seeks to “fit” our beliefs and experiences in a way that makes sense We possess a great deal of knowledge and beliefs about ourselves Each piece of information is categorized or compartmentalized in a way that makes sense and attains harmony, taking into consideration all other information As a result, we may discard certain experiences that challenge our beliefs about the self, including changes toward a more positive view of the self (Swann, 1987) SELF-CONCEPT (3) Self-concept is dynamic; it is both context-specific and malleable Different situations direct our attention to different aspects of our self-concept, which become the prevailing “guide” for how we process self-relevant information as well as how we behave or take action (e.g., “me at work” vs. “me at home”) Self-concepts are malleable, as they are actively shaped by our experiences. As we face different situations and challenges in life, our insight of ourselves may change depending on the way we respond. SELF-CONCEPT Self-concepts naturally vary between people Each person differs from others in his or her life, career, and social experiences, knowledge, interests, desires, exposures to external forces (e.g., political and commercial), and cultural influences (Elliott 2001) Other factors include age, gender, personality, ethnicity, historical context, (predominant) self-motives, group memberships, and roles (Baumeister 1998; Oyserman et al. 2012; Rosenberg 1979) The wholeness of these experiences shape our unique life stories and our self- concepts WHO WOULD I/OTHERS LIKE ME TO BE? WHO DO I/OTHERS THINK I SHOULD BE? MULTIPLE SELVES According to Higgins’ Self-Discrepancy Theory (SDT; 1987), the self can be conceptualized in three ways: The actual self, or your representation of the attributes that someone believes you actually possess The ideal self, or your representation of the attributes that someone would like you to possess (i.e., someone’s hopes, aspirations and wishes for you) The ought self, or your representation of the attributes that someone believes you should possess (i.e., someone’s sense of duty, obligations and responsibilities for you) Ought self: A doctor... lawyer... accountant? any other job with greater job security Ideal self: Take acting classes, eventually go on to be a full-time actress Actual self: Majoring (failing) in accountancy so that I can become an accountant with great job security (or at least greater job security than an actress) MULTIPLE SELVES While the actual self constitutes what is typically thought of as an individual’s self-concept, the ought and ideal selves constitute standards of comparison According to SDT, the greater the gap between an individual’s actual and ideal/ought self (i.e., self-discrepancy), the greater the psychological tension and discomfort an individual is likely to experience An individual is therefore motivated to reduce self-discrepancy so as to relieve their feelings of discomfort — and self-presentation is one way in which this can be achieved WHO ARE WE ONLINE? Different situations create different social norms; the self is malleable and flexible enough to adapt to these norms, whether online or offline We fulfill a number of social roles which are not mutually exclusive (e.g., student, son/daughter, boyfriend/girlfriend, etc.) In any given situation, we choose which aspect of the self to present Offline, we are likely to behave very differently on a night out with our friends compared to a family dinner with our parents; online, we may be more brash in dismissing potential dates than if we had met them face to face SELF-PRESENTATION Let’s say you have a friend who has never watched an episode of Game of Thrones because she doesn’t consider herself to be a fan of the fantasy genre. Whether she takes your advice that Game of Thrones will enrich her life depends on how persuasive your argument is, but also what your friend thinks of you as an individual — does she see you as someone of good or poor taste? Do you have a track record for making good recommendations? SELF-PRESENTATION We often attempt to influence the opinions and impressions of others as part of social interaction; this may apply to a variety of things (e.g., ideas, objects, other people) However, we cannot take the individual attempting to manage these impressions out of the picture, as any attempt communicates some form of information about the self (e.g., attitudes, preferences, feelings, etc.) Self-presentation is therefore a subcategory of impression management that specifically involves managing the impression of self SELF-PRESENTATION Self-presentation can be defined as... Any form of behavior that is intended to create, modify or maintain an impression of ourselves in the minds of others (Brown, 2014) The process of controlling how one is perceived by other people (Leary, 1995) THE PERFORMED SELF Most social interactions are role governed; each person has a role to play, and the interaction proceeds smoothly when these roles are enacted effectively E.g., Airline pilots are expected to be poised and dignified. As long as they convince their passengers that they possess these qualities, their passengers remain calm and behave in an orderly fashion. Imagine how unsettling it would be if your airline pilot acted like these SNL characters... https://youtu.be/7F_Cl8wUUHQ THE PERFORMED SELF Inspired by theatrical performance, Goffman (1959) proposed that people are social actors who display different masks in different social interactions People play a variety of parts or roles throughout their lives (“one man plays many parts”) The specific part that is