Summary

This document provides a briefing on cognitive psychology, focusing on learning and long-term memory. It covers concepts such as memory systems, implicit/explicit learning, levels of processing, and different memory types.

Full Transcript

‭Week 6: Learning and Long-Term Memory‬ ‭Core Concepts:‬ ‭Long-Term Memory (LTM):‬‭Described as the "archive"‬‭of past events and learned‬ ‭knowledge, working in conjunction with working memory. It covers information from‬ ‭r...

‭Week 6: Learning and Long-Term Memory‬ ‭Core Concepts:‬ ‭Long-Term Memory (LTM):‬‭Described as the "archive"‬‭of past events and learned‬ ‭knowledge, working in conjunction with working memory. It covers information from‬ ‭recent moments to the distant past.‬ ‭Incidental vs. Intentional Learning:‬‭Learning can‬‭be either intentional (deliberate and‬ ‭purposeful, like studying for an exam) or incidental (unplanned and often arising as a‬ ‭by-product of other activities, like learning the layout of a new house).‬ ‭Implicit vs. Explicit Learning:‬‭Explicit learning‬‭involves conscious awareness of what‬ ‭is being learned, while implicit learning occurs without conscious awareness (e.g.,‬ ‭learning complex patterns in a serial reaction time task). The distinction between‬ ‭incidental and implicit learning lies in the potential for conscious awareness.‬ ‭Assessing Implicit Learning:‬ ‭The serial reaction time task is used to study implicit learning. Participants respond to stimuli‬ ‭appearing in a complex, repeating sequence. Their response time improves over trials,‬ ‭indicating learning, even though they are unaware of the pattern. Slower responses to novel‬ ‭sequences further support the presence of implicit learning.‬ ‭Key Differences Between Implicit and Explicit Learning (Reber, 1993):‬ ‭Robustness:‬‭Implicit learning is less susceptible‬‭to disruption.‬ ‭Age independence:‬‭Less affected by age than explicit‬‭learning.‬ ‭Low variability:‬‭Shows less individual variation.‬ ‭IQ independence:‬‭Less influenced by intelligence.‬ ‭Commonality of process:‬‭Similar underlying mechanisms‬‭across species.‬ ‭While evidence suggests these are distinct learning types, much learning likely involves both.‬ ‭Levels of Processing:‬ ‭Craik & Lockhart's (1972) Levels of Processing Theory posits that memory retention depends on‬ ‭the depth of information processing:‬ ‭Deep processing:‬‭Focus on meaning and semantic analysis‬‭leads to better memory.‬ ‭Shallow processing:‬‭Focus on physical features results‬‭in poorer memory.‬ ‭Studies like Craik & Tulving (1975) using tasks varying in depth of processing (e.g.,‬ ‭uppercase/lowercase, rhyming, sentence fit) support this theory.‬ ‭However, Challis et al. (1996) suggest implicit memory may be less affected by the level of‬ ‭processing, as seen in word-fragment tasks where prior exposure aids completion regardless of‬ ‭processing depth.‬ ‭Memory Systems:‬ ‭Moving beyond a single LTM store, researchers propose multiple LTM systems:‬ ‭Non-declarative Memory:‬‭Includes procedural memory‬‭(memory for motor skills) and‬ ‭other forms like priming. Evidence comes from patients like H.M. who retain procedural‬ ‭learning despite severe episodic memory impairments.‬ ‭Declarative Memory:‬‭Comprises episodic memory (personal‬‭events) and semantic‬ ‭memory (general knowledge). While often intertwined, evidence from amnesia studies‬ ‭suggests these are distinct systems. For example, individuals with amnesia may have‬ ‭impaired episodic memory but intact semantic memory.‬ ‭ mnesia:‬ A ‭Amnesia involves severe memory problems due to brain damage, often affecting episodic‬ ‭memory.‬ ‭Retrograde amnesia:‬‭Impaired memory for events before‬‭the injury.‬ ‭Anterograde amnesia:‬‭Impaired learning of new information‬‭after the injury.‬ ‭While some research suggests separate episodic and semantic systems, others argue for a‬ ‭single system with differences in binding or associative learning. Eye-tracking studies in‬ ‭amnesia patients reveal an inability to implicitly remember scene information.