Communication Models.pdf

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION: Communication models are systematic representations of the process that helps in understanding how communication works can be done. Models show the process metaphorically and in symbols. They form general perspectives on communication by breaking communication f...

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION: Communication models are systematic representations of the process that helps in understanding how communication works can be done. Models show the process metaphorically and in symbols. They form general perspectives on communication by breaking communication from complex to simple and keeps the components in order. Communication models can sometimes encourage traditional thinking and stereotyping but can also omit some major aspects of human communication. Methods and channels of communication to be used and the purpose of communication, must be considered before choosing a specific communication model. Models are used by business companies and other firms to foster their communication, explore their options and to evaluate their own situations. It is also used to understand how the receivers will interpret the message. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION MODEL There are three general types of communication models in which all other communication models are mostly categorized. LINEAR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Linear model of communication is a simple one way communication model. The message flows in a straight line from sender to the receiver. There is no concept of feedback. The only task that a receiver does here is to receive the message. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Aristotle (384-322 B.C) was a Greek philosopher and writer born in Stagira, Northern Greece. He was also the teacher of Alexander the Great. He studied physics, logic, mathematics, etc. While exploring the human nature scientifically, Aristotle developed a linear model of communication for oral communication known as Aristotle’s Model of Communication. This is considered as the first model of communication and was proposed before 300 B.C. It is also the most widely accepted among all communication models. 1 2 The Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech. It can be broadly divided into five (5) primary elements: 1. Speaker 2. Speech 3. Occasion 4. Audience 5. Effect Aristotle’s communication model is a speaker centered model as the speaker has the most important role in it and is the only one active. It is the speaker’s role to deliver a speech to the audience. The role of the audience is passive, influenced by the speech. This makes the communication process one way, from speaker to receiver. The speaker must organize the speech beforehand, according to the target audience and situation (occasion). The speech must be prepared so that the audience be persuaded or influenced from the speech. He believed “Rhetoric” is the study of communication and persuasion and different message or speech should be made for different audiences at different situations to get desired effects or to establish a 3 propaganda. This model was highly used to develop public speaking skills and create propaganda at that time so it is less focused on intrapersonal or interpersonal communication. Even if the model is speaker oriented and focuses on audience interaction in communication, there is no concept of feedback. For instance, a politician (speaker) gives a speech to get votes from the civilians (audience) at the time of election (occasion). The civilians only vote if they are influenced by the things the politician says in his speech so the content must be very impressive to influence the mass and the speaker must design the message very carefully. The speech must be clear as well as the speaker must have a very good non-verbal communication with the audience like eye contact. This example is a classic case of Aristotle Model of Communication depicting all the elements in the model. CRITICAL ELEMENTS OF A GOOD COMMUNICATOR Aristotle has given three (3) elements that must be present in a good communicator or public speaker. These elements are related to each other and they reinforce the other elements. 1. Ethos: Ethos is the characteristic that makes you credible in front of the audience. If there is no credibility, the audience will not believe in you and will not be persuaded by you. Expertise and positions also give credibility to a person. For instance, the mass will not listen to the promises of a corrupt politician, but if a politician is known for his good deeds, there’s a high chance his speech will be heard. 2. Pathos: If what you say matters to them and they can connect with it, then they will be more interested and they will think you are more credible. Emotional bonds will make the audience captivated and they feel the speaker is one of their own people. For instance, if people of a village need water and the politician tells them that he will help in building roads, the people will not get influenced but might be more influenced if he says he’ll build a dam for drinking water and irrigation. 3. Logos: Logos is logic. People believe in you only if they understand what you are trying to say. People find logic in everything. If there is no logic behind the speaker’s work or time, they do not want to get involved. Everybody has a sense of reason. You must present facts to the audience for them to believe in you. For example, a presenter using factual data in an awareness program will attract the audience’s attention and will make them believe in the need of awareness in the particular matter. CRITICISMS OF ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION There are few criticisms around this model. Some of them are  There is no concept of feedback, as it is one way from speaker to audience.  There is no concept of communication failure like noise and barriers.  This model can only be used in public speaking. 4 DAVID BERLO’S SMCR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION In 1960, David Berlo postulated Berlo’s Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model of communication from Shannon Weaver’s Model of Communication (1949). He described factors affecting the individual components in the communication making the communication more efficient. The model also focuses on encoding and decoding which happens before sender sends the message and before receiver receives the message respectively. Berlo’s Model has mainly four components to describe the communication process. They are sender, message, channel and receiver. Each of the component is affected by many factors. (See diagram below). COMPONENTS OF BERLO’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION S –SENDER: Sender is the source of the message or the person who originates the message. The person or source sends the message to the receiver. The following are the factors related to sender and is also the same in the case of receiver.  