Communication Research Methodology PDF

The Landscape of Communication Research scheme of six common forms of human knowledge Chapter acquisition and development Tenacity is the acquisition and acceptance of Chap...

The Landscape of Communication Research scheme of six common forms of human knowledge Chapter acquisition and development Tenacity is the acquisition and acceptance of Chapter 1. knowledge as a result of its survival over time. Research- is often defined as systematic inquiry Intuition is the acquisition and acceptance of into a subject. Research is the detailed or in-depth knowledge because it “feels right,” or because it study of a subject (often a theory) to reach a greater was provided by some extrasensory source. understanding of or to obtain new information about Authority is the acquisition and acceptance of the subject. knowledge as a result of its presentation by a Communication research- We define media and respected source. communication research then as the planned,critical, Rationalism is the development of knowledge systematic and transparent investigation into or through the application of the rules of logic. The key gathering of information about media and/or distinction of this moderate level is the ability to communication processes. develop new knowledge, not simply to accept Communication researchers examine the knowledge. processes by which meanings are created and Empiricism is the development of knowledge managed—in other words, how people structure and through the observation of real events using the interpret messages and use symbols such as human senses language in interpersonal, group, organizational, Science is the development of knowledge through public, intercultural, and mediated contexts. a combination of rationalism and empiricism. The principal tools of the scientist are the mind, Historical Beginnings of Communication Research permitting the development of logical relationships, Communication is a time-honored yet modern and the human senses,permitting the observation of discipline. the expected relationships in the real world. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 B.C.)devoted much thought to examining the Characteristics of Science constituent elements of rhetoric, or the available Science is: means of persuasion. From 1600 through the early 1. Logical 1900s, speech theorists focused on effective 2. Empirical delivery of the spoken word. 3. Problem-Oriented The modern humanities can be traced from the 4. Procedure-Driven early nineteenth century; the social sciences date 5. Community-Based from the late nineteenth and early twentieth 6. Replicable centuries, when they separated institutionally from 7. Reflexive or Self-Critiquing other ‘human sciences.’ 8. Evolutionary During this entire period, the two areas of inquiry 9. Creative have been in contact, and frequently in dialogue. However, it was in the post-1945 period that specific Model of the Scientific Process components of each were brought together in the 1. Problem Development-Because science is emerging field of media studies. problem-oriented, the first task confronting a Scientific thinking-enables us to make accurate communication scientist is the identification of a and reliable conclusions about human behavior. It is problem. characterized by empirical observations or data, 2. Methodological Design-Having determined a systematic and deliberate methods, as well as problem worthy of scientific attention, the next stage objective, intersubjective, and replicable procedures in the process is planning a procedure for the Everyday thinking is somewhat less sophisticated resolution of the problem. This stage is particularly than scientific thinking important in that science is procedure-driven and It is often characterized by biased questions, replicable. limited sampling, selective attention, perception and 3. Data Collection-Once the researcher develops retention, and inaccurate generalizations procedures that will drive the investigation, they Errors in Ordinary Inquiry about Communication adhere to those procedures to make and record Inaccurate observations empirical observations. Overgeneralization 4. Analysis of the Data-The methodological design Selective observation stage plays an important role in determining how to Illogical reasoning analyze and interpret the observational data. 5. Integration of the Findings-During this stage, the Foundations of Scientific Inquiry about investigator determines how the newly developed Communication information fits into existing theory, and whether it is The two pillars of scientific inquiry about any consistent or inconsistent with knowledge previously phenomenon, including communication, are logic developed by the community of scholars. and observation. Both elements are essential to the scientific Schools of Communication Inquiry approach and relate to three major aspects of the 1. Positivistic or Empirical Approach- It assumes overall scientific enterprise: theory, data collection, that objective truths can be uncovered and that the and data analysis. process of inquiry that discovers these truths can be, at least in part, value-neutral. Issues in the Scholarship and Practice of This tradition advocates the methods of the natural Communication Research sciences, with the goal of constructing general laws 1.Communication still lacks, and even loses, identity. governing human interactions. 2.The field increasingly suffers from epistemological 2. Interpretive Approach-It views truth as subjective erosion. and co-created by the participants, with the 3. We have precise and sound knowledge in many researcher clearly one of the participants. areas—but we tend to lose normative orientation in There is less emphasis on objectivity in this empirical research. approach than in the empirical approach because complete objectivity is seen as impossible. Chapter 2 The interpretive researcher believes that values are EPISTEMOLOGY-It is a branch of knowledge relevant in the study of communication. focused on how we know things. 