‬ ‭Forgetting:‬ ‭Decay:‬‭Memory fades over time. Ebbinghaus's (1885/1913)‬‭studies using nonsense‬ ‭syllables showed the relationship between forgetting and retention interval.‬ ‭Interference:‬‭Competition from other material disrupts‬‭memory.‬ ‭Proactive interference:‬‭Old learning interferes with‬‭new learning.‬ ‭Retroactive interference:‬‭New learning interferes‬‭with recalling old information.‬ ‭Encoding Specificity:‬ ‭Retrieval is enhanced when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding (Thomson‬ ‭& Tulving, 1970). Godden & Baddeley's (1975) study with divers showed that recall was best‬ ‭when learning and testing occurred in the same environment (underwater or on shore).‬ ‭Consolidation and Reconsolidation:‬ ‭Consolidation:‬‭The process of stabilising new memories in LTM, involving the‬ ‭hippocampus and potentially sleep.‬ ‭Reconsolidation:‬‭When a consolidated memory is reactivated,‬‭it becomes fragile again,‬ ‭susceptible to modification, leading to potential errors like hindsight bias and the‬ ‭misinformation effect.‬ ‭Key Quotes:‬ ‭"Archive of information about past events and knowledge learned"‬‭(definition of LTM)‬ ‭"Memory depends on how information is encoded"‬‭(Levels‬‭of Processing Theory)‬ ‭"Recall is better if retrieval context matches encoding context"‬‭(Encoding Specificity‬ ‭Principle)‬ ‭"New encoded memories (unstable) -> Consolidation -> Stored memories (stable)"‬ ‭"Reactivation (retrieval or reminder) -> Reconsolidation -> Modification -> Altered‬ ‭memories (Stable)"‬ ‭Week 7: Knowledge in Semantic Memory‬ ‭ hat are Concepts?‬ W ‭Concepts are the fundamental units of symbolic knowledge. They are mental representations of‬ ‭categories, allowing us to understand and organise the world around us. Categories are classes‬ ‭of similar things sharing essential features or functionalities. For example, "birds" is a natural‬ ‭category while "vehicles" is an artefact category.‬ ‭Why are Concepts Useful?‬ ‭Organisation:‬‭Concepts structure our declarative,‬‭semantic knowledge in long-term‬ ‭memory.‬ ‭Efficiency:‬‭As "pointers to knowledge", categories‬‭provide general information, reducing‬ ‭cognitive load during learning, perception, and recall.‬ ‭ pecialisation:‬‭Concepts enable us to identify unique characteristics of individual items‬ S ‭within a category.‬ ‭Defining Concepts: Theoretical Approaches‬ ‭Several approaches attempt to explain how concepts are defined:‬ ‭1‬‭. Common Features Approach:‬ ‭This approach posits that category membership is determined by necessary and sufficient‬ ‭defining features. For instance, a bachelor is defined as an unmarried adult male.‬ ‭Strengths:‬‭Offers a clear-cut classification system.‬ ‭Weaknesses:‬‭Difficulty in establishing universally‬‭agreed-upon defining features for‬ ‭many concepts.‬ ‭Fuzzy boundaries between categories.‬ ‭Doesn't reflect the way we naturally think – consider the pumpkin example where‬ ‭participants had varying and changing opinions on its categorisation as fruit or‬ ‭vegetable.‬ ‭2.‬‭Prototype Approach:‬ ‭Concepts are represented by a mental "prototype" – an idealised average of category members‬ ‭encountered previously. Categorisation involves comparing new items to this prototype.‬ ‭Strengths:‬ ‭Handles "fuzzy concepts" (e.g., "monster", "games") well.‬ ‭Explains the typicality effect:‬‭prototypical objects‬‭are processed faster and judged‬ ‭more quickly.‬ ‭Empirical Evidence:‬ ‭Rosch (1975):‬‭Participants rated apples and oranges‬‭as the "best" examples of the‬ ‭"fruit" category.‬ ‭Rosch & Mervis (1975):‬‭Strong correlations found between‬‭prototype ratings and‬ ‭shared attributes, indicating that more typical items share more features.‬ ‭Smith, Shoben & Rips (1974):‬‭Sentences about prototypical‬‭instances were verified‬ ‭faster.‬ ‭Weaknesses:‬ ‭Prototypes may not represent the features of most category members (e.g., tall trees‬ ‭rated as more typical than average-height trees).‬ ‭Familiarity can override prototype matching.‬ ‭Challenges in applying this approach to abstract concepts (e.g., "justice").