STRIVE FOR A 5 Module 31-41 Past Paper PDF

Module 31Studying and Encoding Memories Module 32 Storing and Retrieving Memories Module 33 Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory Module 34 Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity Module 35 Solving Problems and Making Decisions Module 36 Thinking and Language Module 37 Introduction to Int...

Module 31Studying and Encoding Memories Module 32 Storing and Retrieving Memories Module 33 Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory Module 34 Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity Module 35 Solving Problems and Making Decisions Module 36 Thinking and Language Module 37 Introduction to Intelligence Module 38 Assessing Intelligence Module 39 The Dynamics of Intelligence Module 40 Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence Module 41 Group Differences and the Question of Bias STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part I: Cognition Module 31 Studying and Encoding Memories 31-1 1. Compare the definition of memory to your own definition of learning. Memory refers to the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time. It involves the brain’s ability to retain information from experiences and is essential for learning. Learning is the process by which we acquire new knowledge, skills, or behaviors, often through experience or instruction. While learning results in new knowledge, memory is the system that helps us store and recall it. 2. How has research on memory’s extremes helped us understand how memory works? Research on memory's extremes helps us understand how memory works by revealing the impact of damage to different memory systems and the extent of human memory capacity. These extreme cases show us how different types of memory are processed and stored. 3. The multiple-choice portion of the AP psychology exam is a recognition because you simply need to choose the correct answer. The free-response section of the AP psychology exam is typical of recall tests because no answer choices are provided for you. 31-2 1. The text mentions that you can compare the aspects of memory to a computer. Create your own analogy and explain why each part of the memory system corresponds with your selected analogy. Encoding: The process of taking in new information, similar to typing on a keyboard to input data into a computer. Storage: The retention of information over time, comparable to saving files in a computer’s hard drive. Retrieval: Accessing stored information, akin to opening a file from a computer to view or use it. 2. Define and give an example of parallel processing. Parallel Processing refers to the brain's ability to process multiple pieces of information simultaneously, such as listening to a conversation while walking, recognizing patterns, and analyzing sensory input at the same time. 3. Define the Atkinsons and Shiffrin model of memory and the information-processing model. Compare how Atkinson and Shiffrin’s memory model is similar to and dissimilar from the information-processing model. Which model do you most agree with and why? Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Model: The model divides memory into three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It emphasizes the linear process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. The Information-Processing Model is more general, emphasizing how the brain processes incoming information, stores it, and retrieves it as needed, with less focus on discrete memory stages. 4. Imagine you're trying to remember a math formula. Figure 31.3 show how each of the stages in the model would be applied to memorize the math formula. Both models are similar in that they describe how information flows through various stages, but Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model is more structured. I most agree with the information-processing model because it offers a broader and more flexible view of how memory functions. 5. How does working memory expand on the concept of short-term memory? Working Memory expands upon short-term memory by adding the idea of active processing and manipulation of information. It's not just a passive storage system but an active workspace for thinking and problem-solving. 6. Teachers are sometimes asked to put their class lecture notes online for students to view later. According to sparrows, at all work on focused attention, why might this result in decreased memory for the material? Why Online Lectures May Decrease Memory: When lectures are posted online, students may rely more on rereading or passively watching videos rather than actively engaging with the material, which leads to poorer retention. Active participation, like taking notes, promotes deeper processing. 31-3 1. Explain how explicit and implicit memories are produced and processed. Be sure to discuss how the two are different. Explicit Memories are conscious, declarative memories (e.g., facts, personal experiences) processed in the hippocampus. Example: Remembering the date of a friend's birthday. Implicit Memories are non-conscious, procedural memories, like how to ride a bike or tie shoes. Example: The skill of typing without looking at the keys. 2. How do the terms declarative and non-declarative apply to explicit and implicit memory? Provide your own example for each category. Declarative Memory is conscious and includes episodic (personal experiences) and semantic (facts and knowledge) memory. Example: Remembering the capital of France (semantic) or your first day of school (episodic). Non-Declarative Memory involves skills, habits, and conditioned responses. Example: Riding a bike (procedural memory). 31-4 1. in your own words, explain how we automatically process: Space: We automatically process the spatial layout of our environment Time: We automatically track the passage of time, such as remembering what you did at various points in the day Frequency: We automatically keep track of how many times something occurs, like remembering how many times you’ve seen a friend that week 2. How can effortful processing become more automatic over time? Effortful Processing becomes more automatic over time through practice. For example, learning to drive requires focused attention, but over time, it becomes automatic. 31-5 1. Define sensory memory: Sensory Memory is the brief storage of sensory information. It’s the initial recording of sensory data before it’s processed into short-term memory. 2. Discuss how echoic and iconic memory operate in sensory memory. Provide examples of each in your own life. Iconic Memory (visual) lasts a fraction of a second. Example: Seeing a flash of lightning and briefly retaining the image. Echoic Memory (auditory) lasts 3-4 seconds. Example: Remembering the last few words someone said even after they stop talking. 31-6 1. Compare the capacity of short-term memory to that of working memory. Short-Term Memory stores information briefly (e.g., remembering a phone number long enough to dial it). Working Memory involves active processing and manipulation of information. It’s the mental workspace where we process and organize data, such as solving a math problem. 2. What have we learned about our ability to focus on more than one event at a time? Support your answer with an example from your own life. Multitasking: Research shows that we can’t truly multitask. Instead, we switch between tasks, which often reduces our ability to focus. For example, texting while driving reduces attention to the road. 31-7 1. Explain how organizing new material into categories helps us recall it. Organizing Information: Organizing material into categories (e.g., grouping related items) helps with recall. 