Chem Study Guide 1 PDF

FINAL STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 1 1. Compare/contrast subatomic particles (proton/neutron/electron) a. 2. Describe solar system model of atom a. Protons and neutrons in center b. Electrons circle nucleus in rings 3. Use isotope symbols to determine the number of prot...

FINAL STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 1 1. Compare/contrast subatomic particles (proton/neutron/electron) a. 2. Describe solar system model of atom a. Protons and neutrons in center b. Electrons circle nucleus in rings 3. Use isotope symbols to determine the number of protons/neutrons/electrons in an atom/ion a. Mass number (bigger #) = number of protons and neutrons b. Atomic number (main #) = number of protons c. Ions i. Symbol after element says if there is a positive, negative, or neutral charge ii. If there is a positive charge, the element is missing electrons iii. If there is a negative charge, the element has extra electrons iv. Example: Sodium 1. Atomic # = 11 2. Mass # = 23 3. Na → 11 p+, 11 e- = neutral 4. Na+ → 11 p+, 10 e- = positive charge d. Isotopes i. If the mass number is more than double the atomic number, there are more neutrons than protons ii. Number of protons can be indicated in the way the element name is written iii. Example: Carbon 1. Atomic # = 6 2. Mass # = 12  3. C-12 → normal Carbon (6 protons, 6 neutrons, 6 electrons) 4. C-13 → 1 extra neutron 4. Explain the relationship between elements and compounds a. Compounds are created from two or more elements b. Elements are created from a singular atom 5. Compare/contrast elements and compounds a. 6. Write the chemical formula given the chemical name and vice versa a. Ex. 1 i. Chemical formula: CCl4 ii. Chemical name: Carbon tetrachloride b. Ex. 2 i. Chemical formula: CO ii. Chemical name: Carbon monoxide c. Ex. 3 i. Chemical formula: NO2 ii. Chemical name: Nitrogen dioxide d. Ex. 4 i. Chemical formula: N2O ii. Chemical name: Dinitrogen monoxide e. Ex. 5 i. Chemical formula: NF3 ii. Chemical name: Nitrogen trifluoride f. Ex. 6 i. Chemical formula: SO2 ii. Chemical name: Sulfur dioxide 7. Describe typical air pollutants a. Carbon monoxide i. Silent killer 1. No color/taste/smell ii. Interferes with ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen iii. Can be formed by:  1. Car exhaust 2. Wildfires b. Ozone i. Reduces lung function ii. Screens UV radiation iii. Can be formed by: 1. Lightning strike c. Sulfur dioxide i. Dissolves in moist tissue of lungs and turns into acid ii. Emphysema/asthma = more sensitive iii. Created by: 1. The burning of coal 2. Car exhaust 3. Volcanos iv. Aids in the formation of aerosols v. Reason for acid rain d. Nitrogen dioxide/monoxide i. Dissolves in moist tissue of lungs and turns into acid ii. Can be formed by: 1. Grain silos 2. Lightning strikes 3. Car exhaust e. Lead i. Naturally occurring → small amounts in Earth’s crust ii. Can be found in: 1. Some paint 2. Soil/water reserves iii. Affects the CNS, immune system, developmental and reproductive systems, as well as the cardiovascular system f. Particulate matter i. Can come from: 1. Dust 2. Fires 3. Car engines 4. Coal plants ii. Causes heart disease iii. PM2.5 = smaller and more dangerous than PM10 8. Balance chemical equations given involved substances a. N2 + O2 → NO i. N2 + O2 → 2(NO) b. NO + O2 → NO i. 2(NO) + O2 → 2(NO2) c. C8H18 + O2 → CO + H2O i. C8H18 + 17/2(O2) → 8(CO) + 9(H2O)  d. C12H22O11 + H2SO4 + O2 → HC + H2O + SO2 + CO2 i. C12H22O11 + H2SO4 + ½(O2) → HC + 12(H2O) + SO2 + CO2 ii. **hardest chemical equation to balance 9. Define and give examples of “particulate matter” a. Definition: i. Complex mixture of tiny solid particles and microscopic liquid droplets b. Examples: i. Mold spores ii. Dust iii. Soot iv. Smoke v. Pollen 10. Describe how tropospheric ozone is formed a. Occurs mostly in urban areas i. VOCs 1. Exhaust fumes, power plants, farm equipment, traffic, industry, etc. 2. Produces NO2 b. Occurs mostly in summer i. NO2 reacts with sunlight to create NO + O ii. O + O2 → O3 iii. Sunlight is the most intense in the summer c. Peaks in late afternoon and decreases at night i. Afternoon = rush hour, peak heat ii. Night = no more sunlight 1. Ozone is reactive, so it doesn’t last long 2. Can react with VOCs and turn into smog 11. Relate conceptually and calculate mathematically: frequency, wavelength, and speed of light a. Frequency and wavelength are inversely related i. When one increases, the other decreases ii. Wavelength is measured in any unit of measurement (m, mm, nm) iii. 1 nm = 1 x 10^9 m iv. Frequency is measured in seconds (s-1) 1. The -1 means that it’s in the denominator b. Velocity = wavelength x frequency c. Wavelength = frequency / velocity i. (Planck’s constant x speed of light) / energy ii. Speed of light / frequency d. Frequency = speed of light / wavelength e. Energy = Planck’s constant x frequency i. Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J*s ii. Speed of light = 3.00 x 108 m/s  f. Solve for velocity: i. Wavelength = 3.5 x 10-5 nm ii. Frequency = 5.1 x 108 s-1 iii. V = (3.5 x 10-5 m) x (5.1 x 108 s-1) iv. V = 17,850 m/s v. V = 1.7 x 104 m/s g. Solve for wavelength: i. Frequency = 5.1 x 104 s-1 ii. Velocity = 1.1 x 108 m/s iii. 𝛌 = (5.1 x 104 s-1) / (1.1 x 108 m/s) iv. 𝛌 = 0.00046 v. 𝛌 = 4.6 x 10-4 m h. Solve for frequency: i. Speed of light = 3.00 x 108 m/s ii. Wavelength = 320 nm (320 x 10-9 m) iii. 𝛎 = (3.00 x 108 m/s) / (320 x 10-9 m) iv. 𝛎 = 9.375 x 1014 s-1 i. Solve for energy: i. Frequency = 24 GHz ii. Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J*s iii. E = (6.626 x 10-34 J*s) x (24 x 109 s-1) iv. E = 1.59 x 10-23 J 12. Explain light as little packets of energy (Einstein) a. Light is made up of photons i. Tiny packets of light energy b. Light in waves can be compared to a ramp c. Light in particles can be compared to stairs i. d. Whether light is described as particles or waves depends on the experiment i. Photoelectric = particles ii. Ocean crests/troughs = waves  iii. “Wave-particle duality” 13. Describe how the ozone layer protects biological organisms a. Blocks all of UV-C and most of UV-B from hitting us and Earth’s surface i. Absorbed by reactions with ozone ii. UV-C would wipe out every living thing on Earth if it was able to reach Earth’s surface iii. UV-B is responsible for tanning/sunburn 1. Physically/chemically damages human cells b. Stratospheric ozone vs tropospheric ozone i. Chapter 2 ★ Describe concerns about UV radiation at Earth’s surface ○ UV has shorter wavelengths, which means it has more energy - enough energy to break chemical bonds. ○ Breaking of chemical bonds = creates photochemical smog and damages biological tissue ○ Once the bonds are broken, the cell cannot replicate ○ UV-B changes the chemical structure of DNA, causing mutations ★ Explain (in words and equations) the “steady state” of stratospheric ozone ○ Ozone is produced as quickly as it is destroyed, meaning that the amount of stratospheric ozone stays relatively the same ○ O2 *UV*→ O + O O + O2 → O3  ———————— 2O2 → O3 + O ★ Explain roles of CFCs in the formation/expansion of the ozone hole ○ Nontoxic and stable, meaning that when they’re released they float around until they reach the stratosphere i. They’re then hit by UV light, which separates one of the Cl atoms and gives it a free radical → very reactive (more than O3, O2, or O) ii. Acts as a catalyst - it speeds up reactions and isn’t changed ○ 1 Cl atom can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules ★ Draw (and interpret) Lewis dot structures ○ Steps: 1. Count number of valence electrons 2. Connect atoms with single bonds 3. Place electron lone pairs on terminal atoms - until the octet rule is satisfied - SKIP if hydrogen 4. Place electron lone pairs on central atoms 5. Use lone pairs to make a bond with the central atom - IF the octet rule isn’t satisfied ○ ex. I2 ○ ★ Explain the molecular origin of the greenhouse effect ○ The earth gives off IR radiation (heat), and 37% of that radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere ○ Carbon dioxide absorbs and re-radiates IR radiation back to earth ★ Summarize the historical record of CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere ○ Steadily increasing in concentration ○ Major increase during 1780/1800s when people