Communication Skills: Communication skills of a person is a factor that affects the communication process. If the sender has good communication skills, the message will be communicated better than if the sender’s communication skills are not good. Similarly, if the receiver cannot grasp the message, then the communication will not be effective. Communication skills include the skills to speak, present, read, write, listening, etc. 5   Attitude: The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the message. The person’s attitude towards self, the receiver and the environment changes the meaning and effect of the message.  Knowledge: Familiarity with the subject of the message makes the communicated message have its effect more. Knowledge on the subject matter makes the communicator send the message effectively.  Social Systems: Values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion and many other social factors affect the sender’s way of communicating the message. It creates difference in the generation of message. Place and situation also fall under social systems.  Culture: Cultural differences make messages different. A person from one culture might find something offensive which is very much accepted in another culture. M-MESSAGE: A message is the substance that is being sent by the sender to the receiver. It might be in the form of voice, audio, text, video or other media. The key factors affecting the message are:  Content: Content is the thing that is in the message. The whole message from beginning to end is the content.  Elements: Elements are the non-verbal mannerisms that tag along with the content like gestures, signs, language, etc.  Treatment: Treatment is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver. Treatment also effects the feedback of the receiver.  Structure: The structure of the message or the way it has been structured or arranged, affects the effectiveness of the message.  Code: Code is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of language, text, video, etc. C-CHANNEL: Channel is the medium used to send the message. In mass communication and other forms of communication, technical machines might be used as a channel like telephone, internet, etc. But in general communication, the five senses of a human being is the channel for the communication flow and it affects the effectiveness of the channel. 6   Hearing – We receive the message through hearing.  Seeing – We perceive through seeing. We also get non-verbal messages by seeing and hearing.  Touching – Many of the non-verbal communication happens from touching like holding hands.  Smelling – We collect information from smelling.  Tasting – Taste also provides the information to be sent as a message. R-RECEIVER Receiver is the person who gets the message sent in the process. This model believes that the thinking pattern and all other factors mentioned above must be in sync to that of the sender for the communication to be effective. The message might not have the same effect as intended if the receiver and sender are not similar. The receiver must also have a very good listening skill. Other factors are similar to that of the sender.  Communication skills  Attitudes  Knowledge  Social Systems  Culture CRITICISMS OF BERLO’S SMCR MODEL  There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.  There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in the communication process.  It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication.  Both of the people must be similar according to all the factors mentioned above. SHANNON AND WEAVER MODEL OF COMMUNICATION The Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication is a mathematical theory of communication that argues that human communication can be broken down into 6 key concepts: sender, encoder, channel, noise, decoder, and receiver. It is known as the “mother of all models” because of its wide popularity. The model is also known as ‘information theory’ or the ‘Shannon theory’ because Claude Shannon was the main person who developed the theory. The model’s primary value is in explaining how messages are lost and distorted in the process of communication. Definition of the Shannon and Weaver Model The Shannon and Weaver model is a linear model of communication that provides a framework for analyzing how messages are sent and received. It is best known for its ability to explain how messages can be mixed up and misinterpreted in the process between sending and receiving the message. Shannon, in his famous article titled “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” where he outlined the theory, explained what the goal of his model was: 7 “The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing a message sent from one point, either exactly or approximately, to another point” (Shannon, 1948, p. 379). Using this mathematical theory of communication, he hoped to more effectively identify those pressure points where communication is distorted. BACKGROUND The Shannon Weaver model was first proposed in the 1948 article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” in the Bell System Technical Journal by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver: Shannon and Weaver were both from the United States. Claude Shannon was a mathematician. Warren Weaver was an electrical engineer. Many believe this mathematical theory of communication was mainly developed by Claude Shannon alone and Warren Weaver had a minimal role. It is often simply called the ‘Shannon information theory’ in science disciplines. Shannon developed the theory to improve understanding of communication via telephone and eventually improve the quality of phones. It was later used as a general theory of communications. EXPLANATION OF THE SHANNON AND WEAVER MODEL The Shannon Weaver model mathematical theory of communication follows the concept of communication in a linear fashion from sender to receiver with the following steps: 1. SENDER (INFORMATION SOURCE) The Shannon and Weaver model starts with the sender or “information source”. They are the person (or object, or thing – any information source) who has the information to begin with. The information source starts the process by choosing a message to send, someone to send the message to, and a channel through which to send the message. A sender can send a message in multiple different ways: it may be orally (through spoken word), in writing, through body language, music, etc. Example: An example of a sender might be the person reading a newscast on the nightly news. They will choose what to say and how to say it before the newscast begins. 