‬ ‭3‬‭. Exemplar Approach:‬ ‭Concepts are represented by multiple concrete examples (exemplars) rather than an abstract‬ ‭prototype. Categorisation involves comparing new items to stored exemplars.‬ ‭Strengths:‬‭Explains difficulty in categorising atypical instances due to dissimilarity to‬ ‭stored exemplars.‬ ‭Accounts for the typicality effect:‬‭numerous similar‬‭exemplars facilitate faster‬ ‭classification.‬ ‭Weaknesses:‬‭Lacks clarity on which instances are stored‬‭as exemplars.‬ ‭Unclear how different exemplars are recalled during categorisation.‬ ‭Limited explanation of how concepts are organised.‬ ‭4.‬‭Knowledge-Based Approach:‬ ‭ his approach considers the relationship between concept features, including causal relations‬ T ‭and contextual influences. For example, Ahn et al. (2000) demonstrated that causal‬ ‭relationships between features influence categorisation decisions.‬ ‭Strengths:‬‭Accounts for factors like causal relations,‬‭context, and non-obvious features‬ ‭in categorisation.‬ ‭Explains ad hoc categories (e.g., "things to sell at a garage sale").‬ ‭Key Points:‬‭Knowledge of concepts goes beyond just‬‭listing features.‬ ‭Context influences concept representation (Barsalou, 2008).‬ ‭Yee and Thompson-Schill (2016) argue against a single core representation across all‬ ‭contexts.‬ ‭Organisation of Concepts:‬ ‭Concepts are often organised hierarchically:‬ ‭Superordinate level:‬‭Most general (e.g., "furniture").‬ ‭Basic level:‬‭Intermediate level (e.g., "chair", "table").‬ ‭Subordinate level:‬‭Specific types (e.g., "kitchen‬‭chair").‬ ‭Special properties of basic level concepts:‬ ‭Spontaneously named.‬ ‭Acquired first by children.‬ ‭Share similar shapes.‬ ‭Faster recognition compared to other levels.‬ ‭Limitations of hierarchical organisation:‬ ‭Familiarity and expertise can influence the "basic" level.‬ ‭Perceptual distinctiveness can favour superordinate categories for certain tasks.‬ ‭Semantic Networks:‬ ‭Collins & Loftus (1975) proposed a semantic network model where concepts are interconnected‬ ‭nodes, with shorter links between closely related concepts.‬ ‭Spreading activation:‬‭Activating one node spreads‬‭to connected nodes, priming them‬ ‭for easier access.‬ ‭Schemas:‬ ‭Schemas are packets of knowledge about the world, events, or people based on past‬ ‭experiences. They guide recall, often leading to consistency bias.‬ ‭Bartlett (1932): Demonstrated that memory is reconstructed based on existing schemas.‬ ‭Brewer & Treyans (1981): Showed that schemas influence recall and can lead to false‬ ‭memories.‬ ‭Stereotypes:‬ ‭Stereotypes are oversimplified generalisations about certain groups. They reduce processing‬ ‭demands but can be inaccurate and harmful.‬ ‭Semantic Dementia:‬ ‭A condition characterised by widespread loss of knowledge about concepts and words, distinct‬ ‭from Alzheimer's disease.‬ ‭Key Takeaways:‬ ‭Defining and organising concepts is complex.‬ ‭Multiple theoretical approaches contribute to our understanding.‬ ‭ ur knowledge of concepts is dynamic and influenced by experience, context, and‬ O ‭individual differences.‬ ‭Semantic memory is crucial for our understanding and interaction with the world.‬ ‭Week 8: Exploring Everyday Memory‬ I‭. Everyday Memory: Definition and Characteristics‬ ‭Unlike traditional memory studies focusing on lists and isolated items, everyday memory‬ ‭examines how we remember experiences and information relevant to our daily lives.‬ ‭Distant Past and Memory of Memories:‬‭Everyday memories‬‭often reach back to the‬ ‭distant past, encompassing memories of past memories.‬ ‭Implicit Acquisition:‬‭Acquisition of everyday memories‬‭is often implicit, occurring as a‬ ‭by-product of daily activities rather than through deliberate memorisation.‬ ‭Social Element:‬‭A significant characteristic of everyday‬‭memory is its inherent social‬ ‭dimension, reflecting the interconnectedness of our experiences with others.‬ ‭Goal-Dependent Accuracy:‬‭The accuracy of everyday‬‭memory is often shaped by the‬ ‭specific goals at play, with absolute accuracy not always being the primary objective.‬ ‭II. Autobiographical Memory: A Subset of Episodic Memory?