2. Explain why chunking and mnemonic devices help aid memory. Describe how you have used each of these in your own experiences. Chunking: Breaking information into smaller, manageable chunks (e.g., grouping digits in a phone number) helps retention. Mnemonic Devices: These memory aids (e.g., acronyms) make it easier to remember information. Example: Using the acronym "PEMDAS" to remember the order of operations in math. 3. Discuss why it is more advantageous to practice retrieval of information than to reread  material. Retrieval Practice: Practicing retrieval is more effective than rereading because it strengthens memory connections. Spacing out study sessions and testing yourself enhances learning (distributed practice and the testing effect). 4. Explain how you can put the principles of distributed practice, spacing effect, and the testing effect to use in studying for a test on this part. Spacing out study sessions and testing yourself enhances learning (distributed practice and the testing effect). 31-8 1. Using examples and definitions, explain how shallow processing differs from deep processing. Shallow Processing focuses on surface-level features, like memorizing words without understanding their meaning. Example: Repeating words without thinking about them deeply. Deep Processing involves making meaningful connections to the material, which leads to better retention. Example: Relating new concepts to your life or existing knowledge. 2. How does meaning help a retrieval or reduce the encoding time and effort? OK Meaning plays a crucial role in both retrieval and encoding because it facilitates deeper processing, making information more memorable and easier to recall. 3. Discuss how the self-reference effect aids recall. Self-Reference Effect: Relating information to yourself improves recall because you process it more deeply. Example: Remembering a psychology concept because you connected it to a personal experience. Module 31 Review Choose the definition that best describes each term below. Terms: A 1. Short-term memory F 2. Working memory G 3. Explicit memory H 4. Effortful processing B 5. Iconic memory E 6. Echoic memory C 7. Long-term memory I 8. Implicit memory D 9. Sensory memory J 10. Automatic processing A. activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten B. a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second C. the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system D. the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system E. a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sound and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds F. a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information and of information retrieved from long-term memory G. memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” H. encoding that requires attention and conscious effort I. retention independent of conscious recollection J. unconscious encoding of incidental information such as time, space, and frequency STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part I: Cognition Module 32 Storing and Retrieving Memories 32-1 1. Contrast the limits of short-term and long-term memory. Short-term memory: Holds information for a brief period (usually 15-30 seconds). It is limited in capacity, often referred to as the "magic number 7" (5-9 items). It requires active rehearsal to maintain information. Long-term memory: Stores information for extended periods (hours to a lifetime). It has virtually unlimited capacity and can hold information permanently, although retrieval may not always be immediate or perfect. 2. How do we process in-store memory? Memory processing involves three stages: Encoding: The initial learning of information. Storage: The maintenance of encoded information over time. Retrieval: The process of accessing stored information when needed. 32-2  1. Are the following likely to be semantic or episodic memories? a. Your 10th birthday party: Episodic (personal event). b. The name of the U.S. President: Semantic (general knowledge). c. The capital of Spain: Semantic (factual knowledge). 2. Explain how the hippocampus functions in the encoding of explicit memories. The hippocampus is crucial for converting short-term memories into long-term explicit memories, particularly in terms of facts and experiences. It helps process and organize information before it is stored in different parts of the brain. 3. Describe the role that sleep plays in memory consolidation. Sleep is essential for consolidating memories. During sleep, especially during deep sleep and REM stages, the brain replays and strengthens newly acquired information, helping store it in long-term memory. 32-3 1. Discuss how the cerebellum plays a role in memory processing. The cerebellum is involved in processing procedural memory (memory of skills and tasks). It helps coordinate movement and motor skills, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument. 2. Explain the role of the basal ganglia in procedural memory. The basal ganglia help control movement and are important in forming procedural memories, such as habits and motor tasks. They work with the cerebellum to facilitate smooth execution of learned motor functions. 3. Briefly explain infantile amnesia. Infantile amnesia refers to the inability of most people to recall memories from the first few years of life. This may be due to the immature state of the hippocampus and other brain structures involved in memory processing during early childhood. 32-4 1. How does the amygdala play a role in memory processing? The amygdala is involved in processing emotions and emotional memories. It helps store memories with emotional significance, such as fear or joy. Emotional events often have a stronger memory trace due to the amygdala’s involvement. 2. Give an example from your own life of a flashbulb memory. Just Gus the meaning of the term flashbulb in this context. Are flashbulb memories implicit or explicit? Explain. A flashbulb memory is a vivid, detailed memory of a significant or emotional event. For example, remembering where you were and what you were doing when a major event, like 9/11, occurred. Flashbulb memories are explicit because they involve conscious recollection of a personal experience. 3. Are flashlight memories more accurate than other memories that may be as old? Flashbulb memories may feel more vivid or accurate due to the emotional intensity, but they are not necessarily more accurate. Over time, even these memories can distort or change as they are recalled. 32-5 1. Summarize and discuss the importance of the work of Kandel and Schwartz with the sea slug Aplysia as it relates to memory processing. Kandel and Schwartz’s research on Aplysia demonstrated how learning and memory formation can change the structure of neurons. They found that long-term potentiation (LTP) in neural synapses plays a role in memory storage. This work provided evidence for the biological basis of memory. 2. Explain the meaning of long-term potentiation and list support for it as a physical basis for memory. Provide an example of how this process may be disrupted. Long-term potentiation (LTP) refers to the strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity. It is considered a physical basis for memory because it enhances the efficiency of neural communication, making it easier to retrieve memories. Support for LTP includes the fact that stimulating neurons repeatedly can enhance synaptic connections, and disruption of LTP impairs memory formation. LTP can be disrupted by factors like stress or certain drugs that interfere with neural activity, such as those that block neurotransmitter receptors. 32-6 1. Discuss the difference between the three measures of retention. Give an example of each from your own life. Recall: Retrieving information without cues (ex. remembering a friend's phone number from memory) Recognition: Identifying correct information from a set of options (ex. choosing the right answer on a multiple-choice test) Relearning: Learning something again that was previously learned (ex. re-learning a language you once studied) 2. Use Figure 32.5 and information from the text to provide a new instance of priming. Priming occurs when exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus. For example, if you are shown a list of words related to sleep, you might later be more likely to recall the word "bed" when asked to list items related to sleep, even if "bed" was never shown. 