8 2. ENCODER (TRANSMITTER) The next step in the Shannon and Weaver model is the ‘encoder’. The encoder is the machine (or person) that converts the idea into signals that can be sent from the sender to the receiver. The Shannon model was designed originally to explain communication through means such as telephone and computers which encode our words using codes like binary digits or radio waves. However, the encoder can also be a person that turns an idea into spoken words, written words, or sign language to communicate an idea to someone. Examples: The encoder might be a telephone, which converts our voice into binary 1s and 0s to be sent down the telephone lines (the channel). Another encode might be a radio station, which converts voice into waves to be sent via radio to someone. 3. CHANNEL The next step in the Shannon and Weaver model is the ‘channel’. The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets information from the sender and transmitter through to the decoder and receiver. We sometimes also call this the ‘medium’. Examples: A person sending an email is using the worldwide web (internet) as a medium. A person talking on a landline phone is using cables and electrical wires as their channel. If we’re face-to-face, perhaps we don’t have a channel, except the sound waves from our voice that carry the sound from the sender’s mouth to the receiver’s ear. 4. NOISE The next step in the Shannon and Weaver model is ‘noise’. Noise interrupts a message while it’s on the way from the sender to the receiver. It’s named after the idea that ‘noise’ could interrupt our understanding of a message. There are two types of noise: internal and external. Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding a message or a receiver makes a mistake decoding the message. Here’s the two points where it can happen:  At the point of encoding (for example, when you misspell a word in a text message);  At the point of decoding (for example, when someone misinterprets a sentence when reading an email) External noise happens when something external (not in the control of sender or receiver) impedes the message. So, external noise happens at the point of transmission through the channel (for example, when we’re having a conversation by a busy highway and the receiver is having trouble hearing over the sound of cars). One of the key goals for people who use this theory is to identify the causes of noise and try to minimize them to improve the quality of the message. Examples: Examples of external noise may include the crackling of a poorly tuned radio, a lost letter in the post, an interruption in a television broadcast, or a failed internet connection. Examples of internal noise may include someone having a headache so they can’t concentrate, someone speaking with a heavy accent, or when the sender mumbles when speaking. 5. DECODER The next step in the Shannon and Weaver model is ‘decoder’. Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding. Shannon and Weaver made this model in reference to communication that happens through 9 devices like telephones. So, in this model, there usually needs to be a device that decodes a message from binary digits or waves back into a format that can be understood by the receiver. If we’re talking about direct communication between people without the use of technology, there may still be a need for decoding. For example, you might need to decode a secret message, turn written words into something that makes sense in your mind by reading them out loud, or you may need to interpret (decode) the meaning behind a picture that was sent to you. Examples: Decoders can include computers that turn binary packets of 1s and 0s into pixels on a screen that make words, a telephone that turns signals such as digits or waves back into sounds, and cell phones that also turn bits of data into readable (and listenable) messages. 6. RECEIVER (DESTINATION) The next step in the Shannon and Weaver model is ‘receiver’ The receiver is the end-point of the original Shannon and Weaver model of the technical communication process. This is the step where the person finally gets the message, or what’s left of it after accounting for noise. Examples of a receiver might be: the person on the other end of a telephone, the person reading an email you sent them, an automated payments system online that has received credit card details for payment, etc. 7. FEEDBACK The final step in the Shannon Weaver model is ‘feedback‘. Actually, the ‘feedback’ step was not originally proposed by Shannon and Weaver in 1948. Norbert Weiner came up with the feedback step in response to criticism of the linear nature of the approach. (‘Linear’ means that the messages are only going one way). Feedback occurs when the receiver of the message responds to the sender in order to close the communication loop. They might respond to let the sender know they got the message or to show the sender whether they got the message clearly without noise and how well they understand the message. Nonetheless, the ‘feedback’ elements seems like a post-hoc add-on to the model, and is the subject of a lot of criticism (see later in this article on ‘disadvantages of the model’ for details). Examples: Feedback does not occur in all situations. Sometimes, like when watching TV, we don’t tend to let the people talking on the TV know what we’re thinking … we simply watch the show. Examples of when feedback will occur include: During a chat between friends, when you write a reply email, through your facial expressions and body language during a conversation, etc. EXAMPLES OF THE SHANNON WEAVER MODEL OF COMMUNICATION The Shannon and Weaver model of communication was originally proposed for technical communication, such as through telephone communications. Nonetheless, it has been widely used in multiple different areas of human communication. Here are some examples of how the Shannon Weaver model works: A) A Telephone Conversation Sender: The sender is the person who has made the call, and wants to tell the person at the other end of the phone call something important. 