started burning coal / fossil fuels instead of wood ○ C-14 & C-13 decreasing, C-12 increasing i. C-12 - fossil fuels ★ Identify greenhouse gasses ○ Water ○ Methane ○ Carbon dioxide ○ Ozone ○ Nitrous oxide ★ Relate CO2 concentrations and temperatures from the past ○ CO2 i. Concentrations are way higher than they’ve ever been and nobody knows what that’s going to do ii. Concentrations started increasing in around 1780-1800 AD because people started burning coal instead of wood iii. Fossil fuels, petroleum, coal, and natural gas formed from dead plants contain Carbon-12 - ratio of C13 & C14 to C12 is decreasing iv. MAIN POINT: There have been natural fluctuations, but we’re about 140 ppm higher in CO2 than anytime in history ○ Temperature i. Also been increasing globally ii. Enhanced greenhouse effect - CO2 - causes heating ★ Describe what a “mole” is and use it in calculations ○ The mole is how you count microscopic things (used for weight) i. Only counts the number of things ○ A mole is an Avogadro’s number of things - 6.022 x 1023  ○ ex. 1: How many iron atoms are in a typical nail? (2.5g) i. 2.5g Fe x (1 mol Fe / 55.85g Fe) x (6.02 x 1023 atoms Fe / 1 mol Fe) = 2.695 x 1022 atoms of Fe ○ ex. 2: What is the mass of one water molecule? i. H = 1 (x2) g/mol, O = 16 g/mol → total molecular weight = 18 g/mol ii. 18 / (6.02 x 1023) = 2.99 x 10-23 g/molecule ★ Calculate molecular weights from chemical formulas ○ What is the mass of one water molecule? (H2O) i. H = 1 (x2) g/mol, O = 16 g/mol → total molecular weight = 18 g/mol ii. 18 / (6.02 x 1023) = 2.99 x 10-23 g/molecule ★ Combine balanced chemical equations and molecular weights to solve stoichiometry problems ○ What mass of N2O can be produced from the decomposition of 500g of NH4NO3? ○ ★ Describe other things that affect global temperatures ○ Greenhouse gasses i. Vibrations ii. Trap and re-radiate IR radiation, causing a heating effect ○ Ozone hole i. Cooling effect ○ Solar brightness i. Sunspots make sections of the earth hotter (not colder)  ii. An absence of sunspots causes crop failures → famine ○ Land use i. Different land coverages reflect different amounts of light Albedo effect = amount of light reflected / amount of light incoming ○ Highly reflective sources absorb less light = cooling effect ii. Arctic feedback mechanism Positive feedback loop iii. Overall, land use has contributed a cooling effect by increasing the earth’s albedo (more reflective) ○ Aerosols i. Reflect a portion of incoming sunlight → cooling effect ii. Seeds for cloud formation iii. Particulate matter → potential health risks iv. Environmental pollution → destroys animal habitats v. Only a temporary fix to global warming vi. Natural: Volcanic eruptions Wildfires Dust storms vii. Anthropogenic: Smoke Soot Smog Sulfates (from coal) viii. Direct and indirect effects Direct - blocks some incoming radiation Indirect - seeds for cloud formation ★ Explain some of the potential consequences of climate change ○ More extreme weather i. Injuries ii. Fatalities iii. Mental health impacts ○ Ocean acidification  i. CO2 reacts with H2O to form H2CO3 (carbonic acid) ii. Kills sea life, messing up the food chain of the ocean ○ Sea levels rising i. Places below sea level can be flooded ○ Extreme heat i. Heat-related illness and death ii. Cardiovascular failure iii. Pulmonary distress ○ Environmental degradation i. Forced migration ii. Civil conflict iii. Mental health impacts ○ Water and food supply impacts i. Malnutrition ii. Diarrheal disease ○ Water quality impacts i. Cholera ii. Cryptosporidiosis iii. Campylobacter iv. Leptospirosis v. Harmful algal blooms ○ Increasing allergens i. Respiratory allergies ii. Asthma ○ Changes in vector ecology i. Malaria ii. Dengue iii. Encephalitis iv. Hantavirus v. Rift Valley fever vi. Lyme disease vii. Chikungunya viii. West Nile virus ○ Air pollution i. Asthma ii. Cardiovascular disease ○ Loss of biodiversity ★ Compare various “climate forcings” ○ Anthropogenic i. Long-lived greenhouse gasses CO2, N2O, CH4, halocarbons Heating ii. Ozone  Stratospheric ○ Cooling Tropospheric ○ Heating iii. Stratosphere water vapor Heating iv. Surface albedo Land use ○ Cooling Black