3. In what ways can contact a memory recall? Context-dependent memory refers to the enhanced recall of information when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding. For example, studying in the same room where you will take the test can improve recall. 4. Explain how state-dependent memory differs from context-dependent memory. State-dependent memory refers to improved recall when a person is in the same internal state (e.g., mood or intoxication) as when the memory was encoded. For example, remembering a happy event more easily when you're in a positive mood. 5. How does mood-congruent memory influence the retrieval and recall of tiger memories? How has this worked in your own experiences? Mood-congruent memory means that people are more likely to recall memories that match their current mood. If you’re feeling sad, you're more likely to remember other times you felt sad. 6. Use Figure 32.7 and information from the test to explain how the primacy and recency effects relate to the serial position phenomenon. Create a new example that illustrates your explanation. The primacy effect refers to better recall of information presented first, and the recency effect refers to better recall of information presented last. Together, they form the serial position effect, where items in the middle of a list are harder to recall than those at the beginning or end. For example, in a list of names, you might remember the first few names and the last few, but forget those in the middle. STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part I: Cognition Module 33 Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory 33-1 1. Discuss how forgetting can be helpful and efficient. Forgetting can be helpful because it prevents the overload of irrelevant or outdated information, allowing us to focus on what’s more important. It helps in filtering out unnecessary details and facilitates memory consolidation, prioritizing more relevant and recent information. This ability to forget can also aid in emotional well-being by allowing us to let go of painful or stressful memories over time. 2. Explain how anterograde amnesia differs from retrograde amnesia and use personal examples to support your explanation. Anterograde amnesia: A condition in which a person cannot form new long-term memories following an injury or event. For example, a person with anterograde amnesia may remember events before the injury but cannot recall what happened after it. Retrograde amnesia: The inability to recall information that was acquired before a specific event or injury. A person with retrograde amnesia may forget events from their past but can form new memories after the event.  3. Using material from Module 32, why can people with anterograde amnesia still learn new nonverbal tasks? People with anterograde amnesia may still learn new nonverbal tasks because the brain's procedural memory system (which is typically unaffected by damage to the hippocampus) is involved. This allows them to learn skills like riding a bike or playing an instrument without consciously remembering how they learned. 4. Summarize the theories that address the reasons why we forget: Encoding Failure: We forget because we never encoded the information into long-term memory in the first place. It may never have been processed deeply. Storage Decay: Over time, unused memories fade or decay, especially if they’re not rehearsed or reinforced. Retrieval Failure: The inability to access stored memories due to lack of retrieval cues or interference. Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with the ability to recall newer information. For example, your old phone number might make it harder to remember your new one. Retroactive Interference: New memories interfere with the recall of older information. For instance, learning a new address might cause you to forget your old one. Motivated Forgetting/Repression: Memories that are distressing or anxiety-inducing may be blocked or forgotten unconsciously as a defense mechanism. 5. Using Figure 33.3, briefly summarize the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus on the retention and recall of nonsense syllables. Hermann Ebbinghaus’s research demonstrated the forgetting curve, which shows that we forget information rapidly shortly after learning it, and the rate of forgetting slows down over time. He studied how quickly people forget nonsense syllables and found that without reinforcement, most forgetting occurs within the first hour. 6. Explain the difference between proactive interference and retroactive interference. Proactive interference: Older information interferes with the recall of new information (e.g., you can’t remember a new password because you keep thinking of your old one). Retroactive interference: New information interferes with the recall of old information (e.g., after learning a new phone number, you forget your old one). 7. What is the common opinion of repression? What opinion do memory researchers hold? Common opinion of repression: Some believe that repression, or the unconscious blocking of distressing memories, is a natural defense mechanism that helps individuals cope with trauma. Memory researchers’ opinion: Many researchers are skeptical about repression. They argue that while memories can be distorted or forgotten, true repression is rare and may be influenced by suggestion or therapeutic practices. 33-2 1. Summarize and discuss the importance of Elizabeth Loftus’ work on the misinformation effect. How might the misinformation effect impact those testifying as eyewitnesses in crime? How might lawyers use the misinformation effect to their favor in a criminal case? Elizabeth Loftus’s work on the misinformation effect showed that memories can be distorted by exposure to inaccurate information. This is particularly important in the context of eyewitness testimony, as false or misleading information can alter a witness’s recollection of events. The misinformation effect can make eyewitness testimonies unreliable, as witnesses may recall events differently based on subsequent information. Lawyers might use this effect to challenge the reliability of eyewitness accounts, questioning how much information was influenced by leading questions or media exposure. 2. Provide an example of a time in your life when you fell victim to the effect of misinformation. An example could be recalling a specific event but later discovering that some of the details were altered by someone else’s version of the story, or even media reports, leading you to believe you experienced something that didn’t happen. 3. Explain how source amnesia affects our formation of memory. Source amnesia occurs when we forget where we learned certain information, leading to confusion between actual memories and those we’ve encountered elsewhere, such as through stories, media, or others. This can cause us to believe we experienced something we only heard about. 4. How does source amnesia help explain deja vu? Déjà vu occurs when we feel that we’ve experienced a situation before, even though we haven’t. This could be caused by source amnesia, where we might have encountered the details of the situation previously but have forgotten the source, causing a sense of familiarity when encountering it again. 5. What difficulties are there in trying to separate real memories from false memories? What is it that false memories often seem to be so vivid and intense? False memories can seem vivid and intense because they are often filled with sensory details and emotions, similar to real memories. The brain can’t always distinguish between memories that are constructed and those that are actual, making it challenging to tell them apart. 33-3 1. Summarize and discuss the implications of research on children’s eyewitness descriptions. Children’s eyewitness descriptions can be highly influenced by leading questions, and their memories are less reliable than adults. They may also have difficulty distinguishing between real events and suggestions from others. 