Decolonization and Early Independence PDF

Decolonization and Early Independence Professor Janet Lewis George Washington University PSC 2381  Wide Range of Decolonization experiences Decolonization was generally most protracted, bloody in Portuguese colonies, former settler...

Decolonization and Early Independence Professor Janet Lewis George Washington University PSC 2381  Wide Range of Decolonization experiences Decolonization was generally most protracted, bloody in Portuguese colonies, former settler colonies Anti-colonial movements gain momentum in the 1950s Emergence of intellectual and political leaders that launch nationalist/independence movements Growth of unions, youth movements, student organizations, and ex-servicemen’s associations Period of domestic mobilization, strikes  Wide Range of Decolonization experiences, II Time of optimism Several independence leaders extoll pan Africanism Kwame Nkrumah, led independence movement in the Gold Coast, becomes first PM and President of Ghana, instrumental to creation of Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963 Nationalized industries, ousted in military coup in 1965  International Factors World War II ‣ Large numbers of Africans served in the war ‣ Aura of invincibility of colonial rulers shattered Emergence of new superpowers with no interest in the existing colonial system Shifts in international normative environment ‣ Atlantic Charter (1941) - called for self-determination ‣ Emergence of United Nations: “equal rights and self- determination of peoples”  Lumumba discussion How, and to what extent, did the following factors/organizations/people influence events in Zaire immediately following independence? - The Cold War - The Force Publique/The Congolese National Army - Ethnic diversity of Congo - Patrice Lumumba (his personality or his decisions) - The United Nations 7  Congo (Zaire)’s fate Joseph Mobutu seizes power in 1965, rules for 30 years Relied on extensive support from the US State earned billions in mineral export revenue, but it went into Mobutu’s coffers In 1994, Zaire spent $0 on health and education combined  Ethnicity Prof. Lewis George Washington University Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Africa is Ethno-Linguistically Diverse Figure: Linguistic Diversity: dark colors represent greater diversity. Ethnic boundaries in Africa usually coincide with language; each group has a known (rural) home territory Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Why study ethnicity? Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Why study ethnicity? Ethnic diversity in African states is correlated with: Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Why study ethnicity? Ethnic diversity in African states is correlated with: Increased likelihood of conflict Higher levels of inequality Slower growth Lower levels of public goods provision at national and local levels Identity-based (non-programmatic) political parties Weaker national identity Prof. Lewis Ethnicity What is ethnicity? Prof. Lewis Ethnicity What is ethnicity? Max Weber (1914):“Human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or customs.” Prof. Lewis Ethnicity What is ethnicity? Max Weber (1914):“Human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or customs.” What distinguishes ethnicity from other identity types is that it’s based on ascriptive characteristics; things we’re born with like ancestry, kinship, culture, mother tongue and (usually) religion. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity What is ethnicity? Max Weber (1914):“Human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or customs.” What distinguishes ethnicity from other identity types is that it’s based on ascriptive characteristics; things we’re born with like ancestry, kinship, culture, mother tongue and (usually) religion. The salient axis of ethnicity is different in different countries (e.g. race in South Africa, language in Canada, religion in Northern Ireland.) Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Varieties of “Ethnicity” Identities commonly considered “ethnic” by political scientists: Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Varieties of “Ethnicity” Identities commonly considered “ethnic” by political scientists: Tribe (Buganda, Banyankole, Basoga, Acholi, Igbo, Hausa, Yoruba, Xhosa) Clan (Lugave, Ngeye) Caste (Brahmins, Scheduled Castes) Race (Black, White) Religion (Christian, Muslim) Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Varieties of “Ethnicity” Identities commonly considered “ethnic” by political scientists: Tribe (Buganda, Banyankole, Basoga, Acholi, Igbo, Hausa, Yoruba, Xhosa) Clan (Lugave, Ngeye) Caste (Brahmins, Scheduled Castes) Race (Black, White) Religion (Christian, Muslim) What do you think? Are these ethnic categories? Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Will ethnicity’s relevance decline? Two classical theories 1 Modernization: Ethnicity is a “traditional” mindset, will melt away as industrialization, urbanization occurs. 2 Marxism: Ethnicity is “false consciousness,” modern society will be organized along class lines. 3 Problem: ethnicity didn’t disappear, even in industrialized countries (Canada, Belgium, former Soviet states). Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Three Contemporary Theories of Ethnicity Primordialism/Essentialism (typical media accounts): Ethnicity is fixed and in one’s blood. Instrumentalism (Bates): Ethnicity is highly fluid, drawn out by ethnic entrepreneurs. Constructivism (Posner): Ethnicity is fluid, but slow-moving, influenced by political institutions. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Primordialism Ethnicity as fixed, historically given: either inherent or deeply rooted in societies; ethnic identities trump other (class, ideological) identities when push comes to shove. Implications: ethnic identities (and conflict) always lurking beneath the surface in plural societies Problem: many seemingly “deeply rooted” ethnic identities are fluid, changing, and even newly created. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Primordialism From ”The Coming Anarchy” by Robert Kaplan in February 1994 : “In the eyes of these uneducated but newly empowered millions, the real borders are the most tangible and intractable ones: those of culture and tribe.” “ancient tribal hatreds” “Because America is a multi-ethnic society, the nation-state has always been more fragile here than it is in more homogeneous societies like Germany and Japan.” Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Instrumentalism Ethnicity as an individual strategic choice; a means to other (political or economic) ends. Implications: ethnicity similar to other group memberships; ethnic conflict “really” about power/money but dressed in ethnic clothing, instigated by ethnic entrepreneurs. Problem: ethnic identities more stable (and less clearly linked to economic and political interests) than instrumentalist theories predict. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Instrumentalism in Bates Politics is mainly about gaining access to scarce resources conferred by modernity and controlled by the state, people want to belong to a “minimum winning coalition.” “Family loyalties are activated to secure jobs... create(s) among the members of other groups a sense of threat and disadvantage.” “...[I]n the competition for power, ethnic appeals are useful to politicians... constituencies tend to be dominated by the members of one ethnic group... the appeal of common ethnicity can generate unified support where other issues would be divisive.” Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Constructivism Ethnicity as neither fixed nor individually chosen, but rather socially constructed – a product of social, political, and institutional context. Implications: Ethnic identities change, but usually slowly, over several generations. Problem: less generalizability or predictive power (we can only tell that identities have been constructed after the fact) Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Constructivism in Posner Posner (APSR 2004) asks: why are Chewas and Tumbukas allies in Zambia but rivals in Malawi? Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Constructivism in Posner Posner (APSR 2004) asks: why are Chewas and Tumbukas allies in Zambia but rivals in Malawi? Puzzle: Same groups, same size. Visits 4 villages directly along the border. Conducts about 42 interviews per village. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Posner’s Puzzling Finding Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Posner’s Puzzling Finding Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Alternative Explanations Can’t be explained by level of development, since there are no discernible differences in the level of development. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Alternative Explanations Can’t be explained by level of development, since there are no discernible differences in the level of development. Can’t be explained by “contact” theory, since contact is similar across the border. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Alternative Explanations Can’t be explained by level of development, since there are no discernible differences in the level of development. Can’t be explained by “contact” theory, since contact is similar across the border. Can’t be explained by electoral rules and federalism, since those are similar in Zambia and Malawi. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Alternative Explanations Can’t be explained by level of development, since there are no discernible differences in the level of development. Can’t be explained by “contact” theory, since contact is similar across the border. Can’t be explained by electoral rules and federalism, since those are similar in Zambia and Malawi. Can’t be explained by colonialism since both sides were under the same colonial rule. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Alternative Explanations Can’t be explained by level of development, since there are no discernible differences in the level of development. Can’t be explained by “contact” theory, since contact is similar across the border. Can’t be explained by electoral rules and federalism, since those are similar in Zambia and Malawi. Can’t be explained by colonialism since both sides were under the same colonial rule. Explanation: Group size, and competition over scarce resources. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Why the C/T Divide is Salient in Malawi (but not Zambia) “In Malawi, both the Chewa and the Timbuka communities are sufficiently large as to constitute viable political coalitions in the competition over national power.” “In Zambia, neither the C not T community alone has the size to be an effective political vehicle.” “Politicians are not the only ones attuned to the logic of ethnic arithmetic. Just as politicians seeks to gain entry into coalitions of viable sizes, voters also seek to gain entry into coalitions that will permit one of their own to win political power.” Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Beyond Bates and Posner Recall Prunier: How did colonialism influence ethnic identity in Rwanda? Is Mafeje a constructivist, or something else? What about Ake? Defend your answer with passages from these articles. Prof. Lewis Ethnicity Key Points Ethnic identity appears to play an important role in several aspects of Africa politics; general scholarly consensus that ethnicity is malleable But why this is the case, and the conditions under which ethnicity is malleable, remain a topic of considerable debate and study We will revisit the complexity of ethnicity’s role when we study armed conflict and democratization Prof. Lewis Ethnicity State Formation in Africa PSC 2381 Prof. Janet Lewis George Washington University PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Key questions on the state What is a state and why is it important? How do weak vs. strong states come about? How was state formation in Africa different than in Europe? Why has the weakness of Africa’s states persisted long after independence? PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Definitions “A political community formed by a territorially-defined population which is subject to one government.” (Dictionary of Comparative Politics, 2001) PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Definitions “A political community formed by a territorially-defined population which is subject to one government.” (Dictionary of Comparative Politics, 2001) “A state must contain an administrative staff that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of violence.” (Weber, Politics as a Vocation, 1919) PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why do we need the state? Set standards (solve coordination problems) PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why do we need the state? Set standards (solve coordination problems) Allocate radio frequencies Drive on the left or right side of the road PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why do we need the state? Set standards (solve coordination problems) Allocate radio frequencies Drive on the left or right side of the road Redistribute resources (modern welfare state) PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why do we need the state? Set standards (solve coordination problems) Allocate radio frequencies Drive on the left or right side of the road Redistribute resources (modern welfare state) Reduce historical inequalities Secure safety net PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why do we need the state? Set standards (solve coordination problems) Allocate radio frequencies Drive on the left or right side of the road Redistribute resources (modern welfare state) Reduce historical inequalities Secure safety net PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why do we need the state? Set standards (solve coordination problems) Allocate radio frequencies Drive on the left or right side of the road Redistribute resources (modern welfare state) Reduce historical inequalities Secure safety net Provide public goods PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why do we need the state? Set standards (solve coordination problems) Allocate radio frequencies Drive on the left or right side of the road Redistribute resources (modern welfare state) Reduce historical inequalities Secure safety net Provide public goods Overcome collective action problems PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why do we need the state? Set standards (solve coordination problems) Allocate radio frequencies Drive on the left or right side of the road Redistribute resources (modern welfare state) Reduce historical inequalities Secure safety net Provide public goods Overcome collective action problems PSC 2381 Initial Conditions The state helps us overcome collective action problems Individuals acting rationally might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so (Mancur Olson, 1965). PSC 2381 Initial Conditions The state helps us overcome collective action problems Individuals acting rationally might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so (Mancur Olson, 1965). What is a public good? A good that benefits the public and is... Non-rivalrous, meaning one person’s enjoyment of the good doesn’t diminish anyone else’s Non-excludable, meaning no one can be excluded from enjoying the good Examples: national defense, fresh air, and (usually) roads PSC 2381 Initial Conditions The state helps us overcome collective action problems Individuals acting rationally might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so (Mancur Olson, 1965). What is a public good? A good that benefits the public and is... Non-rivalrous, meaning one person’s enjoyment of the good doesn’t diminish anyone else’s Non-excludable, meaning no one can be excluded from enjoying the good Examples: national defense, fresh air, and (usually) roads Without a state to levy taxes and provide public goods, we probably wouldn’t have them PSC 2381 Initial Conditions What is a strong state? PSC 2381 Initial Conditions What is a strong state? 1 Is the state present? Do people anticipate the state’s reaction when dealing with others? PSC 2381 Initial Conditions What is a strong state? 1 Is the state present? Do people anticipate the state’s reaction when dealing with others? 2 Is the state institutionalized? Does it operate according to formal and known rules? Does it have an institutional memory? PSC 2381 Initial Conditions What is a strong state? 1 Is the state present? Do people anticipate the state’s reaction when dealing with others? 