carbon on snow ○ Heating v. Total aerosol Direct effect Cloud albedo effect Cooling vi. Linear contrails Heating ○ Natural i. Solar irradiance Heating ★ Compare and contrast climate change and the ozone hole Climate Change both The Ozone Hole - Causing global - Byproducts of - Does not account for temperatures to human activities global warming increase - Expected to recover - Not expected over time to recover over time ★ Discuss some ethical issues involving climate change ○ Do countries with higher CO2 emissions have a responsibility to reduce their emissions, since those emissions affect the world? i. Countries could decrease their CO2 emissions while leaving their qualities of life relatively unchanged ○ Potential negative consequences will disproportionately affect those on other parts of the globe ○ Less severe winters = less deaths from the cold? (Wisconsin senator) ○ 3 mm / year might not seem like much to us, but places below sea level may not exist in ~ 100 years due to flooding Climate vs weather: Climate Weather  what you expect what you get average weather conditions of a condition of the troposphere at a particular particular region time and place changes from day to day keywords: keywords: - Per year - Forecast - Annual - Sunny - Normal - Daily - Typical - Cloudy - Always - Foggy - Never - Today, tomorrow, yesterday - Seasons - Current - Record highs, lows - Recent - Generally - Extreme weather events from past - Seasons Definitions: Albedo effect - a measure of the reflectivity of a surface; the ratio of electromagnetic radiation reflected from a surface relative to the amount of radiation incident on it Avogadro’s # - 6.022 x 1023 molecules Catalyst - speeds up a reaction and isn’t changed Climate - regional temperatures, humidity, rain, winds, snow, etc.; longer durations Free radical - highly reactive chemical species with 1 or more unpaired electrons Global carbon cycle - how carbon-containing substances cycle through nature Global warming - increase in average global temperatures that results from an enhanced greenhouse effect Greenhouse effect - natural process by which atmospheric gasses absorb and re-radiate a major portion (around 80%) of the infrared radiation radiated by Earth Isotope - 2+ atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons Lone pairs - nonbonding electrons; not included in covalent bond formation Molar mass - mass of one mole of a specified substance Mole (mol) - another way to communicate the numbers of things; an Avogadro’s # of items Octet rule - electrons in many molecules are arranged so that every atom (except Hydrogen) shares 8 electrons Organic chemistry - works to understand and produce carbon-based compounds Photochemical smog - type of air pollution that occurs when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides and VOCs in the atmosphere, creating a brownish haze primarily composed of ozone; most visible in urban areas with high traffic during warm weather conditions = secondary pollutant formed by chemical reactions triggered by sunlight Valence electrons - electrons in the outermost shells of an atom; used for Lewis Structures Weather - daily high and low temperatures, drizzles and downpours, blizzards and heat waves, etc.; relatively short durations Chapter 3 Comparing Climate Change and Ozone Depletion Climate Change Ozone Depletion Major substances involved CO2, O3, CH4, H2O, N2O O3, CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), O2, O Interaction with radiation IR radiation - increased UV absorption breaks bonds, vibrations requiring energy Nature of problem CO2 levels going up -> temp O3 concentration going going up down, harm to biological life Major Sources Fossil fuel combustion CFCs -> Cl Likely consequences More extreme weather Skin cancer Sea level rise Sunburn Ocean acidification Harm to biology Possible remedies Solar panels Eliminate CFCs Carpool Public transportation Biking International response CH3OH - 6 times 6.022 x 10^23 —--- difference between atoms and molecules Manipulating Molecules and Designing Drugs Characteristics of a Drug - medicine - a substance that changes the way our body functions Why do