Major Theoretical Perspectives PDF

FULL NOTES Saturday, 19 October 2024 5:01 pm Major Theoretical Perspectives Symbolic interaction theory (micro-meso) George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) Sees humans as active agents who create shared meanings of symbols and events and then interact on the basis of those meanings We make...

FULL NOTES Saturday, 19 October 2024 5:01 pm Major Theoretical Perspectives Symbolic interaction theory (micro-meso) George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) Sees humans as active agents who create shared meanings of symbols and events and then interact on the basis of those meanings We make use of symbols, actions or objects that represent something else and therefore have meaning beyond their own existence—such as flags, wedding rings, words, and nonverbal gestures People continually create and re-create society through interacting with one another. People interact by communicating with one another through the use of shared symbols. We learn who we are (our sense of self) and our place in society through interacting with others. Critique of symbolic interaction theory Often criticized for neglecting the macro-level structures of society that affect human behavior Large-scale social forces such as an economic depression or a political revolution that shape human destinies are given less consideration It is difficult to study abstract ideas like the development of the self, key to symbolic interaction theory Rational choice (exchange) theory (micro-meso) Fundamentally, humans are concerned with self-interests, making rational decisions based on weighing costs and reward of an action Every interaction involves an exchange of something valued—money, time, material goods, attention, sex, allegiance, and so on Human beings are mostly self-centered, and self-interest drives their behavior. Humans calculate costs and benefits (rewards) in making decisions. Humans are rational in that they weigh choices in order to maximize their own benefits and minimize costs. People keep a mental ledger in their heads about whether they owe someone else or that person owes them. Critique of Rational Choice (Exchange) Theory Little attention to micro-level internal mental processes, such as self-reflection Charitable, unselfish, or altruistic behavior is not easily explained by this view Proponents of rational choice counter the criticism by arguing that if a person feels good about helping another, that in itself is a reward that compensates for the cost Structural functional theory (meso-macro) Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) Assumes that all parts of the social structure, the culture, and social processes work together to make the whole society run smoothly For instance, two functions (purposes) of the family include having children and teaching them to be members of society Manifest functions are the planned outcomes of interactions, social organizations, or institutions. Latent functions are unplanned. It examines the macro-level organizations and patterns in society. It looks at what holds societies together and enhances social continuity Robert Merton: It notes manifest functions (which are planned), latent functions (which are unplanned or secondary), and dysfunctions (which undermine stability) Critique of the structural functional theory  Difficult to test with data Does not explain social change eg. revolution Just because there is structure does not mean society runs smoothly eg. China Conflict theory (meso-macro) Karl Marx (1818–1883) Opposite of structural function theory Inequality and injustice are the source of the conflicts that permeate society Bourgeoisie vs proletariat Conflict and the potential for conflict underlie all social relations. Groups of people look out for their self-interest and try to obtain resources and make sure they are distributed primarily to members of their own group. Social change is desirable, particularly changes that bring about a greater degree of social equality. Critique of conflict theory Too macro focused - lose sight of the individuals involved in conflict situations Too broad and generalising Not very effective in explaining social cohesion and cooperation Culture Characteristics of culture All people share a culture with others Evolves over time and is adaptive Ongoing and cumulative Components of culture Material culture: all human made objects Non-material culture: beliefs, values, language Socialisation Stages of development Imitation stage (under 3): observing and copying behaviours Play stage (3-5): simple role taking Game stage (5+): ability to take up multiple roles and conform to societal expectations Agents of socialisation Formal agents: families, teachers, religious leaders Informal agents: peers, media, books Interaction, groups, organisations Symbolic interaction theory With whom do you interact? What determines whether the interaction will continue or stop? How do you know how to behave and what to say around each other? What other processes are taking place as you “talk” to each other? Why do you act differently with different people? Rational choice theory Why relationships continue, considering the rewards and costs of interaction for the individual If the benefits of the interaction are high and if the costs are low, the interaction will be valued and sustained Eg. work colleagues, networking at a conference  Status Ascribed status: assigned at birth eg. sex Achieved status: obtained eg. higher education Groups Primary: intimate/long term relationships Secondary: formal, impersonal, and businesslike relationships, often temporary Bureaucracy Division of labour based on competence Administrative hierarchy Formal rules and regulations Impersonal relationships Emphasis on rationality and efficiency Deviance and social