2. In what circumstances have children been shown to be reliable eyewitnesses? Children can be reliable eyewitnesses when they are interviewed in a non-suggestive, supportive environment, and the events they witnessed are not overly complex or traumatic.  3. Discuss the controversy surrounding repressed or constructed memories of abuse. There is ongoing debate about whether memories of abuse can be repressed and later recovered or whether such memories are constructed during therapy or through suggestion. Some argue that repressed memories are real, while others believe that recovered memories may be false or distorted. 4. How have professional psychologists weighed in on the discussion of repressed or constructed memories of abuse? Psychologists are divided on this issue. Some believe repressed memories are legitimate and can be recovered, while others argue that the recovery process can lead to the creation of false memories, especially under suggestive therapeutic techniques. 33-4 1. Show how the seven tips provided in the text can be applied to your study of psychology. Give specific examples, timeframes, and terminology that support your application. Rehearse repeatedly: Spend 15-20 minutes daily reviewing key terms such as long-term potentiation and proactive interference to strengthen memory consolidation. Make the material meaningful: Relate psychological concepts like classical conditioning to real-life situations, such as training a pet, to make them easier to remember. Activate retrieval cues: Before studying, review past notes to activate neural pathways, improving your ability to recall information during exams. Use mnemonic devices: Use acronyms like ROYGBIV (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet) to remember the colors of the rainbow. Minimize proactive and retroactive interferences: Organize study sessions to focus on one subject at a time, such as studying only psychology before moving on to biology. Sleep more: Aim for 7-9 hours of sleep to help memory consolidation and retention, especially the night before a test. Test your own knowledge: Take practice quizzes on long-term memory and working memory to assess understanding and identify areas needing improvement. STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part I: Cognition Module 34 Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity 34-1 1. Discuss how concepts simplify cognition. Provide an example of a concept from the text and one of your own creations. Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people that allow us to quickly organize and interpret information. They simplify cognition by enabling us to make quick decisions without having to process every single detail of each individual item. By using categories, we can save cognitive energy and increase efficiency in processing information. 2. Explain how a prototype aids in the formation of concepts. A prototype is a mental image or best example of a category that helps us to quickly categorize new items. For example, when thinking of the concept "bird," we might picture a robin, which serves as the prototype for what we expect a bird to be like. Other birds, like penguins or ostriches, may not fit the prototype perfectly, but we still categorize them as birds based on shared characteristics. 3. Discuss the problems that arise when an object, person, or event does not fit our prototype. When an object, person, or event doesn’t fit our prototype, it can lead to difficulties in categorization, misunderstanding, or bias. For instance, if someone has a preconceived notion of a "healthy" person (based on their prototype of fitness and appearance), they may fail to recognize other forms of health, such as mental health or people with chronic conditions who are still healthy in other ways. This can lead to stereotyping or overgeneralization. 34-2 1. Fill in the blanks with convergent or divergent– Working to solve a long-division problem requires convergent thinking. Coming up with a list of uses for a paperclip requires divergent thinking. 2. Using Robert Sternberg’s five components of creativity, consider whether you self-identify as creative. Support or refute each component with a specific example from your life. Expertise: A deep knowledge of a subject area. Example: I am knowledgeable about anatomy and physiology, which allows me to think creatively when studying or explaining complex concepts. Imaginative thinking skills: The ability to think in novel ways and see things from different perspectives. Example: I often come up with unique study methods, like creating visual aids or analogies, to better understand the material. A venturesome personality: The willingness to take risks and explore new things. Example: I sometimes try new techniques in my studies, like applying concepts to real-life situations, even if I’m unsure of the outcome. Intrinsic motivation: The drive to engage in creative activities for their own sake. Example: I am intrinsically motivated to learn about subjects that interest me, even outside the classroom, without needing external rewards. A creative environment: An environment that encourages and nurtures creativity. Example: My study environment is often quiet and well-organized, which helps me focus and think creatively about problems.  3. How do intelligence and creativity co-mingle to impact one’s success? Intelligence and creativity often work together to promote success. Intelligence provides the foundation of knowledge and problem-solving skills, while creativity allows individuals to apply their intelligence in innovative ways, think outside the box, and adapt to new situations. For example, a scientist who is both highly intelligent and creative may develop groundbreaking theories or technologies. 4. Briefly explain the components that makeup creativity. Knowledge: Expertise or understanding in a specific domain. Imagination: The ability to generate new ideas and think outside the norm. Risk-taking: Willingness to explore unconventional solutions or try new methods. Motivation: The inner drive to create for personal fulfillment or interest. 5. Using the material in this module, explain how it may be possible to increase creativity. Broadening knowledge: Gaining more knowledge in various areas allows for more connections between ideas. Allowing time for incubation: Taking breaks or letting ideas sit can lead to sudden insights. Challenging existing assumptions: Thinking critically about how things work or how they can be improved helps foster creativity. Creating an open environment: Having a space that encourages new ideas and risk-taking helps increase creativity. STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part I: Cognition Module 35 Solving Problems and Making Decisions 35-1 1. Discuss and give an example of how algorithms and heuristics could be used to figure out how to open a locker whose combination you have forgotten. Algorithms and Heuristics for Opening a Locker Combination - Algorithm: You could systematically try every possible combination, starting from 000 and going to 999. This method is guaranteed to work but is time-consuming. - Heuristic: Instead of trying every combination, you might recall that the first number was high, so you only test combinations starting from 800. While quicker, this method does not guarantee success. 2. How does insight relate to problem-solving? Insight and Problem-Solving Insight is a sudden realization of the solution to a problem without the step-by-step logic often required in algorithms. For example, if you suddenly recall the locker combination after visualizing yourself using it, you have experienced insight. 3. What did Wolfgang Kohler’s work demonstrate about insight? Kohler’s experiments with chimpanzees demonstrated insight. In one experiment, a chimp used a stick to retrieve a banana after seemingly pondering the problem, showing that non-human animals can solve problems through sudden realization rather than trial-and-error. 