we take drugs? - Pain relief - Infection - Antidepressants - Anti-inflammatory - Sleep medicine - Fever reduction - Allergy medicine History of Aspirin - 4th century BCE - tea made from willow bark -> fever reducer 1828 - someone in Munich isolated the active ingredient in willow bark - solicilin Made a small chemical modification - salicylic acid 1899 - chemically modified salicylic acid - Bayer made aspirin Diacetyl morphine - Bayer sold as a cough suppressant - heroin Two key considerations: 1. Polarity of drug molecule - Injection of dye molecules (H2O soluble) - didn’t get into brain or spinal cord - blood brain barrier - Polar covalent bonds - covalent (shared electron pair) polar (electrons not shared equally The electrons in the bonds spend more time near the oxygen atom than near the hydrogen. Partial negative charge at the top of the oxygen molecule Partial positive charge for hydrogens (OH2) Lowercase greek delta - δ Electronegativity - the ability of an atom (relative) in a bond to attract electrons to itself Line Drawings - Carbon to carbon bonds (C-C) Condensed Structures to Skeletal Structures (youtube.com) How to Draw Skeletal Structure or Bond-Line Notation for Organic Molecules (youtube.com) CH3CH2OH  You MUST write Hydrogen if it is bonded with something that is not Carbon. Hydroxyl - (alcohol) Think about R as rest of the molecule (O - H is the functional group) Carboxylic Acid Ester Amine CH3NH2  Amide Protein Function follows form - similar structures, shapes, and polarities Aspirin Acetaminophen Ibuprofen Carbon and Hydrogen ONLY sections of molecules are nonpolar - polarity is added through the functional groups Ibuprofen not as soluble in water due to its nonpolar nature - hence why some people would advise against taking it When you see letters in a line structure, that means the molecule will be more polar than a molecule with less or none. So, what do these molecules actually DO? - Block production of molecules that cause pain and inflammation Enzymes - the chemical workforce of almost everything your body does. - Proteins - all enzymes are proteins but not all proteins are enzymes - Transferase - add a functional group to a molecule - Hydrolase - add water (H2O) to a molecule - breaking a bond Biocatalysts - natural catalysts such as enzymes or cells used to speed up a process Identifying Chiral molecules (carbons): 50: Finding chiral carbons in organic molecules (youtube.com) https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=30&v=sSfXzuOOiew&embeds_referring_euri= https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bing.com%2F&embeds_referring_origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bing.com&source_ve_path=Mjg2NjY Classes of molecules Steroids - a “class” of hundreds of different compounds (organic). - 4-ring core (hexagon-hexagon-hexagon-pentagon) - Decorated on outside with other functional groups - Ex: Cholesterol (C27H46O) - 4 ring system makes molecule a lot stronger , add structural reinforcement to cell walls Opiates - why do plants make these? - taste bad - protection - defense mechanism - Morphine is a pain reliever - very addictive - Codeine is not as strong, less addictive - less polar Chapter 4 DNA DNA- the biological polymer that carries genetic information in all species. DNA is the template for life, containing all of the biochemical information to make an entire corn plant, for example. DNA can replicate easily inside the cell, transfer information, and respond to feedback within the cell. Description of DNA structure: The base pairs lie parallel to one another and are separated by a distance of 0.34 nm, a complete turn of the helix consists of 10 base pairs, and the DNA double helix is a spiral of two strands of DNA that coil around a central helix Any strand of DNA-long or short- consists of three fundamental chemical units: phosphate groups, deoxyribose sugars, and nitrogen-containing bases. DNA contains four nitrogen bases, each with different sizes and shapes. The larger bases, adenine (A) and guanine (G), have a six-membered ring of atoms fused together and a 5-membered ring of atoms fused together. The smaller bases, cytosine (C) and thymine (T), have only a six member ring. These compounds all have nitrogen bases and all contain oxygen atoms except for adenine Oxygen atoms help to form hydrogen bonding between the compounds (adenine cannot) In addition to a nitrogen-containing base and a sugar, DNA molecules also contain a phosphate group. Phosphate form changes based on the pH of the molecule. If all three oxygen atoms in the phosphate ion are paired with H+, the chemical form is H3PO4, or phosphoric acid. (PO43-, HPO42-, or H2PO4-) Joined together, these three pieces (nitrogen-containing base, the sugar, and phosphate group) make up one nucleotide  monomer (using a covalent bond), which in turn, polymerizes (chemically changes) to form DNA. Nucleotide example: → X-ray diffraction- an analytical technique where a crystal is hit by a beam of X-rays to generate a pattern that reveals the positions of the atoms in the crystal. The X-ray photons interact with the electrons of the atoms in the crystal and are diffracted or scattered. The crucial point is that X-rays are only scattered at certain angles related to the distance between atoms, which can be used to determine the structures of various crystalline materials Replication- the process of cell reproduction in which the cell must copy and transmit its genetic information to its progeny Chromosomes- rod-shaped, compact coils of DNA, and specialized proteins packed in the nucleus of cells Replication steps in order: 1. The double helix rapidly, but only partially, unwinds 2. A region of two separated strands of DNA is formed 3. Free nucleotides in the cell are selectively hydrogen-bonded to the two single strands 4. The nucleotides bond together with the action of an enzyme 5. Two identical daughter molecules are formed Proteins Found in our skin, muscles, hair, blood, and thousands of enzymes that regulate the chemistry of life Proteins are polymers (big molecules made up of little molecules) Large molecules formed by the linking of amino acids: (amine -NH2, Carboxylic acid -COOH, R represents a different side chain for each of the 20 amino acids) Codon- a sequence of three adjacent nucleotides that either guides the insertion of a specific amino acid or signals the start or end of protein synthesis. (A-C-A)-(A-A-T)-(C-C-G)..... Primary structure- the unique sequence of the amino acids that make up each protein; first and most basic (mostly hydrogen bonding?) → Secondary structure- the folding pattern within a segment of the protein chain (hydrogen bonding within structures; either a-helix structure or B-pleated sheets) → (Proteins are large, three-dimensional molecules, but both primary and secondary structures are relatively flat) Tertiary structure- representation of the overall molecular shape of the protein that is defined by the interactions between amino acids far apart in sequence but close in space 20 different amino acids are used to make up different proteins with different functions, and then these proteins make up enzymes. Enzymes are shaped to have an active site- catalytic region in an enzyme that binds only specific reactants and accelerates the desired reaction Food and nutrition Food supplies nutrients essential for metabolism- the complex set of chemical processes that are essential for maintaining life H2O is a compound that serves as both a reactant and product in metabolic reactions, as a coolant and thermal regulator, and as a solvent for the substances that are essential for life ○ Human bodies are approximately 60% water Malnutrition- diet lacking in proper nutrients, though energy content of the food may be adequate ○ Obesity is a form of malnutrition Undernourishment- a condition in which a person’s daily caloric intake is insufficient to meet metabolic needs Processed foods- foods that have been altered from their natural state by techniques such as canning, cooking, freezing, and adding chemicals such as thickeners or preservatives Triglycerides- molecules that contain three ester functional groups Formed from a chemical reaction between three fatty acids and the alcohol glycerol Fats are triglycerides that are solids at room temperature Oils are