3. Critical Approach- In the critical approach, an Helmstadter’s Epistemological Methods understanding of knowledge relates to power. G. C. Helmstadter (1970) developed a hierarchical As Art Bochner (1985) notes, this approach “assumes that science cannot exist without 6. Risks and benefits ideology”. 7. Anonymity Critical researchers believe that those in power 8. Voluntary nature of the study shape knowledge in ways that work to perpetuate Participant Privacy- An important part of informed the status quo consent is letting participants know how you will handle privacy issues.It is important for participants ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDUCTING COMM. RES. to have the ability to speak freely and to answer 1. Voluntary Participation questions without fear of being “outed” to the 2. No Harm to the Participants public. 3. Anonymity and Confidentiality Two approaches with participant privacy in a 4. Deception study: 1.Confidentiality is where the researcher knows the names and personal information of the participants Chapter 3 but does not share that information with anyone else. Aristotle-Defined ethics as living well and doing 2.Anonymity is when not even the researcher knows good things. the participants’ names or personal information. Quintillian-A Roman orator, identified a clear Debriefing-When a researcher explains all of the relationship between communication and ethics aspects and purpose(s) of the research process when he defined an ethical man as one who speaks after the research is completed. well. Plagiarism-Is the use of someone else’s words or Thomas Hobbes-English philosopher in his 1651 ideas without giving credit to that person or book Leviathan described ethics as the actions one institution. takes in order to maintain a social contract in society. Webster’s New World Dictionary-Is typical among Chapter 4 dictionaries in defining ethical as “conforming to Steps in the Communication Research Process the standards of conduct of a given profession or -All scholarly research starts with choosing a topic, group.” that is with a decision about what to research. -Ethics in Communication Research -As a media and communications scholar or student, The National Commission for the Protection of one would expect the topic to be some Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral phenomenon or aspect relevant to media and Research, a federally funded Commission, was communications. created in 1974. This Commission met and wrote the Belmont Report, in which they outlined ethical Four Key Steps guidelines and principles for research with human 1.Select a research topic- The following are helpful subjects. tips in terms of accessing inspiration from various Three key principles were identified in the report sources of research problems: regarding human subjects: Choose and concentrate on your research 1. respect for individuals, interests 2. beneficence, Decide on your research goals and approach 3. justice. Review your paradigms and theories Look at academic and trade publications as well as Principles of Research Ethics current events Wimmer and Dominick (2011) identify them as: Connect to the internet for insights to your 1. autonomy; research ideas 2. nonmaleficence; Reflect on everyday situations 3. beneficence Sources of Research Problems 4. justice. 1. Existing Theory or Research-researchers 1.AUTONOMY-also called self-determination, calls examine existing theories for missing pieces or for for the researcher to “always respect the rights, novel applications as the basis for their research values, and decisions of other people”.In research, problems. this means that people, as research subjects, have 2. Practical Problems-A second source of research the ultimate right to decide who knows what about problems is the practical situations encountered in them. everyday life that demand some resolution. 2.NONMALEFICENCE-is based on the principle that 3. Observation-A third common source of research “it is wrong to intentionally inflict harm on another”. problems is casual observation. Researchers must always be aware of any potential threats or disturbance that their research can cause 2.Determine topic relevance- Ask yourself the to individuals or communities. following questions: 3.BENEFICENCE-Related to the principle of Is it worth the research effort? nonmaleficence, beneficence “stipulates a positive Is the topic too broad? obligation to remove existing harms and Can the problem really be investigated? to confer benefits on others”. This means that Can the data be analyzed? researchers should always have the welfare of Is the problem significant? the research participant as a primary consideration Can the results of the study be generalized? in the research What costs and time are involved in the analysis? 4.JUSTICE-The general approach to the justice Is the planned approach appropriate to the principle is that “people who are equal in relevant project? respects should be treated equally”. The ethical Is there any potential harm to the subjects? principle of justice emanates from the researcher’s 3.Review the literature- The review of related respect for the participants. literature, as an activity in the research process, is Informed Consent- requires that you tell your not only done at the later stages of participants, in a written document, what they will be conceptualization or in the development of the doing in the study. research design. It is also essential in developing a Required Elements of Informed Consent research topic and finalizing the research problem 1. Title of the project and objectives. 2. Names of the investigators 4.State the research problem- After determining 3. Contact information the general research idea and subjecting this idea to 4. Purpose of the study literature review, you, as the researcher, must now 5. Procedures be able to write it in a statement, which may take the form of research questions, objectives, and 1. It is a declarative sentence. hypothesis. 