10 Encoder: The telephone turns the person’s voice into a series of binary data packages that can be sent down the telephone lines. Channel: The channel is the telephone wires itself. Noise: Noise may occur if the speaker mumbles, the telephone wires are interrupted in a storm, or the telephone encoders/decoders are malfunctioning. Decoder: The telephone that the receiver is holding will turn the binary data packages it receives back into sounds that replicate the voice of the sender. Receiver: The receiver will hear the sounds made by the decoder and interpret the message. Feedback: The receiver may speak in response, to let the sender know what they heard or understood. B) Listening to the Radio Sender: The radio host will speak into her microphone. Encoder: The microphone and its computer will turn the voice of the radio host into binary packets of data that are sent to the radio transmitter. The radio transmitter, also part of the encoder, will turn that data into radio waves ready to be transmitted. Channel: The channel will be the radio waves that are sent out by the radio transmitter. Noise: Noise is most likely to occur if the receiver’s transistor radio is not tuned to the correct frequency, causing static, or if the receiver’s transistor radio is too far away from the radio transmitter. Decoder: The decoder is the receiver’s transistor radio, which will turn the radio waves back into voice. Receiver: The receiver is the person listening to the radio, who will hopefully receiver the full message loud and clear if noise has been avoided or minimized. Feedback: Feedback is difficult in this step. However, the radio channel may send out researchers into the field to interview listeners to see how effective their communication has been. C) A Face-To-Face Discussion Sender: The person starting the conversation will say something to start the communication process. Encoder: The ‘encoder’ step is usually used to explain a machine that encodes a message for transmission. For a face-to-face discussion, you could consider the ‘encoding’ to be the ways the sender turns their idea into intelligible words and sentences. Channel: There isn’t any wire or radio waves involved here – instead, the sound is transmitted through sound waves made by the voice. Noise: The sender may have mumbled or have an accent that caused the message to be distorted (internal noise). There might be a wind or traffic that made the message hard to hear (external noise). Decoder: While there’s no machine here, the listener still has to turn the words they hear into a legible message in their mind. Receiver: The receiver is the second person in the conversation, who the sender is talking to. Feedback: Face-to-face communication involves lots of feedback, as each person takes turns to talk. If someone’s message is not heard to noise, they can ask for clarification easily. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE SHANNON AND WEAVER MODEL The Shannon and Weaver model of communication has many pros and cons. Here are a few: 11 ADVANTAGES: 1. It explains the barriers to effective communication very well The Shannon Weaver information theory was revolutionary because it explains the concept of ‘noise’ in detail. It shows how information is interrupted and helps people identify areas for improvement in communication. For example, the model also includes three ‘levels’ where communication can be interrupted. These are: technical problems, semantic problems, and effectiveness problems:  Technical problems: when the decoder, encoder or channel causes the problems. For example, when a machine important for the communication of the message has a fault.  Semantic problems: This is when the message that was sent is different from the message that was received (a practical way to think about this is the game ‘Telephone’, also known as ‘Chinese whispers’ or ‘telephono roto’. The message is lost somewhere in the retelling.).  Effectiveness problems: This explains how well the message can cause a response or reaction from the receiver. 2. It breaks down communication into understandable parts The model enables us to look at the critical steps in the communication of information from the beginning to end. 3. Transferable to multiple situations The communication model was originally made for explaining communication through technological devices. However, it’s been used to explain just about any form of communication you can think of. DISADVANTAGES: 1. It’s a Linear Model / There’s Insufficient Regard for Feedback The original 1948 Shannon Weaver blueprint did not contain the ‘feedback’ component. When it was added by Weaver later on, it was included as a bit of an afterthought. Thus, it lacks the complexity of truly cyclical models such as the Osgood-Schramm model. 2. It doesn’t account for power relationships The model doesn’t take a social scientific look at how information is interpreted differently based on power relationships or identities of those people communicating with one another. 3. It doesn’t address one-to-many communication The ‘mother of all models’ is silent on the issues that arise when there is one sender and multiple receivers. For a better analysis of mass communication, refer to the Lasswell model of communication. CONCLUSION The Shannon and Weaver model of communication is the ‘mother of all models’ of human communication. It is also known as the ‘information theory’. It is a mathematical theory considered to be a ‘linear’ communication model. Created be Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, it is considered to be a highly effective communication model that explained the whole communication process from information source to information receiver. 12  TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION In transactional model, senders and receivers both are known as communicators and both play equally important role in communication. Transactional model relates communication with social reality, cultural upbringing and relational context (relationships). Non-verbal feedback like gestures, body language, is also considered as feedback in this model. Different models that follow transactional model of communication are: WILBER SCHRAMM’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Wilber Schramm proposed the model of communication in 1954. Information is of no use unless and until it is carefully put into words and conveyed to others. Encoding plays a very important role because it initiates the process of communication by converting the thought into content. When the information reaches the recipient his prime responsibility is to understand what the speaker intends to convey. Unless and until the second party is able to understand or decode the information what the sender wants to communicate, the message is actually of no use. Thus encoding and decoding are two most important factors of an effective communication without which information can never flow between two