control Deviance Primary deviance: Violation of a norm that may be an isolated act or an initial act of rule breaking Secondary deviance: Publicly recognized, and the individual is identified as deviant, beginning a deviant career Violation of social norms Socially constructed and dependent on context Can be functional as it sets social Guidelines Symbolic interaction theory Differential association theory: learning deviant behaviour from those with whom we interact Four factors: the duration of time spent with the group, the intensity of interaction, the frequency of interaction, and the priority of the group in one’s friendship network Labeling theory: being labeled as deviant will lead to more acts being committed, such as being called a juvenile delinquent Structural functional theory Attachment to other people who respect the values and rules of the society Commitment to conventional activities (such as school and jobs) that they do not want to jeopardize Involvement in activities that keep them so busy with conventional roles and expectations that they do not have time for mischief Belief in the social rules of their culture, which they accept because of their childhood socialization and indoctrination Stratification Social stratification How individuals and groups are layered and ranked in society according to their access to and possession of valued resources Different in every context eg. agricultural community - more land = more power Cultural capital (knowledge, skills, language, style) Social capital (network) Evolutionary theory Gerhard Lenski Talented individuals need to be motivated to make sacrifices  Great inequality undermines motivation and productivity Evolution into the industrial stage should lead to less inequality due to a surplus in access to technology and interdependence Symbolic interaction theory People learn what is expected in their groups—family, peer group, social class—through interaction with others Eg. symbol of affluence in global north is privacy, however in global south it is more open Structural-functional theory Stratification is inevitable, places individuals in a position and motivates them to carry out their rules However, does not explain why those who do not provide value to society reap the rewards eg. Hedge fund managers Conflict theory Marx believes the struggle for resources between bourgeoisie and proletariat is the basis of stratification Even if a nation like China claims to be 'classless', there is still a huge difference between the rich and the peasants Individual life chances Education Health, social conditions, life expectancy Lifestyle Attitude towards achievement Family life Religious membership Social mobility Extend of individual movement up or down in class Types of social mobility: intergenerational mobility (compared to parent), vertical mobility (in a hierarchy eg. Work) Measures of mobility: compare to parents, now including mothers as women are becoming more independent and have higher level jobs than ever before Factors affecting mobility: economic capital, social capital Stratification Systems Ascribed status Caste system: most rigid, individuals born into a status and thus have predetermined positions eg. Religion or location Estate system: economic and political power in the hands of elite minority eg. China and Japan Poverty Absolute poverty: not having resources to meet basic needs Relative poverty: below national poverty line Solutions to poverty Welfare, workfare, aid programs Race and Ethnic group stratification Minority groups Differences to group in power Excluded from meso-level society  Less access to power and resources Stereotyped Race Socially constructed Differentiates groups Little scientific accuracy but is socially significant Based on appearance Ethnic groups Based on cultural factors Members share cultural heritage Prejudice v discrimination Attitudes of prejudgement about a group Discrimination is rather differential treatment against minorities Frustration-aggression theory Those who carry acts of racial discrimination feel angry because they believe they cannot function without another group involved Types of discrimination Institutional racial discrimination: meso-level institutional arrangement that favors one racial group Past-in-present discrimination: practices from the past that are not allowed in the present Dominant-minority relations Genocide: one group destroys a minority group Subjugation: subordination of one group to another that holds power (modern slavery) Population transfer: removal of a group from a region Assimilation: social and cultural merging of minority with dominant group Pluralism: ethnic or racial grojp maintains its own culture and separate institutions which recognised as equal eg. Belgium flemish and wallonian Structural-functional theory Prejudice, discrimination and institutional racism are dysfunctional for society Durkheim: divided social inequalities into internal (based on natural abilities) and external (forced upon people) However, poor labourers help society by doing unwanted jobs Conflict theory Creating less powerful groups protects the dominant group The privileged perpetrate prejudice and discrimination to keep resources Split labour market theory: characterises the labour market as having two main types of jobs Primary: clean jobs eg. Supervisors, high salary Secondary: undesirable, hard and dirty work Gender Stratification Gender Society's notions of masculinity and femininity Gender roles: assigned tasks or expected behaviours from a gender Stages of gender socialisation in children Infancy: learning how to carry out gender roles Childhood: examples of boy code, girls begin to gossip  Gender socialisation in the every-day Corporations Media Educational system Religion Glass ceiling: limits the progress of women and