2.It posits an expected relationship between Structure of the Discipline variables. 1. Communication and technology 3. A hypothesis is based on literature. 2. Group communication 4.It should not be too long; it should be succinct and 3. Health communication to the point. 4. Instructional communication 5. It must be testable. 5. Intercultural communication Qualitative Research Questions 6. Interpersonal communication Qualitative research questions-seek to explore or 7. Language and symbolic codes describe phenomena, not provide a neat nomothetic 8. Mass communication explanation, so they are often more general and 9. Organizational communication vaguely worded. 10. Public communication Instead of asking how one variable causes changes Review of Related Literature in another, we are instead trying to understand the -Science is a community-based endeavor. The next experiences, understandings, and meanings that step for the communication researcher is to gain people have about the concepts in our research access to the work of the community of scholars. question. -The knowledge of the community of scholars will Elements of a “Good” Research Question assist the researcher in developing the statement 1. It is in the form of a question. into a more empirically testable and, often, more 2. It conveys the focus of your study. closed- ended form. 3. It is based on literature. Sources-The book collection in a college or 4. It is not too long. university library is best suited to the researcher for 5. It must be something you can research. an overview of the field of interest, as well as for Feasibility and importance detailed descriptions of communication theory. The Once you’ve settled on a research question, your most significant sources for scholars are periodicals, next step is to think about the feasibility of your particularly scholarly research question. journals One of the most important questions in feasibility is A primary source is a manuscript written by the whether or not you have access to the people you original source or person who completed the want to study. investigation. In addition to personal characteristics, practical When that source is summarized by another matters like time and money also influence what you person, as is often done in textbooks, book reviews, can study or how you are able to study it. newspapers, or other media, it becomes a Your research question should also be important secondary source. and relevant to the scientific literature in your topic Online resources are a third, and increasingly area. popular, source of information for the communication researcher. Annotated Bibliography-Like the reference list, a Chapter 6 collection of sources related to the researcher's Selecting theories topic of interest, but each citation is followed by a Here are some tips in understanding theories: short summary of the content of each source with Know the theorist behind the theory evaluative comments regarding the source supplied Know the theories’ original setting and its by the researcher. evolution Well-written annotations should generally be two to Classify theories four paragraphs in length, and should be in the How does one choose a theory? researcher’s own words, not the words of the Here are three diagnostic questions: source’s author. Does the theory belong to the same paradigm as your research project? Are the premises of the theory aligned with those of your project? Does the theory most parsimoniously capture the Chapter 5 arguments of your project? By parsimony we mean Research Question-A research question is the focus the theory is simple yet comprehensive. of your study and what you are trying to answer. Operationalizing-Operationalization is the process Shows some kind of relationship or difference through which a theory, or an integration of theories, between variables. Research questions can be is applied to a current research project. written to explore processes, understand behaviors, Connecting theory- The framework is the bridge discover meaning, describe experiences, and report that connects different sections of a study. stories. Specifically, the framework links to: Quantitative Research Questions The Research Objectives Quantitative descriptive questions-will often ask The Review of Related Literature for figures such as percentages, sums, or averages. The Methodology Quantitative explanatory-questions must contain Data analysis and interpretation an independent variable and dependent variable, Doing the framework and they should ask about the relationship between Identify rigorously the theory which best informs these variables. the study. Hypothesis-A hypothesis, then, is an educated Respect the theory by explaining not only its main guess or prediction about the relationship between concepts but also nuances in its argument. two or more variables. Cite properly the theorists who originally developed One of these variables is the independent variable. and subsequently refined the theory. It is the antecedent, or the presumed cause, in the Use related literature in identifying the theory and relationship. The other variable is the dependent explaining its use and operationalization. variable. It is the consequent, or the presumed Ensure that each level is sufficiently more detailed effect, in the relationship. than the previous. A null hypothesis states that no relationship exists Support the hypotheses in the analytical framework between variables, or that there is no significant with related literature. effect of an independent variable on a dependent Check for coherence between the operational level variable of the framework and the eventual variables and Elements of a “Good” Hypothesis measures/concepts and indicators section of the research design. Link the data analysis and interpretation to the study framework.