played at any time depends on both the environment and the audience; as such, there is no “actual” or “true” self THE PERFORMED SELF Social interaction can be viewed as a performance People make use of different tactics to control and stage how they appear, depending on the context (e.g., environment, social norms, audience) and their desired goals People also differ in the extent to which they take cues from the audience to adjust their performance (i.e., levels of self-monitoring) THE PERFORMED SELF How does this unfold online? The online world offers multiple avenues for self-exploration and self- presentation, whether of an ideal, actual, ought, or even fictional self In some ways, the online world provides unique advantages over a face-to-face setting because people can take their time to get the right text, photo, or video People can edit and revise text, retouch photos, and make thoughtful decisions about what to disclose MOTIVATIONS & STRATEGIES According to Goffman, our motives are key to the self-presentation strategies we choose to employ We may or may not be consciously aware of our goals as we present ourselves online, whether it is to be liked by others or to have others fear and respect us Nevertheless, these goals will shape our online behavior (i.e., we select and present aspects of the self that is tailored to meet these goals) ARKIN’S SELF-PRESENTATION STRATEGIES Arkin proposed that people adopt two strategies to achieve the performance outlined by Goffman: Acquisitive self-presentation, which is used to gain others’ approval and acceptance of the self (achieving desired outcomes/making a positive impression) Protective self-presentation, which is used to avoid others’ disapproval and criticism of the self (avoiding undesired outcomes/not making a negative impression) ARKIN’S SELF-PRESENTATION STRATEGIES Individuals differ to the extent that they are motivated to adopt either strategy Some individuals tend to “play it safe” in social situations and present themselves in relatively neutral terms (a protective self-presentation strategy) which rarely leads to highly favorable or highly negative interactions E.g., In politics, the candidate who wins an election is often the one with the lowest negative rating rather than the one with the highest positive rating. As such, politicians often refrain from taking stands as it is more important to avoid alienating a block of voters than it is to favorably impress one JONES’ SELF-PRESENTATION STRATEGIES According to Jones (1990), there are five broad self-presentation strategies: (1) Ingratiation (to get others to like you) Can be achieved through imitation, flattery, or displaying positive personal characteristics (e.g., warmth and kindness) etc. as people tend to like those who agree with them, say nice things about them, do favors for them May backfire if it is too blatant; however, most people want to believe they are likable and liked by others JONES’ SELF-PRESENTATION STRATEGIES (2) Self-promotion (to convince others that you are competent) Can be achieved through “blowing one’s own horn” (i.e., performance claims and accounts) so that others perceive you to be intelligent, capable or talented Note that this rarely leads to strong feelings of liking; as such, people are often forced to blend or balance between ingratiation and self-promotion (e.g., modesty may be an effective form of ingratiation but it rarely instills a perception of competence) JONES’ SELF-PRESENTATION STRATEGIES (3) Intimidation (to get others to fear you) Can be achieved through threats or power (e.g., a manager may successful get his staff to do his bidding because they fear the consequences of his response to failure) Note that threats do not necessarily have to be explicit in order to be effective JONES’ SELF-PRESENTATION STRATEGIES (4) Exemplification (to project moral righteousness) Can be achieved through advocacy, taking a stand for worthy causes, displays of virtuous character (e.g., honest, disciplined, charitable, self-sacrificing) “The neighbor who bicycles to the train station may arouse our guilt as we climb into our gas-guzzling cars; supervisors who arrive early and leave late may exert exemplifying pressure on their subordinates even though they may take long lunches” Note that self-promotion and exemplification share the goal of being respected and admired, they differ in the specifics of what to be respected for JONES’ SELF-PRESENTATION STRATEGIES (5) Supplication (to appear weak and receive help) Can be achieved through self-deprecation or advertising misfortune and helplessness, which makes salient a norm of obligation and social responsibility for those with greater resources May result in costs, such as being perceived as incompetent SNYDER’S SELF-MONITORING THEORY Individuals also vary in terms of how motivated they are to engage in self- presentation entirely High self-monitors are “social chameleons”; they carefully regulate their self- presentations to make themselves more likable and socially desirable to their audience Low self-monitors are “true to themselves”; they value authenticity and care less about what the audience might think Imagine that you and another person are discussing recent movies, and this person tells you that they liked a particular movie you did not like. What would you do? Would you (1) say you also liked the movie, even though you didn’t; (2) voice your true opinion and admit you didn’t like the movie; or (3) avoid taking a stand by changing the subject? All else being equal, high self-monitors are more likely to choose the first option compared to low self-monitors