other minorities to higher status Symbolic interaction theory Traditional gender assigned notions Through interaction, symbols are developed on both genders These patterns of behaviour are learnt as you grow Structural-functional theory Each sex has a role to contribute to society These roles change eg. Before and after industrial revolution Gender roles are promoted by the structural-functional theory Feminist theory Agree with Marx and Engels that gender stratification is based on power struggles, not biology Talks about patriarchy Provide more opportunities and higher standard of living for women Family Family theory Family of orientation: family into which we are born or adopted Family of procreation: family we create ourselves Symbolic interaction theory Relationship roles formed through family Shapes what is significant for us Rational choice theory Questioning why people stay in abusive relationships eg. For needs such as emotion, sex, economic factors There is a realistic cost-based consideration made when going into a relationship Structural-functional theory Family provides: Structure Sexual regulation through partners Reproduction needed Socialisation Emotional support/protection Status assignment Economic support Conflict theory Conflict in family is inevitable Can be positive as it forces negotiation Relationships across the world  Endogamy (same race, religion etc) Arranged marriages Free choice marriage Monogamy (marriage of two individuals) Polygamy (marriage of multiple individuals) Education Final recap Multiple choice is Ba, OQ is Be What do I need to know Concepts Authors and concepts Applying authors and concepts Examples Key knowledge Four perspectives Thinkers Related concepts to those thinkers Cross linkages between three elements above (with both books) Exam Questions What does Berger invite you to? Invitation to look behind the scenes of the social world - a passport to a different meaning of life. Peter Burger invites you to open up the closed door. "A good sociologist would want to open that door to understand those (human) voices. Behind each closed door s/he will anticipate a fact of human life not yet perceived and understood" (p20) Why could sociological consciousness be always potentially dangerous? Some people like to keep doors closed eg. they believe in their absolute rightness. It is dangerous as some perspectives are dangerous in certain situations and as a sociologist one must consider all perspectives.  👤 Sociological key figures Date @October 17, 2024 1:30 PM Courses Sociology 🇫🇷 Auguste Comte (1798-1857) founder of the term “Sociology” The scientific study of social life people are fundamentally social beings Social statics (order, harmony, stability = Structure) Social dynamics (change, (r)evolution, forces = Process) 📖 Peter Berger Sociological consciousness The general in the particular general patterns of social life by looking at concrete specific examples The strange in the familiar showing that things are not what they seem Individuality within a social context can be dangerous for people that want to keep door closed Sociology is an individual pastime “things are not what they seem to be” ≠ layers of meanings and not only 1st image Sociological key figures 1  ⚰️ Emile Durkheim (functionalism) Social Facts ways of acting external to the individual influenced by social forces in our environment that we can’t control language, following time, wearing clothes Social cohesion within a society change over time 1. Traditional → mechanical solidarity social cohesion based on similarities of individuals in the group (shared beliefs, values, emotional ties) - same tasks 2. Modern → organic solidarity social cohesion based on division of labor, each member plays a specialized role - interdependent tasks Social factors of suicide 4 types (egoistic - loneliness and no social integration / altruistic - excessive integration / anomic - no norms to reffer to / fatalistic - too much norms ) 🇺🇸 Charles Wright (conflict approach) Sociological imagination How your personal troubles relates to public issues of social structures seeing the macro in the miso 👤 Max Weber (symbolic interactionism) founder of sociology sociology is “value-free” scientific integrity ( work regardless of emotions, prejudice and convictions) Verstehen : to understand a behavior you have to look to their emotions (empathy) Sociological key figures 2  👨‍🏭 Karl Marx (conflict approach) Founder of sociology capitalistic organization of labour creates inequalities capitalism is based on exploitation social order as result of power imbalances and domination instead of consensus class conflict between bourgeoisie and proletariat Base determine the Superstructure 💼 Robert Merton (functionalism) Three functions (e.g. working) Manifest → Intended effects of a social phenomenon work to make money Latent → Unintended effects of a social phenomenon work to have a daily life structure Disfunction → Unintended and negative effects of a social phenomenon stress, burnout, etc 🌐 Pierre Bourdieu 3 Capitals for individuals (Micro level of social stratification) Social Capital Cultural capital Economic capital 🧕 Erving Goffman (Identity) No true self but Social Identity Roles and stigma (negative social label e.g. slaves) Stereotypes, prejudices Sociological key figures 3  👥 William Du Bois (Identity) Race and color line Double- consciousness (African American) Stigma 💡 George Herbert Mead (symbolic interactionism) I, Me, Self self = I (subject) + me (as object, societal aspect of self) development of the self 1. Imitation (‘I’) 2. Play (‘me’) 3. Game (‘self’, empathy) Symbolic interactionism : how human define or make sense of situations (language) Charles Cooley Looking-glass self people create their identity on the basis of how others see them Sociological key figures 4