‬ ‭Autobiographical memory refers to the memory of our own life, intertwined with our sense of‬ ‭self, goals, and emotions.‬ ‭Two Perspectives:‬‭The relationship between autobiographical‬‭memory and episodic‬ ‭memory (memory for specific events) is debated. Some argue that autobiographical‬ ‭memory is a distinct and more complex system, while others view episodic memory as a‬ ‭component within the broader framework of autobiographical memory.‬ ‭The "What, When, Where" with Personal Significance:‬‭The latter perspective‬ ‭suggests that episodic memory provides the "what, when, and where" of events, which‬ ‭then integrates with autobiographical information about our self-concept, emotions, and‬ ‭beliefs.‬ ‭III. The Variability of Autobiographical Memory‬ ‭"Good Enough": While generally reliable, autobiographical memory is far from perfect‬ ‭and subject to various influences.‬ ‭Hyperthymestic Syndrome:‬‭The case of AJ (Jill Price),‬‭with her exceptional ability to‬ ‭recall detailed information from almost every day of her life, highlights the potential for‬ ‭superior autobiographical memory. Researchers coined the term "hyperthymestic‬ ‭syndrome" to describe this phenomenon, speculating potential contributing factors such‬ ‭as obsessional tendencies, difficulty with inhibition, spatial conceptualisation of time, and‬ ‭specific brain structure variations.‬ ‭Strengths and Weaknesses:‬‭Research reveals inconsistencies‬‭in autobiographical‬ ‭memory accuracy. While individuals can accurately recognise classmates from yearbook‬ ‭pictures even after 25 years, they tend to overestimate their college grades. This‬ ‭highlights the influence of personal biases and emotions on memory recall.‬ ‭IV. Flashbulb Memories: Vivid but Not Necessarily Accurate‬ ‭Flashbulb memories, highly vivid and detailed memories of dramatic events, are often‬ ‭considered more accurate due to their emotional intensity. However, research challenges this‬ ‭assumption.‬ ‭ eptember 11th Study:‬‭A study examining memories of the September 11th attacks‬ S ‭revealed that while the vividness of flashbulb memories remained high over time, their‬ ‭consistency (accuracy of details) was actually lower compared to everyday memories.‬ ‭V. Recovered Memories: The Debate of Repression and Accuracy‬ ‭The concept of repressed traumatic memories being recovered later in life is highly debated.‬ ‭False Memories:‬‭Researchers like Loftus argue that‬‭recovered memories are more‬ ‭likely to be false memories, influenced by suggestion, therapy techniques, or other‬ ‭external factors. A study involving fabricated childhood stories demonstrated the‬ ‭susceptibility of individuals to forming false memories based on suggestive information.‬ ‭VI. Childhood Amnesia: The Limits of Early Memory Retrieval‬ ‭Childhood amnesia refers to the inability of adults to recall autobiographical information from‬ ‭early childhood.‬ ‭Two Stages:‬‭Research suggests two stages of childhood‬‭amnesia: full amnesia for the‬ ‭first two years of life and partial amnesia for the remaining pre-school years. This‬ ‭phenomenon is potentially attributed to the immaturity of the hippocampus and the‬ ‭underdeveloped sense of self in early childhood.‬ ‭Early Memory in Children:‬‭Studies indicate that children's‬‭first memories also occur‬ ‭later than their actual earliest experiences, with first memories reported around 1.5 years‬ ‭for children aged 5-9, 2.5 years for adolescents, and just over 3 years for adults.‬ ‭VII. Reminiscence Bump: The Significance of Youthful Memories‬ ‭The reminiscence bump describes the tendency for older individuals to recall a disproportionate‬ ‭number of autobiographical events from adolescence and early adulthood.‬ ‭Cultural Consistency:‬‭This phenomenon appears consistent‬‭across different cultures,‬ ‭suggesting universal influences.‬ ‭Life Script Theory:‬‭One explanation is the "life script"‬‭theory, proposing that cultural‬ ‭expectations about major life events guide and organise autobiographical memory‬ ‭retrieval. Supporting this theory, a study found that children predominantly wrote about‬ ‭life-script events when asked about their future lives.