individuals. Schramm’s model also revolves around the above principle. According to the Schramm’s model, coding and decoding are the two essential processes of an effective communication. He also emphasizes that the communication is incomplete unless and until the sender receives a feedback from the recipient. Imagine a person sharing his thoughts with his friend and his friend not responding to him. Is the communication complete? NO. Schramm believed that communication is actually a two way process between the first party and the second party. Let us understand more with the help of an example. Jennifer to Sam -“Will you accompany me for a movie?” Sam kept mum and did not respond and hence the communication between Sam and Jennifer was not complete. If Sam was not interested in the movie, he could have responded or given the feedback to Jennifer about his unwillingness. According to Schramm’s model, whenever the information reaches the recipient, it becomes his responsibility to give the feedback and let the other party know if he has downloaded the message in exactly the same manner the speaker wanted. If he is not clear with anything or has any doubts, it must be cleared with the speaker. Thus when the speaker conveys any message to the listener, the listener, decodes the message and once again passes the message to the speaker after understanding it and completing the full circle. 13  Sender M↓ ↑M Receiver M stands for message Schramm believed that an individual’s knowledge, experience and cultural background also play an important role in communication. Individuals from diverse cultures, religion or background tend to interpret a single message in different ways. Billy to Servant - “Please bring something hot for me to drink as I am suffering from sore throat.” The servant brought him a glass of lukewarm water but Billy actually wanted a cup of hot chocolate coffee. Hence different interpretation by the servant. He was not on the common grounds with Billy and failed to understand his master’s information. It was neither Billy’s nor the servant’s fault but actually the differences in both their backgrounds that was to blame. Let’s go through another example: John to Teddy -“I get late for my office, please buy me a clock” Teddy went to a local market and gifted a clock to John and John was never late to office after that. He could have also misinterpreted the message but how come he could understand his friend’s desire? A clock is always a clock whether Teddy has to bring it or any other individual has to bring it. A clock can never be confused with a wrist watch or for that matter something else. There are some messages that are more or less same for everyone. They are called as messages with a Denotative meaning, which are almost the same for all individuals and in such cases chances of misinterpretation and misunderstanding gets nullified. Please once again refer to the above situation of John and Teddy and slightly modify the situation. Let’s assume that Teddy brought two clocks to John as he was two concerned and didn’t want him to ever get late. In this case John actually wanted a single clock but Teddy brought his emotional quotient and personal affection in between. Such meanings are called Connotative meaning, which are affected by emotional factors. A message can also get distorted due to wrong body movements, gestures, facial expressions and many other factors. To conclude, according to this model of communication, when a sender passes on the information to the receiver, the receiver must interpret it in the desired form the sender wants and give him the feedback or respond accordingly. Any communication where the sender does not get the feedback, the communication is not complete and thus ineffective. 14 OSGOOD-SCHRAMM MODEL OF COMMUNICATION It is a Circular Model, so that communication is something circular in nature:  Encoder – Who does encoding or sends the message (message originates)  Decoder – Who receives the message  Interpret – Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or interpret Note: From the message starting to ending, there is an interpretation goes on. Based on this interpretation only the message is received. This model breaks the sender and receiver model in a practical way. It is not a traditional model. It can happen between two people; each person acts as both sender and receiver and hence use interpretation. It is simultaneously take place e.g. encoding, interpret and decoding. Semantic noise is a concept introduced here it occurs when sender and receiver apply different meaning to the same message. It happens mostly because of words and phrases for e.g. technical language, so certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate from the actual meaning of the communication. Note: When semantic noise takes place decoding and interpretation becomes difficult and people get deviated from the actual message. ADVANTAGE OF OSGOOD- SCHRAMM MODEL OF COMMUNICATION 1. Dynamic model; shows how a situation can change 2. It shows why redundancy is an essential part 3. There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is the same person 4. Assume communication to be circular in nature 5. Feedback – central feature. 15 DISADVANTAGE OF OSGOOD-SCHRAMM MODEL OF COMMUNICATION This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assume the moment of encoding and decoding. INTERACTIVE OR CONVERGENCE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Interactive or convergence model is similar to transactional model as they are both two way communication models. But, interactive model is mostly used for new media like Internet. Here, people can respond to any mass communications like videos, news, etc. People can exchange their views and ideas. Different models that follow interactive model of communication are: SAM BECKER’S MOSAIC MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Sam Becker proposed a communication model in “The Prospect of Rhetoric” (1968), which is known as Becker’s Mosaic Model of Communication. According to him, the classical models of communication are not very useful in contemporary communication. The model explains the complexity of human communication. It also describes the randomness of the origin of messages and communication as a dynamic process. The model is believed to reduce the limitations of the linear models. The model stresses the meaning of messages. The model was inspired by Marshall McLuhan’s views and metaphors of television as a collection of light and dark spots. 