triglycerides that are liquids at room temperature ○ ALL triglycerides are lipids- a class of compounds that includes not only triglycerides but also related compounds such as cholesterol and other steroids Macronutrients- the fats, carbohydrates, and proteins that provide essentially all of the energy and most of the raw material for body repair and synthesis Micronutrients- substances that are needed only in minuscule amounts but still are essential to life Vitamins and minerals Vitamins- organic compounds with a wide range of physiological functions Essential for good health, proper metabolic functioning, and disease prevention  Not energy sources for the body Break down macronutrients (proteins and carbohydrates) Classified into being either water or fat soluble ○ If mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms, it (most of the time) will be a nonpolar and fat-soluble compound ○ Water-soluble compounds often contain several -OH groups that can hydrogen bond with water molecules Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat soluble and are stored in cells rich in lipids and available on biological demand High levels of fat soluble vitamins are a result from excessive use of vitamin supplements (with the exception of vitamin D) Water soluble vitamins (C and B) are excreted in the urine rather than stored in the body, and must be consumed frequently ○ Many of the water-soluble vitamins serve as coenzymes- molecules that work in conjunction with enzymes to enhance the enzyme’s activity ○ Calcium and iron are required for proper metabolism Minerals are ions or ionic compounds that, like vitamins, have a wide range of physiological functions (sodium and calcium) Macrominerals- elements that are necessary for life (Ca, P, Cl, K, S, Na, and Mg) but not nearly as abundant in our bodies as O, C, H, or N. Need to be ingested daily. Microminerals- nutrients that the body requires lesser mounts of (Fe, Cu, and Zn) Trace minerals- elements present in the body usually at microgram levels (I, F, Se, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Mo, B, Si, and Sn) ○ Microminerals and trace elements have very specific biological functions and are incorporated in relatively few biomolecules During respiration, the outcome of photosynthesis is reversed. Glucose is converted into simpler substances and energy is released: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 H2O + energy Description of respiration: occurs in all living organisms, converts glucose to CO2 and H2O (glucose is burned as fuel during process), and the process releases energy Our bodies bust have some way of regulating the rate at which the energy is released Basal metabolic rate (BMR)- the minimum amount of energy required daily to support basic body functions  ○ In human metabolism, energy is released gradually so that the body temperature is maintained within normal limits A fatty acid has fewer oxygen atoms per molecule than a sugar containing the same number of carbon atoms, and will therefore release more energy when converted to CO2 and H2O during respiration Modes of food transportations that consume the most energy in order 1. Rail 2. Water 3. Road 4. Air (section 11.9-11.13 has many terms, could be important??? None are highlighted or talked about in the homework however) Quiz Review: Threonine Asparagine Alanine -Polar -Polar -Nonpolar -Noncharged -Noncharged -Noncharged Strands of DNA link together by forming hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen-containing bases. Select the non-hydrogen atoms on the base of this nucleotide that can participate in hydrogen bonding. Hydrophobic = nonpolar Hydrophilic = polar What forces hold the two strands of DNA together? Hydrogen bonds The nitrogen-containing bases in DNA are attached by covalent bonds to a _____ Sugar All of the energy we need to run our bodies comes from the food we eat. Which statement is false concerning this energy consumption? The body converts glucose into carbon dioxide and water in one fast reaction Valine and lysine are both amino acids. Structurally how could you distinguish between them? Valine and lysine have different side chains