2 Is the state institutionalized? Does it operate according to formal and known rules? Does it have an institutional memory? 3 Does the state carry out functions it should? Public order, security, taxation, redistribution Note: no consensus about what state should do PSC 2381 Initial Conditions What do we mean by “weak state”? PSC 2381 Initial Conditions What do we mean by “weak state”? Failure to monopolize legitimate use of force. Limited ability to implement desired policies. Limited ability to provide basic public goods and social services. Limited institutional memory (e.g., archives). Note: these weaknesses reinforce each other. PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why are African states weak? Some of the big arguments: PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why are African states weak? Some of the big arguments: Unfavorable colonial legacies. Culture / indigenous religion / oral tradition. Difficult geographies. Ethnic heterogeneity. Disorder benefits elites (the “vampire state”) PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Geography Matters Herbst, States and Power in Africa Population density limits the broadcast of power PSC 2381 Initial Conditions State building in Europe States are forged in iron and blood Threat of war: Rulers forced to defend borders ⇒ Increase domestic tax collection and military recruitment ⇒ Expand bureaucracy and increase strength of national identity ⇒ Strong states survive; the weak perish. PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why have Africa’s weak states persisted? Puzzle: if states are so weak – why have there been so few invasions across international boundaries? PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why have Africa’s weak states persisted? Puzzle: if states are so weak – why have there been so few invasions across international boundaries? One answer: the timing of African states’ independence coincides with strong international state system. PSC 2381 Initial Conditions Why have Africa’s weak states persisted? Puzzle: if states are so weak – why have there been so few invasions across international boundaries? One answer: the timing of African states’ independence coincides with strong international state system. After WWII, strong norms against revision of borders; very limited ability to declare sovereignty over conquered territories. Sovereignty: freedom from external control; supreme power over a body politic (Webster dictionary) Great powers and the international community discourage invasions. PSC 2381 Initial Conditions “African compact” (Organization of African Unity, 1963) Why has “juridical” statehood became more prominent than “empirical” statehood in postcolonial Africa? PSC 2381 Initial Conditions “African compact” (Organization of African Unity, 1963) Why has “juridical” statehood became more prominent than “empirical” statehood in postcolonial Africa? “African compact”: vulnerable African leaders agree not to invade one another and not to recognize others’ secession movements. Boundary revision impractical: UN would never recognize conquest. Weak militaries: too weak for international campaigns. Few secessionist struggles succeed (Eritrea and South Sudan are unusual). Examples of failed secessionists: Somaliland (Somalia); Biafra (Nigeria); Katanga (DRC) PSC 2381 Initial Conditions  Colonialism PSC 2381 Professor Lewis George Washington University PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Questions 1 Why did Europe colonize Africa? 2 What were the similarities and differences in the way colonial powers ruled? 3 To what extent was variation in colonial mode of rule consequential for the post-colonial period? PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Colonialism “Colonialism is to Africa what feudalism is to Europe. They form the historical background from which Africa and Europe advance to modernity. As such, they have determined the peculiar char- acteristics of modernity in each of these areas.” (Ekeh, 1972:93) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Pre-colonial Intervention Massive dislocation of populations Slave trade: forced migration of ‘healthy bodies’ Weakening of African political units PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism The Scramble for Africa Until 1870, very little of Africa under the direct administration of Europeans. In late 19th century, search for new markets and desire to control strategic areas led to “scramble.” Made possible by technological and medical advances. Fear of escalation led to the Berlin Conference 1884/5 PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism The Treaty of Berlin and the “Scramble for Africa” For Europeans, what was the benefit of the Treaty of Berlin? PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism The Treaty of Berlin and the “Scramble for Africa” For Europeans, what was the benefit of the Treaty of Berlin? 1 Controlling mounting competition between European nations. 2 Dividing the continent between European powers peacefully. 3 Creating rules for establishing sovereignty claims. 4 Assuring access to various important trade routes. 5 Suppressing the internal slave trade. 6 Enforcing a ban on importing firearms into Africa. By 1914, conference participants had fully divided Africa among themselves into 50 countries, set int’l boundaries that largely persist today. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Map of Colonial Africa (1914) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Defining characteristic: Administration and control of territory and population by a foreign power. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Defining characteristic: Administration and control of territory and population by a foreign power. Motivations: why colonize Africa? PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Defining characteristic: Administration and control of territory and population by a foreign power. Motivations: why colonize Africa? Moral and religious factors. Economic reasons. Nationalism and the rise of the nation state. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Moral Argument: “White man’s Burden” Take up the White Man’s burden Send forth the best ye breed Go bind your sons to exile To serve your captives’ need; To wait in heavy harness On fluttered folk and wild Your new-caught, sullen peoples, Half devil and half child. (Rudyard Kipling 1899) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Moral Arguments Extend Civilization and Christianity. Obligation to make better use of the land (Locke). Stop ’savagery’ and ‘human sacrifice’. Moral justifications influenced by ideologies of racial hierarchy (‘Social Darwinism’, ‘Eugenics’). PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism But Record Challenges Moral Justification Massive Abuses and exploitation. Miserable Development. Minimal investment in human capital. Example: Literacy rates in Portuguese colonies 1959 (after 500 years of Portuguese Presence) Mozambique 2% Angola: 3% Guinea Bissau: 1% PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Economic Factors Keep sea routes open. Satisfy demand for raw materials. Help local companies expand reach into new markets. Access to cheap labor. Reduce cost of military excursions (cheap soldiers). 40% of French forces in the Crimean war (1854-56) were Africans 211,000 African troops deployed by French during WWI PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Economic Arguments: But... < 5% of UK trade involved Africa and this mostly Egypt and S. Africa. Minimal investments, even in strategic agricultural crops such as cotton. 19th Century economists mostly opposed colonialism. “Economic gains can be made without conquest.” Colonies had a hard time supporting themselves! PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism So who benefited? “Seeing that the Imperialism of the last three decades is clearly condemned as a business policy, in that at enormous ex- pense it has procured a small, bad, unsafe increase in markets, and has jeopardized the entire wealth of the nation in arousing the strong resentment of other nations, we may ask ‘How did the British embark upon such unsound business?’ The only possible answer is that the business interests of the nation as a whole are subordinated to those of a certain sectional interests that usurp control of the national resources and use them for their private gain... ” (Hobson 1905) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Why then? 1 Political Timing Africa got to be viewed as a place to defuse rivalries among European states (Doyle). Satisfy rising national sentiments while suppressing class consciousness (Hobsbawm). 2 Technological Timing Quinine Prophylaxis (anti-malaria) Guns PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism How then? Technological Advantage “Whatever happens, we have got The Maxim Gun, and they have not.” (Hillaire Belloc, “The Modern Traveller”). Battle at Omdurman (Sudan) Toll: 48 British vs. 11, 000 Dervishes. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism How then? Technological Advantage “Whatever happens, we have got The Maxim Gun, and they have not.” (Hillaire Belloc, “The Modern Traveller”). Battle at Omdurman (Sudan) Toll: 48 British vs. 11, 000 Dervishes. Brutality Massive killing, mutilations and abuses. Example: Congo, from 20m (c. 1890) to 8.5m (c. 1911). PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism How then? Technological Advantage “Whatever happens, we have got The Maxim Gun, and they have not.” (Hillaire Belloc, “The Modern Traveller”). Battle at Omdurman (Sudan) Toll: 48 British vs. 11, 000 Dervishes. Brutality Massive killing, mutilations and abuses. Example: Congo, from 20m (c. 1890) to 8.5m (c. 1911). Local help African Soldiers: e..g, French dispatched two companies of Wolof soldiers to Madagascar, 1828. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Portuguese, British, French Colonial Rule Portuguese: fewest investments in infrastructure, schools, health. British: indirect rule, settler colonies (Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, Kenya) enjoy greater investment. French: direct rule, emphasis on strong ties between colonies and Paris, cultivation of french African elite. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Types of Colonies 1 Settler colonies versus non-settler colonies 2 Direct rule vs. Indirect rule PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Modes of Colonial Rule The paradox of power (Lonsdale 1975) It can’t be exercised without giving some of it away. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Modes of Colonial Rule The paradox of power (Lonsdale 1975) It can’t be exercised without giving some of it away. Direct Rule: “placing the chief in an entirely subordinate position to the (colonial) political officer.” Indirect Rule:“advisory relationship between the political officer and the native authority.” Note: In either case, it was easier for colonists to rule where they found pre-existing, centralized political power structures (e.g. kingdoms) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism French Direct Rule “there are not two authorities in a cercle [the unit of local ad- ministration], French and indigenous authority; there is only one. Alone, the cercle commandant commands; alone he is responsi- ble. The indigenous chief is only an instrument, an auxiliary.” (Young, 1988, p. 43) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Indirect Rule Based on Continuity In principle: Same Units, Same Rules of Succession, Same Laws. “They made no drastic changes, and what was done came into effect only after consultation... for what could one Resident, an assistant and a few soldiers in Sokoto do to change so vast an area as the Sokoto Emirate?” (Alhaji Sir Ahmadu Bello, Emir of Sokoto) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Dilemma of All Colonial Governments Wanted to benefit from control of land and people: Administration on the cheap. Export raw materials. Wanted colonies to be “self-sufficient”: Needed to tax Africans. Needed to force Africans into cash economy. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Common Features In spite of these differences, all colonial governments shared certain attributes: 1 Colonial political systems were undemocratic. 2 Law and order was a primary objective of colonial governments, not investment nor development. 3 Colonial governments were under-financed, under-staffed and therefore lacked capacity. 4 Colonial rule had to rely on local intermediaries. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Minimal projection of power into the hinderland 1935 1950 1963 British African Colonies 0.02 0.04 0.09 French West African Colonies 0.01 0.02 0.05 French Equatorial African 0.007 0.007 0.03 Belgian Congo 0.02 0.04 0.07 Table: km of road per square kilometer European Officials Subjects British African Colonies 2,161 43M French West African Colonies 3,660 15M French Equatorial African 887 3.2M Belgian Congo 2,384 9.4M Table: 1939 Figures (From Herbst, p. 78) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism Summing Up Colonies were extractive, but a wide range of colonial experiences Most colonies had limited penetration into the periphery of colonies Did settler colonies fare better than extraction colonies? Next: State Formation - including how colonial legacies influenced it in Africa PSC 2381 Professor Lewis Colonialism The African Slave Trade PSC 2381 Professor Lewis George Washington University PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade: Big Questions 1 What forces drove the African slave trade? 2 What are the medium-term and long-term consequences of the African slave trade? 3 Through what channels did the slave trades impact future trajectories (e.g., growth, ethnic consolidation, state formation)? PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade Requires Buyers and Sellers Europeans rarely left coastal areas; traded coveted Europeans goods to African middlemen in return for slaves. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade The Trans-Saharan, Red Sea and Indian Ocean Slave Trade Began around the early Islamic conquests (800 AD) into the 20th c. Estimated 6-7 million slaves shipped out to India and Middle East. Less attention has been given to slavery in the Muslim world. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Atlantic Slave Trade Began in the early 16th century Portugal discovers Brazil in 1500, triggers slave trade to South America for work in mines, coffee plantations. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Atlantic Slave Trade Estimated that 9–15 million Africans shipped to the Americas by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish, and the British. Starting in the 1600s, demand from North American cotton and tobacco plantations leads slave traders to make the more treacherous journey there from Africa Trade ended by mid-19th century; slavery abolished in Britain in 1838. Fewer than 10% of transatlantic slaves came to North America; the others were sent to Caribbean or Brazil). PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Countries are not equally affected The Atlantic Slave Trade The Indian Ocean SlaveTrade Figure: Map displaying the number of slaves of each ethnicity shipped during the Atlantic and Indian Oceans slave trade (Nunn and Wantchekon, 2010) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade: Causes Demand-side: PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade: Causes Demand-side: Europeans had been involved in trade with Africa since before the Atlantic Slave Trade began Plantation agriculture and new maritime power relationships as primary drivers of slave trade. Sugar, cotton and coffee plantation spread to Americas → increased demand for slave labor. In 16-17th c. Estimated 90% of slaves worked on sugar plantation. The 18th c. peak is associated with the industrial revolution and the mechanization of textiles in Northern England. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Atlantic Triangle of Trade PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade: Causes Supply-side: Why were Africans willing to sell their neighbors and even their kin? PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade: Causes Supply-side: Why were Africans willing to sell their neighbors and even their kin? Domestic slave trade existed by the time the Portuguese arrived. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade: Causes Supply-side: Why were Africans willing to sell their neighbors and even their kin? Domestic slave trade existed by the time the Portuguese arrived. Labor scarcity → people most valuable commodity → slavery already a common practice for labor supply. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade: Causes Supply-side: Why were Africans willing to sell their neighbors and even their kin? Domestic slave trade existed by the time the Portuguese arrived. Labor scarcity → people most valuable commodity → slavery already a common practice for labor supply. Lot of variation in the form of slavery within Africa, but generally, it was more “flexible and benign” than European slavery (Hochschild p. 10); slaves were captured in warfare and could work their way out of slavery. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Short to Medium-Term Consequences Social consequences: PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Short to Medium-Term Consequences Social consequences: Population growth: curtailed for two centuries → contributed to low-population density. By 1850, West and West-Central Africa’s population is only HALF of what it would have been without the slave trade. Gender Imbalance: women-men ratio approaches 2:1 → consequences for type and importance of marriage. Intra-tribe violence: loss of trust, impact on social cohesion. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Short to Medium-Term Consequences Political consequences: There is no doubt that the slave trade affected African state formation during 17th and 18th c. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Short to Medium-Term Consequences Political consequences: There is no doubt that the slave trade affected African state formation during 17th and 18th c. There had been several large kingdoms along the Congo River, but slave hunting raids had weakened them. Slave raids may have fomented violence, contributing to the fragmentation of ethnic groups. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade and Decentralized (‘Stateless’) Societies Slave trade as a centralizing force: PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade and Decentralized (‘Stateless’) Societies Slave trade as a centralizing force: Built walls and organized defense to keep out raiders. Migration into walled settlements for shelter. External threats encourage villages to confederate. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Slave Trade and Decentralized (‘Stateless’) Societies Slave trade as a centralizing force: Built walls and organized defense to keep out raiders. Migration into walled settlements for shelter. External threats encourage villages to confederate. BUT, can be argued that was a decentralizing force: Whole villages would scatter into forests or hill tops. Threats pit village against village: dissolve existing ties. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Short to Medium-Term Consequences Direct Economic consequences: The effect of the trade on African economies is subject to a heated debate. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Short to Medium-Term Consequences Direct Economic consequences: The effect of the trade on African economies is subject to a heated debate. Position I: African societies were robust and not much affected by the ongoing trade. Position II: States and kingdoms suffered loss of productive capacity of millions of Africans exported as slaves. PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Long-Term Economic Effects of the Slave Trade Countries from which more slaves were exported are doing worse economically today. Figure: Nunn (2008) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Causal Mechanisms The slave trade has... PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Causal Mechanisms The slave trade has... 1 Contributed to political instability and collapse of pre-existing forms of government. 2 Destroyed inter-village cooperation and discouraged the formation of larger communities. 3 Impeded the formation of broader ethnic identities (Nunn, 2010). 4 Created a legacy of mistrust at the individual level (Nunn and Wanteckon, 2010) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Legacies of the Slave Trade and Path Dependence Why are contemporary African states still feeling the effects of the slave trade? 1 They were set back through its extraction of able bodies BUT should converge with other regions in the long-run. 2 OR, the trajectories of Sub-Saharan African have been permanently altered as a result of the slave trade. State formation is ‘path-dependent’ Concept has been applied to many micro-economic and political phenomena (QWERTY) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade More than Economics: Legacy of Racism “The simple fact is that no people can enslave another for four centuries without coming out with a notion of superiority, and when the colour and other physical traits of those peoples were quite different it was inevitable that the prejudice should take a racist form.” (Walter Rodney) “A racial twist [was] given to what is basically an economic phe- nomenon. Slavery was not born of racism: rather, racism was the consequence of slavery.” (Eric Williams) PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade Turning to King Leopold’s Ghost 1 Why did King Leopold want Congo – what are the ways in which he (and other Belgians) profited off of the colony in Congo? 2 How did King Leopold convince the other European powers and the US that he should “get” Congo? What were his primary techniques and justifications? 3 How did Leopold and his cronies control the Congolese people? What were its techniques of administration and control? PSC 2381 Professor Lewis The Slave Trade