16 COMPONENTS OF BECKER’S MOSAIC MODEL OF COMMUNICATION 1. Empty cells – Unavailable messages or sources 2. Vertical layers – Set of similar messages 3. Cells – Messages and sources 4. Receivers go through the cells in Loops every time CONCEPTS OF BECKER’S MOSAIC MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Every person lives and exists in the web of communications, which reciprocally makes the person unique. Messages construct humans and humans construct messages. Message depends on information source, culture, social situations, and environment. The constructed message is just a small step to the formation of complicated communication environment which is known as a “Mosaic”. The mosaic is formed from the network of bits of information. Bits of information help in making a complete picture of any situation. There are many sources of information and messages. Every individual will take the information that he/she needs and ignore all others. These fragments of information can be about anything, in any time and in any space. The bits are sent can also vary. These bits are pieced together by a person as per the needs to form a message. When another person receives the message, the second person not only interprets according to the bits of information that is in the message, but also interprets it with the help of all the past bits of information the person can relate the message to. Communication is shown in a three dimensional cube formed with bits of information and time-space dimensions. It is taken as non-linear. The mosaic model talks about message environment being a major factor for rhetoric. The receiver is only exposed to the rhetorical message sent by the sender, and so the message must make an influence over the receiver. The receiver’s environment is also important as the message that is received is more essential than the one that is sent. Communicative acts are formed by linking more than one social situation. The same message can be sent differently as the gaps in time, modes of presentation and situations are always different. There are two processes in Mosaic model of communication. They are:  Bits of information are always increasing, has a wide range of varieties and sources  Mostly, there is repetitiveness in similar transaction of messages or the message can sometimes be in isolation ADVANTAGES OF THE BECKER’S MOSAIC MODEL OF COMMUNICATION  The mosaic model of communication shows the complexity of communication and says communication is dynamic.  The model explains why the exposure to message varies.  The model also talks about individual differences between people. 17   The message is said to be interpreted in comparison to the information available and relationship of the bit of information. DISADVANTAGES OF THE BECKER’S MOSAIC MODEL OF COMMUNICATION  The mosaic model of communication does not explain many dimensions like environmental and social.  The new bits of information are useless if the last bits are lost. WESTLEY AND MACLEAN’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication was suggested by Bruce Westley (1915-1990) and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr. (1913-2001) in 1957. This model was an adaptation from Newcomb’s model of communication, which talked about co-orientation for simultaneous orientation in a two way communication. It also consisted of some concepts from Lewin’s model. Unlike Dance’s Helical Model of Communication, the model says that communication does not begin when one person starts speaking, but it does when a person responds to something from his/her surroundings. The person must first receive message from the environment and then, he/she responds according to his/her object of orientation. Westley and MacLean’s model explains the difference between interpersonal and mass communication as feedback. Feedback can be direct in interpersonal communication whereas indirect in mass communication. According to this model, communication starts from the environment and not when the message is spoken or shown. The Westley and MacLean’s model can be applied in two contexts: interpersonal and mass communication, the point of difference being the feedback. Feedback is direct and fast in interpersonal communication and indirect and slow in mass communication. The model also differentiates message as purposive and non-purposive. 18 COMPONENTS OF WESTLEY AND MACLEAN’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION The major components in the communication process for the model are:  Source (A) – Source is the message creator and sender.  Environment (X) – Environment is the physical and psychological situation where the message is being created and sent.  Sensory experience (X1) – Sensory experience is the first thing that the source sees by which the source gets the idea for the formation of the message.  Objects of Orientation (X1, X2,) – Objects of orientation is the person’s social and cultural reality that has formed from his/her past experiences and teachings.  Message Interpretation or Coding (X) – Message is interpreted with the objects of orientation of the receiver of the message.  Receiver (B) – The person who gets the message sent by the source and the person who interprets according to his/her objects of orientation.  Object of Orientation of Receiver (X, B) – The views and ideas of the receiver or his/her social reality is his/her object of orientation. That is how the receiver interprets the message.  Feedback (f) – The receiver forms another message after interpreting the message and sends it back to the sender. It is known as feedback.  Gatekeeper (C) – Gatekeepers are found in mass communication. The gatekeeper is the editor who filters the message as per the needs of the audience and media institution.  Opinion Leader – Opinion leaders are well known and recognized people who can influence public opinions. CONCEPTS OF WESTLEY AND MACLEAN’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION The process of communication in Westley and MacLean’s model of communication starts when the source creates a message from his/her environment. The communicator acts and creates the message as a response to the sensory experience with his/her own objects of orientation. Then, the response is coded after interpreting the environmental response. The coded message is transmitted to a second respondent who interprets the message differently according to his/her objects of orientation and provide feedback to the sender. Gatekeepers and opinion leaders are the parts of communication processes in mass communication. They are the editors, proofreaders, etc. who choose which message should be published and what effect will it have on the audience. Filter of the message is dependent on many factors. Gatekeeping is done in these levels: 1. Individual level: A person’s gender, sexual