4. Explain, using definitions and real-life examples, the ways in which confirmation bias and mental set can impede the ability to problem solve. Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for or favor information that supports pre-existing beliefs.Example: If you believe the locker combination is 3 digits long, you might ignore the possibility that it’s 4 digits. Mental Set: A predisposition to approach a problem in a certain way based on past successes. Example: If your last locker used a left-right-left combination sequence, you might stick to that pattern, even if it’s incorrect for the current locker. 5. The topic the text refers to as fixation can also be called functional fixedness, which can be a significant barrier to solving a problem. Give an example of a time when you could not solve a problem because of fixation. Fixation (Functional Fixedness) Fixation occurs when you cannot see a problem from a new perspective. Example: If you’re trying to open a stuck door and only think about turning the doorknob, you might overlook using a credit card to unlock it. 35-2 1. How does intuition fit into the larger discussion of cognition? What does it mean that intuition is often implicit? Intuition in Cognition Intuition is the effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought that often guides decisions. It is implicit because it operates below conscious awareness. 2. Briefly summarize and give an example of the representativeness heuristic. Representativeness Heuristic This heuristic involves judging the likelihood of something based on how closely it matches a prototype. Example: Assuming someone wearing a lab coat is a doctor, even if they’re not. 3. Briefly summarize and provide an example of the availability heuristic. Availability Heuristic This heuristic involves estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. Example: Believing plane crashes are common because of recent news coverage, despite their rarity. 35-3 1. Use the chart in section 35-3 to summarize why we exaggerate our fear of unlikely events. We tend to overestimate the probability of unlikely events due to: Availability Heuristic: Vivid examples, like a plane crash, stick in our minds. Framing: Media reports often sensationalized rare events. Perceived Control: We fear events we can’t control, like terrorism, over more probable dangers like car accidents. 35-4 1. How does the concept of overconfidence influence your decisions or judgments in both helpful and detrimental ways? Give an example of overconfidence impacting a decision in your life. Overconfidence can be helpful by boosting morale and motivation but detrimental when it leads to underestimating risks. Example: Overconfidence led me to skip studying for a quiz because I thought I already knew the material, resulting in a lower score. 2. Define and give an example of belief perseverance. How is it different from confirmation bias? Provide your own examples of belief perseverance. Belief Perseverance: Clinging to initial beliefs even after evidence discredits them. Example: Continuing to believe a debunked conspiracy theory. Confirmation Bias: Actively seeking evidence to confirm beliefs. Example: Reading only articles that support your political stance. 3. Explain the power of framing in influencing our cognitions. Provide an example of how framing could be a powerful persuasion tool in negotiating with your parents for a later curfew. Framing The way information is presented can influence decisions. Example: To persuade parents for a later curfew, frame it as an opportunity to demonstrate responsibility (“Staying out an hour later will show you how responsible I am”) instead of focusing on personal desires.  35-5 1. How does intuition fit into the larger discussion of cognition? What does it mean that intuition is often implicit? Intuition is a key part of cognition, allowing us to make quick decisions or judgments without conscious reasoning. It is implicit because it operates subconsciously, relying on patterns and experiences we’ve learned over time. Terms: H 1. Algorithm E 2. Heuristic D 3. Insight A 4. Confirmation bias B 5. Mental set F 6. Representative heuristic J 7. Availability heuristic I 8. Overconfidence G 9. Belief perseverance C 10. Framing Definitions A. A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence B. A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way because the approach has been successful in the past C. The way an issue is posed and how a problem is phrased can significantly affect decisions and judgment. D. A sudden realization of a problem’s solution E. A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently F. Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match, particular prototypes G. Clinging to one initial concept after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. H. An organized, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem I. The tendency to be more confident than correct, to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments J. Estimate the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part I: Cognition Module 36 Thinking and Language 36-1 1. Discuss the various forms of communication that could be considered language. Language includes verbal communication, sign language, written language, and even body language. True language involves a structured system of symbols that convey meaning and allows for the expression of abstract ideas. 2. Explain how phonemes differ from morphemes. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound in a language (e.g., /k/, /b/), while morphemes are the smallest units of meaning (e.g., "un-", "-ed"). 3. Can you think of a phoneme that is also a morpheme? The letter "I" is both a phoneme and a morpheme because it represents a sound and carries meaning as a pronoun. 4. Consider the word incomprehensible. List the phonemes and morphemes that make up this word. Phonemes: /i/, /n/, /k/, /ɒ/, /m/, /p/, /r/, /h/, /ɛ/, /n/, /s/, /ɪ/, /b/, /əl/ Morphemes: "in-" (not), "comprehend" (understand), "-ible" (able to). 5. Which sentence below is an example of poor syntax, and which exhibits faulty semantics? Explain your answer. a. Sluggish calendars advise immediate butchers. Faulty semantics b. Luch disturbs eaten hastily digestion. Poor syntax 6. Occasionally children will overgeneralize a grammatical rule, such as “I buyed it,” instead of, “I bought it.” Can you think of another example of this? A child might say, “He runned fast,” instead of, “He ran fast.” 36-2 1. Briefly address Noam Chomsky’s view regarding how children acquire language. Chomsky argued that children have an innate language acquisition device (LAD), a biological mechanism that enables them to learn grammar and syntax naturally. He emphasized universal grammar, which suggests that all languages share common structures. 36-3 1. Explain how infants develop receptive language. How is this different from productive language? Receptive language refers to the ability to understand language, which begins around 4 months of age when infants recognize sounds. Productive language involves the ability to produce words and sentences, developing later through distinct stages. 2. List and describe the stages involved in productive language. In your description, include the characteristics and an example of what children can say in each respective stage. Babbling stage (4–10 months): Infants produce sounds like "ba-ba" or "da-da." One-word stage (around 12 months): Single words like "dog" or "milk." Two-word stage (18–24 months): Two-word combinations like "want cookie." Telegraphic speech (24+ months): Simple sentences like "Go park!" 3. What does current research reveal about the importance of the critical period in language development? Research suggests a critical window for language acquisition, especially for grammar and syntax, which closes around puberty. Lack of exposure to language during this time can result in permanent deficits. 