‬ ‭VIII. Self-Memory System Model: A Multi-Level Framework‬ ‭The self-memory system model offers a comprehensive theory of autobiographical memory. It‬ ‭proposes a hierarchical structure comprising:‬ ‭Autobiographical Knowledge Base:‬‭This base consists‬‭of three levels of specificity:‬ ‭Lifetime periods:‬‭Extended situations like studying‬‭at a particular university.‬ ‭General events:‬‭Ongoing activities (e.g., weekly dance‬‭class) or one-off events (e.g., a‬ ‭holiday).‬ ‭Event-specific knowledge:‬‭Detailed sensory information,‬‭feelings, and other specifics‬ ‭associated with general events.‬ ‭Working Self:‬‭The working self represents our current‬‭goals and future aspirations. It‬ ‭influences how autobiographical information is stored and recalled, ensuring alignment‬ ‭with our personal identity and objectives.‬ ‭IX. Evidence and Challenges of the Self-Memory System Model‬ ‭Support from Amnesia:‬‭The model finds support in observations‬‭of individuals with‬ ‭retrograde amnesia (impaired memory for events preceding brain injury). Despite‬ ‭ pisodic memory impairments, they often retain access to general events, lifetime‬ e ‭periods, autobiographical knowledge about their lives, and even their personality traits.‬ ‭Ongoing Questions:‬‭The model faces ongoing challenges,‬‭particularly regarding the‬ ‭neural mechanisms involved and the precise interaction between the working self and‬ ‭the autobiographical knowledge base.‬ ‭X. Eyewitness Testimony: The Illusion of Reliability‬ ‭Despite common beliefs about the reliability of eyewitness testimony, research reveals‬ ‭significant vulnerabilities.‬ ‭Post-Event Misinformation Effect:‬‭Eyewitness memories‬‭are highly susceptible to‬ ‭distortion by misleading information presented after the event. A classic study showed‬ ‭that simply changing the verb used to describe a car accident (e.g., "smashed" versus‬ ‭"contacted") significantly influenced participant's estimations of speed and their‬ ‭recollection of broken glass.‬ ‭Central vs. Peripheral Details:‬‭Research demonstrates‬‭that even central details of‬ ‭events can be distorted by post-event misinformation, with participants accepting a‬ ‭significant percentage of false statements about both central and peripheral aspects of a‬ ‭witnessed event.‬ ‭XI. Source Misattribution: Confusing the Origins of Memory‬ ‭Source misattribution occurs when we misremember the source or origin of a retrieved memory.‬ ‭Overlapping Traces:‬‭When memories from different sources‬‭share similarities,‬ ‭retrieving one memory can activate overlapping traces, leading to confusion about which‬ ‭source the information originated from.‬ ‭Narrative Sideshow Study:‬‭A study using narrative‬‭sideshows with similar details‬ ‭demonstrated source misattribution, with participants mistakenly recalling details from‬ ‭one sideshow when describing the other.‬ ‭XII. Challenges in Remembering Faces‬ ‭Accurately remembering faces is crucial for eyewitness testimony, but poses significant‬ ‭challenges.‬ ‭CCTV Identification:‬‭Research shows that even when‬‭presented with a target face from‬ ‭CCTV footage alongside high-quality photographs, identification accuracy remains‬ ‭relatively low.‬ ‭Factors Impacting Accuracy:‬‭Several factors contribute‬‭to difficulties in facial‬ ‭recognition:‬ ‭Unconscious transference:‬‭Misidentifying a familiar‬‭but innocent face as the‬ ‭perpetrator.‬ ‭Cross-race effect:‬‭Reduced accuracy in remembering‬‭faces of individuals from other‬ ‭racial groups.‬ ‭Confirmation bias:‬‭Distortions in memory driven by‬‭pre-existing expectations.‬ ‭Schemas:‬‭Influence of generalised mental frameworks about specific situations or‬ ‭people.‬ ‭XIII. Stress, Anxiety, and Weapon Focus‬ ‭The emotional state of an eyewitness significantly influences their memory accuracy.‬ ‭ eapon Focus:‬‭The presence of a weapon can draw attention away from other crucial‬ W ‭details, impairing memory for those aspects. This effect is heightened when the weapon‬ ‭is unexpected.