orientation, culture, likes, dislikes, etc. 2. Routine practice level: Pre-established set of rules and practices for a particular type of work to be done 3. Communication organizations: The policies of the organization that is publishing the work 4. Social institutions: The social systems by which the message is formed 19  5. Societies: Societal values and belief systems, rules and norms, etc. EXAMPLE OF WESTLEY AND MACLEAN’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION A person ‘A’ is going to a meeting. Thunderstorms ‘X1’ and heavy rains ‘X2’ start. The roads ‘X3’ are all blocked. ‘A’ will have to convey the message to the people who are conducting the meeting that he/she will not be reaching on time. ‘A’ can inform all others through phone. Here, the message is conceived from the environmental message through the person’s sensory experience. The object of orientation of the person makes him call others because he thinks that reaching late is impolite. Sender ‘A’ creates the message as a courteous request. The message is coded in a language form and is sent to the receiver ‘B’ who interprets according to his/her own object of orientation like the receiver can still find reaching late to a meeting rude. The feedback is given accordingly. Similarly, in mass communication, ‘A’ sends a message to ‘C’ who is the editor. ‘C’ acts as a gatekeeper and publishes the news after proper editing. There might be readers’ ‘B’ replies to which are in the form of letters or directly face to face. The process of letter reaching the writer takes a long time whereas direct review reaches fast. In a website, there are many writers. They write and send the articles to get them published. But the editor chooses the articles that are relevant. The comment box is the place where the audience can give feedback. Here, X1 is any article, X2 is the audience comments, X3 is the website, f is feedback, A is writers, B is the audience, C is the gatekeeper or the editor. So,  There is a feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Editor (C) after sending the article for publishing, which is known as “fBC”.  There is a feedback loop between Editor (C) and Writer (A) giving response to the writers, which is known as “fCA”.  There is another feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Writers (A) in the comments, which is known as “fBA”. The message received from the environment can be accidental or abrupt, so might not be intentional. So, the signals can be received anytime and message is formed anytime. ADVANTAGES OF WESTLEY AND MACLEAN’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION  There is the concept of feedback.  As the message comes from the environment, sensory field improves the message formation.  Social and other factors are included in objects of orientation.  The model can be applied to interpersonal, group communication as well as mass communication.  The model is very descriptive. 20 DISADVANTAGES OF WESTLEY AND MACLEAN’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION  There are many variables even for simple communication which makes the model very complicated.  The model is only two-dimensional and does not explain communication which involves multiple messages and complicated messages.  The information can get modified while sending it from the sender to the receiver as there can be noise. The model does not account for noise in communication. DE FLEUR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION De Fleur Model of Communication consists of a two way communication process where the receiver becomes the sender by providing feedback and by receiving the feedback, the sender becomes the receiver. The model is named after American scholar Melvin Lawrence DeFleur. He was a professor of communications and social psychology with a PhD in Social Psychology. This model is an expansion of Shannon and Weaver model of communication, which describes a one way communication with feedback mechanism. It is also based on the Westley and Maclean model of communication which proposed a circular process of communication and feedback. Basically, De Fleur model is the combination of these two models. So, we suggest you make yourself familiar with the two models first before diving into De Fleur model of communication. CONCEPT OF DE FLEUR MODEL 21 De Fleur model of communication describes a mass media device in the communication process, which is circular in nature and is the first one to constitute a two way feedback process. As any other model, the communication originates at a source. Then it is sent to a transmitter that operates signal, after which a channel transfers it to a receiver. Once the message reaches its destination, the receiver sends feedback. The feedback allows the sender to determine if proper communication has taken place. Here, the receiver assumes the role of a sender by sending feedback while the sender becomes receiver by receiving feedback. Noise can occur at any stage in this model. A feedback device is an important characteristic of this model. The feedback is given by a target audience, which is different from receivers, whether the message has been received or not. DE FLEUR MODEL EXAMPLE Let’s assume a brand wants to advertise its product to its audience. An advertisement is filmed and transmitted by a mass media device (television, internet etc.). The message reaches the target audience through a receiver (television set, radio, phone etc.). The target audience then provides the feedback through a different medium like social media or email. The feedback from the target audience lets the brand know if their product is a success or not. For instance, in January 2018, Swedish retail giant H&M circulated an online advertisement featuring a black boy wearing a sweatshirt that read, “Coolest monkey in the jungle.” The racial undertones of the ad ignited a widespread backlash on Twitter. After receiving an overwhelming negative feedback, H&M announced that the sweatshirt had been removed from their line of products. PROPAGANDA MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Propaganda Model of Communication was developed to explain how propaganda, systematic biases, pressures and constraints have been influencing mass media. The model explains how economic, social and political policies are manufactured in order to manipulate the populations for the welfare of those groups with power and money. The founders of this model mostly concentrated on the population and media of the USA for the research but this theory is universally applicable. HISTORY OF PROPAGANDA MODEL 22 Propaganda Model of Communication was first introduced in 1988 by the two Americans – philosopher Avram “Noam” Chomsky and Edward Samuel Herman, who was a professor of Emeritus of Finance at the Wharton School of Business. The model was introduced through their book, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. The ideas of this theory are derived from the works done by Harold Lasswell on wartime propaganda during the 1920s to the 1940s, and by Jacques Ellul on the sociological techniques of propaganda and the media during the 1950s and 1960s. PROPAGANDA MODEL THEORY As written in Chomsky’s and Herman’s book, “A propaganda model focuses on this inequality of wealth and power and its multilevel effects on mass-media interests and choices. It traces the routes by which money and power are able to filter out the news to fit print, marginalize dissent, and allow the government and dominant private interests to get their messages across the public.” This theory views media as a business that sells its products (the audience, readers, and subscribers) to other businesses that do their advertisements in the media, rather than disseminating news for the public. The theorists state that news is passed through five filters before it reaches the audience. The filters make the news different from its original form by determining what events are newsworthy, how these events are to be covered and how much coverage they receive. These five filters are: 1. Size, ownership and profit orientation of mass media 2. Funding 3. Source 4. Flaks 5. Anti-communism SIZE, OWNERSHIP AND PROFIT ORIENTATION OF MASS MEDIA The major news distributors are a part of large corporations and conglomerates. As a result, the information provided to the public largely depends upon the interests of these organizations, which in 23 turn has a direct impact on the quality of the news. For example: A fictional news channel, say World News, is owned by the World Entertainment Group, a subsidiary of Century World. World News is unlikely to publish any news which may endanger the benefit of its owners (both World Entertainment Group and Century World). FUNDING According to Chomsky and Herman, advertising is the primary source of income for the mass media. The media would have to bear heavier costs of operation and production if the advertisers weren’t there to fund them. Thus, it is needless to say that the media would filter the news in favor of their fund providers often for the sake of their existence. For example: A corporate organization may threaten the mass media to withdraw their sponsorship contracts if the media publishes any content that may damage the reputation of the organization. It is, therefore, against the interest of the media to produce such news which is contrary to the beliefs of their sponsors. SOURCE The cost of posting journalists everywhere would be excessively high for the mass media. So they often rely on press releases and other public relation products for news that have already been tailored for publishing. In addition, they also rely on concentrating their personnel (reporters and camera persons) where news stories are likely to occur, such as at the government-sponsored press forums. At such places, the media are provided with canned pieces of news that can save a lot of money and time of the media. For example: As the government officials and politicians are viewed as credible sources of information, the media avoid the need for fact-checking as it is both costly and time-consuming. The media also acts in favor of the sources ensuring that the source is delighted by fine-tuning of the news as they expect the continuous flow of news from them. FLAKS A Flak is defined as a negative response from the audience to the programmes or outlets broadcasted or published by the media. A flak can be of various types such as a lawsuit, complaints, government sanctions or petition. Flaks on a large scale are destructive to the media so the media always have an eye for the negative responses. The fear for flaks forces the media to thoroughly look on the material and filter the information, especially before publishing news about public figures with huge fandoms in an attempt to avoid such stories which may bring negative responses to the media. Firing on-air personnel for expressing opinions that are viewed as controversial or not favoring the media giants also explains how the mass media try to avoid flak. For example: Most of the mass media avoid publishing news that project a negative image of religious leaders until and unless they have a strong evidence in order to protect the media’s reputation among the public. ANTI-COMMUNISM AND FEAR Chomsky and Herman have labeled anti-communism as a national religion and control mechanism. This filter mobilizes the population against a common enemy while portraying the opponents as insufficiently 24 patriotic or in alliance with the enemy. For example: Many American corporations and elite groups considered that Communism was evil as it took their wealth and power from them and threatened their status. These elites who are also the owner of the mass media have adopted a policy to censor the articles and news which reflects the positive sides of communism. UPDATES TO THE MODEL Chomsky and Herman republished their work in 2002 with minor updates to the model. The updates were based on the case studies related to three major factors.  The dramatic centralization of the mass media that took place in the 1990s.  The increased globalization due to the rise of the internet.  The deregulation and reduction of budgetary pressure to support non-commercial media. CRITICISMS OF PROPAGANDA MODEL There have been a few criticisms for this model. Given below are some popular ones. 1. In 2004, Eli Lehrer wrote in his book, The Anti-Chomsky Reader, that the media is not a monolithic entity. He believes that the media is not biased because there are pieces of evidence when it has reported on and exposed cases of corporate corruption. 2. Another critic of this theory is Walter LaFeber. Writing for The New York Times, the historian criticized Chomsky and Herman’s book (Manufacturing Consent) and stated that the model does not adequately explain how a powerful propaganda system would let military aid to the rebels be blocked. SOURCES:  Management Study Guide https://www.managementstudyguide.com/schramm-model-of- communication.htm  Businesstopia https://www.businesstopia.net/communication  B.C. Faculty Pressbooks https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/professionalcomms/chapter/3-2-the- communication-process-communication-in-the-real-world-an-introduction-to-communication- studies/  The Communication Process http://thecommunicationprocess.com/models-of-communication/ 25