4. Based on the research presented in the text, what advice would you give a friend who is hoping to raise her new son to be multilingual? Expose the child to multiple languages early, preferably before age 5, as younger brains are more adept at acquiring languages without confusion. 5. How does deafness affect language development? Deaf children develop language differently, often through sign language. If exposed early, they acquire language similar to hearing children. Delayed exposure to language can hinder their development. 36-4 1. Briefly explain aphasia. Aphasia is a condition characterized by impaired language ability, typically due to brain damage. 2. Using examples, explain the roles of Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas on language and speech processing. How do the two effects differ? Broca’s area: Responsible for speech production. Damage causes difficulty forming words but preserved comprehension (Broca's aphasia). Wernicke’s area: Responsible for language comprehension. Damage leads to fluent but nonsensical speech (Wernicke's aphasia). 3. Discuss how the brain divides its mental functions. Language processing involves multiple regions (e.g., Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and other cortical areas) that coordinate to handle speaking, comprehension, and written language. 36-5 1. Explain Whorf’s linguistic determinism and discuss why it may be too extreme of a  hypothesis to explain the relationship between language and thinking. Whorf argued that language shapes how we think, but this theory is too extreme as it underestimates our ability to think outside language constraints. Evidence shows that language influences, but does not entirely determine, thought. 2. What evidence does the text provide that we may interpret the word differently because of our language? Studies suggest that speakers of different languages categorize and interpret the world differently (e.g., color perception varies across cultures due to linguistic differences). 3. In what situations might we tend to think of images? Discuss how thinking in images can be valuable and what the limitations might be. We often think in images for tasks like mentally rehearsing an activity. Imagery is valuable for planning and learning but limited because it lacks abstraction and detail compared to language. 4. Describe the interplay between thought and language. Language influences how we organize and express ideas, while thought shapes the development and evolution of language. They interact to create a feedback loop that refines both cognitive processes and communication. STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part II: Testing and Individual Differences Module 37 Introduction to Intelligence 37-1 1. Why is it difficult to define intelligence? How would your definition differ from that given in the text? What would you add or delete from the text’s definition? Intelligence is hard to define because it encompasses diverse abilities, including problem-solving, learning, reasoning, creativity, and adapting to new situations. Definitions vary depending on cultural and contextual perspectives. The text may define intelligence as the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt. I might add creativity and emotional understanding while removing an overemphasis on standard academic measures. 2. To which characteristic are you generally referring when you describe someone as “smart”? Does this fit the descriptions provided in the text? Describing someone as "smart" often refers to problem-solving ability or quick learning. This aligns most closely with the text’s mention of logical-mathematical intelligence but excludes other dimensions like creativity or interpersonal skills. 3. Explain how L.L. Thurstone’s studies on intelligence both refuted and supported the  results of Charles Spearman’s work with g. Thurstone identified seven primary mental abilities (e.g., word fluency, spatial ability), rejecting Spearman's idea of a single general intelligence (g). However, his findings showed that these abilities often correlate, indirectly supporting Spearman’s g. 4. In what way did both Thurstone and Spearman use factor analysis to develop their theories? Spearman: Used factor analysis to identify g, suggesting a common factor underlying all mental abilities. Thurstone: Used it to uncover clusters of abilities, demonstrating a broader view of intelligence. 37-2 1. Discuss Howard Gardner’s contribution to the discussion of intelligence. How do his critics refute his work? Do you Agree that all eight (or nine) of Gardner's proposed intelligence are indeed intelligence, or can they be explained in some other way? Gardner proposed eight intelligences (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, interpersonal). Critics argue that some of these (e.g., musical, bodily-kinesthetic) are talents or skills, not true forms of intelligence. I agree that many of Gardner’s intelligences reflect distinct skills, but not all fit traditional definitions of intelligence. For example, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills could be better classified as social or emotional competencies. 2. List the common Characteristics of someone with savant syndrome. Extraordinary ability in a specific area (e.g., music, math, art) Below-average general intelligence or significant developmental challenges Often associated with autism spectrum disorder 3. Explain how the quote by Bill Gates below relates to the work of Thurstone, Spearman, and Gardner. “You have to be careful, if you’re good at something, to make sure you don’t think you’re good at other things that you aren’t necessarily so good at…Because I’ve been very successful at (software development), people come in and expect that I have wisdom about topics that I don’t.” –Bill Gates, 1998 Thurstone: Reflects his idea that strengths in some areas don’t guarantee strengths in others. Spearman: Challenges the universality of g, as being "good at everything" isn't always true. Gardner: Aligns with the notion of multiple intelligences, emphasizing specialization in particular areas. 4. Summarize Sternber’s three intelligences. Analytical: Problem-solving and academic ability. Creative: Ability to generate novel ideas and adapt.  Practical: Common sense and handling everyday tasks. 5. Discuss how Robert Sternber’s triarchic theory of intelligence agrees with Gardner’s theory. In what ways do Sternberg’s and Gardner’s theories differ? Both agree intelligence is multifaceted, but Sternberg focuses on three practical types, while Gardner emphasizes broader domains like music or bodily-kinesthetic skills. 6. What has recent research demonstrated on the issue of one versus many different types of intelligence? Research shows that intellectual abilities correlate, supporting g, but specific strengths in distinct areas also exist, suggesting a balance between one general intelligence and specialized abilities. 7. How does grit play a role in success? Grit—passion and perseverance—is essential for achieving long-term goals. It often matters more than raw intelligence in areas requiring sustained effort, like academic or professional achievements. 37-3 1. List and elaborate on the four components of emotional intelligence Perceiving emotions: Recognizing emotions in oneself and others.Example in breakup: Helps understand your feelings and your ex-partner’s emotions. Understanding emotions: Comprehending emotional patterns and causes.Example in breakup: Allows you to see how past arguments or misunderstandings contributed. Managing emotions: Regulating your feelings to handle stress and situations effectively.Example in breakup: Prevents impulsive reactions like angry texts or public outbursts. Using emotions: Leveraging feelings to solve problems or inspire creativity. Example in breakup: Channels heartbreak into personal growth or creative outlets. 