‬ ‭Stress and Anxiety:‬‭High stress and anxiety generally‬‭impair eyewitness testimony. A‬ ‭meta-analysis found that the identification of perpetrators was significantly worse under‬ ‭high-stress conditions. This impairment is attributed to the narrowing of attention towards‬ ‭central, threatening stimuli at the expense of peripheral details.‬ ‭XIV. Cognitive Interview: Enhancing Eyewitness Recall‬ ‭The cognitive interview is a technique designed to maximise the amount of accurate information‬ ‭obtained from eyewitnesses.‬ ‭Four Retrieval Rules:‬‭The technique employs four key‬‭principles:‬ ‭Mental reinstatement:‬‭Encouraging the witness to mentally‬‭recreate the context of the‬ ‭event.‬ ‭Report all details:‬‭Emphasizing the importance of‬‭reporting even seemingly minor‬ ‭details.‬ ‭Describe in different orders:‬‭Asking the witness to‬‭recount the event in various‬ ‭sequences, including reverse chronological order.‬ ‭Different viewpoints:‬‭Prompting the witness to describe‬‭the event from different‬ ‭perspectives.‬ ‭Effectiveness and Considerations:‬‭While generally‬‭effective, the cognitive interview‬ ‭must be used cautiously. Context reinstatement can potentially lead to false recognitions‬ ‭based on perceived familiarity. Additionally, the technique is less effective when the‬ ‭event was highly stressful.‬ ‭XV. Prospective Memory: Remembering to Remember‬ ‭Prospective memory refers to our ability to remember to perform intended actions in the future.‬ ‭Distinct from Retrospective Memory:‬‭Unlike retrospective‬‭memory, which focuses on‬ ‭past experiences and knowledge, prospective memory centres on future intentions.‬ ‭Low Informational Content:‬‭Prospective memory often‬‭involves minimal information,‬ ‭primarily concerning the "when" of an action rather than the "what."‬ ‭Lack of External Cues:‬‭Prospective memory often operates‬‭without external cues,‬ ‭relying on internal reminders and self-initiated retrieval.‬ ‭XVI. Event-Based vs. Time-Based Prospective Memory‬ ‭Prospective memory research distinguishes between:‬ ‭Time-based prospective memory:‬‭Remembering to perform‬‭an action at a specific‬ ‭time.‬ ‭Event-based prospective memory:‬‭Remembering to carry‬‭out an action when a‬ ‭particular event occurs.‬ ‭External Cues as Triggers:‬‭Event-based tasks tend‬‭to be more easily studied and often‬ ‭involve external cues that trigger the intended action. A study comparing event-based‬ ‭and time-based tasks in a real work setting found that performance was significantly‬ ‭better for event-related tasks.‬ ‭XVII. Neurological Differences and Real-Life Implications‬ ‭ istinct Neural Processes:‬‭Research using ERPs suggests that event-based and‬ D ‭time-based prospective memory may involve different neural processes, further‬ ‭supporting the distinction between these two types.‬ ‭Aviation Accidents:‬‭Prospective memory failures are‬‭implicated in a significant‬ ‭proportion of fatal aircraft accidents, often due to interruptions and the demanding‬ ‭cognitive load of piloting. Research highlights the importance of pausing after‬ ‭interruptions to re-establish intended actions and minimise errors.‬ ‭Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: I‬‭ndividuals with OCD‬‭often exhibit compulsive‬ ‭checking behaviours, potentially stemming from both poor prospective memory‬ ‭functioning and low confidence in their memory abilities (meta-memory). Repeated‬ ‭checking can further worsen memory by interfering with the formation of vivid, detailed‬ ‭memories of previous actions.‬ ‭XVIII. Improving Prospective Memory and Conclusion‬ ‭The document concludes by offering strategies to enhance prospective memory, including:‬ ‭Using external cues (notes, alarms, visual reminders).‬ ‭Minimising interruptions.‬ ‭Utilising "pause and plan" strategies after interruptions to regain focus.‬ ‭Considering the context and anticipating potential challenges.‬ ‭ eek 9: Key Themes and Ideas in Language Production and‬ W ‭Comprehension‬ ‭A. Speaking Efficiency‬ ‭We speak at a rate of 150-200 words per minute, utilising strategies to minimise‬ ‭processing demands.