2. How might each of the components listed above help or hinder someone involved in an unwanted relationship breakup? High emotional intelligence helps navigate heartbreak with empathy and composure. A lack of emotional management might lead to prolonged resentment or unhealthy coping. STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part II: Testing and Individual Differences Module 38 Assessing Intelligence 38-1 1. Describe the difference between an aptitude and an achievement test. Give an example of each. Aptitude Test: Measures potential ability to learn or perform (e.g., SAT). Achievement Test: Measures learned knowledge or skills (e.g., final exams). 38-2 1. Explain how Francis Galton Attempted to measure intelligence. Discuss which of his assertions were disproved and which have shown a lasting impact on the study of intelligence. Galton measured intelligence through physical and sensory abilities, like reaction time and sensory acuity. Disproved Assertions: Intelligence is not solely linked to sensory acuity. Lasting Impacts: Introduced the concept of individual differences and statistical methods like correlation. 2. Discuss the events leading up to Alfred Binet’s commission to develop intelligence tests for French children. Alfred Binet was commissioned to develop intelligence tests for French children to address the challenges of compulsory education. With diverse abilities in classrooms, the French government sought a way to identify students who needed extra support. 3. What components did Binet emphasize in his assessment of intelligence? How did his ideas regarding intelligence differ from those of other psychologists and philosophers at the time? Background: The French government tasked Binet with identifying children needing extra help in school. Components Emphasized: Problem-solving, reasoning, and judgment. Difference: Binet focused on practical intelligence rather than innate ability. 4. Explain the relationship Binet described between mental age and chronological age. Mental age: A child’s intellectual performance level. Chronological age: Actual age in years. Example: A child with a mental age of 8 and chronological age of 10 is below average. 5. What were Binet’s hopes and fears regarding the implementation of his test? Hoped the test would help children succeed through targeted support. Feared misuse to label children as inferior. 6. How did Lewis Terman revise Binet’s original tests for use with American children? Adapted the test for American culture, naming it the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. Focused on inherited intelligence and extended its use to adults. 7. Compare and contrast Binet’s Terman’s ideas on the importance of intelligence test results. Binet: Intelligence is dynamic and changeable. Terman: Intelligence is fixed and inherited. 8. How did Terman discover that Binet’s original test may have a cultural bias? Terman found that Binet’s test relied heavily on French cultural knowledge, which did not translate well to American populations. 9. Practice using William Stern’s IQ formula in the scenarios below. Begin by writing out his formula for calculating IQ below. IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100 Without using a calculator, show your work when calculating the IQ of a. A 10-year-old boy who answers questions at an 8-year-old level. b. A 6-year-old boy who answers at a 10-year-old level. c. A 7-year-old girl who answers questions at a 7-year-old level 10-year-old answering at 8-year-old level: IQ=(8÷10)×100=80 IQ=(8÷10)×100=80 6-year-old answering at 10-year-old level: IQ=(10÷6)×100=166.67IQ=(10÷6)×100=166.67 7-year-old answering at 7-year-old level: IQ=(7÷7)×100=100IQ=(7÷7)×100=100 10. Discuss how the use and calculation of IQ scores have changed since Stern’s formula was used. Modern IQ tests, such as the Wechsler scales, now use a standardized scoring system based on a normal distribution and deviations from the mean, rather than the original mental age to chronological age ratio. 11. Explain the misuse and abuse of intelligence testing in our culture through the early 1900s. Intelligence tests in the early 1900s were often used to support discriminatory practices, including eugenics and racial segregation, and were misused to justify social inequalities. 12. Discuss the components and subsets of David Wechsler’s intelligence test. How does it differ from the Stanford-Binet? Wechsler’s test includes separate scores for verbal and performance intelligence, whereas the Stanford-Binet gives a single IQ score. Wechsler's test is also designed to be less culturally biased. 38-3 1. What population should be used in order to standardize the AP Psychology exam you will be taking? After determining the population, explain how the exam can be standardized.  The population should be a representative sample of high school students in the AP Psychology course. The exam is then standardized by adjusting its difficulty to reflect this group's average performance. 2. Upload a photo in the space below: Draw and label a normal curve of intelligence scores. Include three standard deviations above and below the mean and the percentages that fall within one, two, and three standard deviations. Refer to the figure in 38-2. It shows the distribution of scores, with most students near the average, helping interpret how a student’s score compares to others. 3. Why is the normal curve important to standardized testing? It shows the distribution of scores, with most students near the average, helping interpret how a student’s score compares to others. 4. Define the Flynn effect and describe the explanation that has been suggested for this phenomenon. The Flynn effect is the rise in average IQ scores over time, likely due to improved nutrition, education, and cognitive stimulation. 5. Why is reliability a key consideration in test development? What are two specific methods researchers utilized to measure the reliability of a test? Reliability ensures consistent results. Methods include test-retest (same group, different times) and internal consistency (consistent items within the test). 6. In what way is validity different from reliability? Validity measures what a test is supposed to measure, while reliability ensures consistency in results. 7. How can a test be reliable and yet invalid? A test can be reliable but invalid if it consistently measures something irrelevant to its intended purpose. 8. How does the content validity differ from the predictive validity of a test? Give a real-life example of a test demonstrating content and predictive validity. Content validity ensures a test covers the topic fully, while predictive validity measures how well a test predicts future outcomes. 9. Explain how tests like the ACT and SAT can have questionable predictive validity. They focus on academic skills, but college success also depends on other factors like social skills and motivation. STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part II: Testing and Individual Differences Module 39 The Dynamics of Intelligence 39-1 1. Summarize the early cross-sectional research, which gave way to the idea of intellectual decline over the lifespan. Early cross-sectional studies suggested that intelligence declines with age by comparing individuals of different ages at one point in time. 2. How did the longitudinal studies begun in the 1920s challenge the findings of cross-sectional evidence discussed earlier? Longitudinal studies showed that intelligence remains stable or even increases in adulthood, as they track the same individuals over time. 3. Explain crystallized and fluid intelligence and how it changes as we age. Crystallized intelligence (knowledge and skills) tends to remain stable or improve with age, while fluid intelligence (problem-solving and abstract thinking) declines with age. 4. List several tasks and skills in which older people perform better than younger individuals. Older adults typically excel in tasks involving wisdom, experience, and verbal knowledge. 39-2 1. Explain the difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal design in research. Cross-sectional research compares different age groups at one point in time, while longitudinal research tracks the same group over a period of time. 2. How could the Flynn effect discussed earlier in this part help us better understand why cross-sectional research regarding intelligence may be misleading? The Flynn effect suggests that IQ scores have increased over generations, meaning that cross-sectional studies may not account for generational differences in intelligence. 39-3 1. Explain the evidence supporting the claim that intelligence remains stable over life. Longitudinal studies indicate that intellectual abilities tend to remain stable over the lifespan, with gradual changes occurring in late adulthood. 2. What are the reasons that researchers believe those who are more intelligent generally lead longer, healthier lives? More intelligent individuals often have better health habits, better jobs, and more access to healthcare, contributing to their overall longevity and health.  39-4 1. Discuss the two components required before a label of intellectual disability can be applied to a child. Intellectual disability requires both an IQ score below 70 and difficulty with adaptive skills such as communication and daily living. 2. What is one of the challenges of creating strict cutoffs for labeling an individual as intellectually disabled? A strict cutoff can fail to consider the individual’s context or adaptive abilities, leading to potentially inaccurate or harmful labels. 3. Explain how the Flynn effects may be correlated with changes in independent living for those with an intellectual disability. The Flynn effect, increasing IQ scores over generations, could mean that people with intellectual disabilities today may perform better than those in the past, leading to improvements in independent living. 4. Discuss Lewis Terman’s work with his “Termites”. What were his findings? Terman’s study of gifted children (his "Termites") found that they tended to have high achievement and success in adulthood, challenging early ideas that intelligence is fixed. 5. Explain how recent math and verbal “whiz kids” studies support Terman’s conclusions. Studies of gifted children today show that early intelligence predicts later success in fields like math and verbal reasoning, supporting Terman’s idea of high potential in gifted individuals. STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part II: Testing and Individual Differences Module 40 Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence 40-1 1. In module 14, the concept of heritability was discussed. Refresh your memory by defining heritability in your own words. Heritability is the proportion of variation in a trait (such as intelligence) that can be attributed to genetic differences within a population. 2. Explain why the heritability of intelligence can range from 50% to 80%. Heritability varies based on the population studied, environmental influences, and the interaction between genes and environment. 3. How do you account for heritability in your own levels of intelligence?  Personal intelligence is likely influenced by both genetic factors and environmental experiences, such as education and opportunities for cognitive stimulation. 4. Using the data presented in Figure 40.1, explain why siblings raised together would have a lower correlation of intelligence scores than fraternal twins raised together. Siblings share about 50% of their genetic material, while fraternal twins share the same amount but often have more similar environments, leading to stronger correlations in intelligence scores. 5. Discuss the findings of behavior genetics with regard to the heritability of intelligence in adoptive children and their families. Studies show that adopted children’s intelligence tends to correlate more with their biological parents than with their adoptive parents, supporting the genetic influence on intelligence. 40-1 1. Compare the varying effects of early enrichment on the development of intelligence. In what instances does early intervention contribute to intelligence, and in what instances do we see little or no impact? Early enrichment, such as high-quality education, can boost intelligence, but in impoverished environments, the effect may be limited if not sustained. 2. How does epigenetics (module 14) explain the weaving together of genes and experience in intelligence? Epigenetics shows how environmental factors can influence gene expression, affecting intelligence development over time. 3. Explain how schooling influences the development of intelligence. Schooling enhances cognitive skills like reasoning and problem-solving, and those with more years of schooling generally perform better on intelligence tests. 4. Discuss the difference between a fixed versus growth mindset as it relates to the topic of intelligence, according to Carol Dweck. A fixed mindset believes intelligence is static, while a growth mindset sees intelligence as malleable, which can influence motivation and academic success. STRIVE FOR 5 Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Part II: Testing and Individual Differences Module 41 Group Differences and the Question of Bias 41-1  1. Summarize the findings of various researchers regarding the different intellectual abilities of girls versus boys. Research suggests that girls and boys generally show similar overall intelligence, but there are differences in specific areas. Girls tend to excel in verbal abilities, while boys often perform better in spatial tasks and mathematics at higher levels. 2. How do biological and sociological factors play a role in these differing abilities? Biological factors such as hormones and brain structure may contribute to gender differences in cognitive abilities. Sociological factors, such as gender roles and cultural expectations, can influence the types of skills that boys and girls develop and how they are encouraged to perform academically. 41-2 1. Summarize the findings of various researchers regarding different intellectual abilities in racial and ethnic groups. Studies show that there are no inherent intellectual differences between racial and ethnic groups, but socioeconomic factors, educational opportunities, and cultural biases may influence performance on intelligence tests. Stereotypes and the test-taking environment also affect outcomes. 41-3 1. Explain and compare the two meanings of bias in a test. Use examples to illustrate your comparison. Test bias refers to the content of a test being unfairly tilted in favor of one group over another, while bias in scoring refers to how a test may favor a particular group in the way responses are evaluated. For example, a test that relies on cultural references that are more familiar to one group than another is biased in content. A biased scoring method might penalize a person for using different language patterns or strategies in problem-solving. 2. Give a specific example of how a question on an intelligence test may be biased against some cultural groups. A question asking about specific holidays or traditions that are common in one culture but unfamiliar to individuals from other cultures may unfairly disadvantage test-takers who are not familiar with those traditions. 3. Using examples from the textbook, explain how the stereotype threat hijacks mental performance for groups about whom stereotypes may exist? Stereotype threat occurs when individuals are aware of a negative stereotype about their group and fear confirming it, which can impair their cognitive performance. For example, if a woman is aware of the stereotype that women are bad at math, she might perform worse on a math test due to anxiety and self-doubt. 4. Suggest two ways that stereotype threat could be reduced in testing situations. One way to reduce stereotype threat is to remind individuals that intelligence is malleable and can be improved with effort. Another strategy is to create a testing environment where diverse groups are equally represented and where individuals are encouraged to focus on the task rather than the potential for stereotype confirmation.