‬ ‭Preformulation:‬‭Repetitive use of word combinations. Altenberg (1990) estimated that‬ ‭up to 70% of speech consists of such combinations.‬ ‭Underspecification:‬‭Using simplified expressions that rely on context for complete‬ ‭understanding, like "polish the shoes then put them away."‬ ‭Syntactic priming:‬‭Unconsciously mirroring the sentence structure previously heard or‬ ‭read. This was highlighted by Pickering and Ferreira (2008).‬ ‭B. Speech Planning‬ ‭Planning occurs at different levels:‬ ‭Phrase level:‬‭Planning groups of words that express a single idea.‬ ‭Clause level:‬‭Planning groups of words containing subject and verb within a phrase.‬ ‭Research by Martin et al. (2004) suggests planning occurs at the phrase level, as‬ ‭evidenced by longer pauses before uttering complex phrases compared to simple ones.‬ ‭Speech errors provide insight into planning processes:‬ ‭Word exchange errors:‬‭Indicate planning ahead, as words appearing later in the‬ ‭sentence are erroneously produced early.‬ ‭Sound exchange errors (spoonerisms):‬‭Suggest a level of phonological planning‬ ‭within short word spans.‬ ‭Flexibility in Planning:‬‭The level of planning adjusts based on factors like:‬ ‭Speaker's pace:‬‭Slower speakers tend to plan more than rapid speakers.‬ ‭ entence complexity:‬‭Simple sentences are planned more thoroughly.‬ S ‭Cognitive load:‬‭Lower cognitive load allows for more extensive planning.‬ ‭C. Speech Errors‬ ‭The average person makes a speech error every 1,000 words (Viggliocco and‬ ‭Hartsuiker, 2002).‬ ‭Spreading activation theory (Dell, 1986):‬‭Errors occur due to the simultaneous‬ ‭activation of multiple words and sounds during utterance planning.‬ ‭Lexical bias effect:‬‭Speech errors rarely result in non-words, suggesting an inherent‬ ‭bias towards existing words.‬ ‭D. Speech Perception‬ ‭Challenges:‬ ‭Rapid pace of spoken language.‬ ‭Difficulty in segmenting speech sounds.‬ ‭Interference from background noise.‬ ‭Models:‬‭Trace model (McClelland and Elman, 1986; McClelland, 1991): Posits three‬ ‭processing levels: features of sounds, phonemes, and words.‬ ‭Distributed cohort model:‬‭Argues against dedicated phoneme neurons, proposing‬ ‭activity across a layer of nodes representing meaning.‬ ‭Realistic Listening Conditions:‬‭Research by Mattys et al. (2009) highlights the impact‬ ‭of:‬ ‭Energetic masking (bottom-up):‬‭Interference from external noise.‬ ‭Informational masking (top-down):‬‭Cognitive distractions.‬ ‭Orthographic Information:‬‭Slower processing of words with inconsistent spelling and‬ ‭pronunciation suggests activation of orthographic information during speech perception.‬ ‭II. Language Comprehension‬ ‭A. Reading‬ ‭Average reading speed surpasses speech perception, reaching 200-300 words per‬ ‭minute due to:‬ ‭Clear word boundaries (spaces).‬ ‭Ability to revisit previously read text.‬ ‭Eye Tracking:‬‭Reveals patterns in reading:‬ ‭Saccades:‬‭Rapid eye movements across text.‬ ‭Fixations:‬‭Pauses where information is extracted.‬ ‭Regressions:‬‭Eye movements back to previously read text.‬ ‭Higher fixation rate on content words than function words.‬ ‭B. Word Processing‬ ‭Influenced by:‬ ‭Word frequency effect: Faster processing of familiar words.‬ ‭Age of acquisition:‬‭Words learned early in life are processed faster.‬ ‭Word length:‬‭Shorter words are recognised faster.‬ ‭Context effects:‬‭Semantic congruency with surrounding text facilitates processing.‬ ‭C. Morphological Complexity‬ ‭Derivation creates new words by adding morphemes (e.g., "un-drink-able").‬ ‭ ebate exists on whether complex words are stored in the mental lexicon or assembled‬ D ‭on the spot.‬ ‭Bertram and Hyönä (2003) propose a hybrid view:‬ ‭High frequency and short words are stored in the lexicon.‬ ‭Polymorphemic words with difficult-to-extract meanings are also stored.‬ ‭D. Sentence Parsing‬ ‭Involves understanding the grammatical structure of sentences.‬ ‭Challenges‬‭: Ambiguous sentences pose difficulties for the parser.‬ ‭Theories:‬‭Garden path theory: Syntactic analysis precedes semantic interpretation.‬ ‭Constraint-based models:‬‭All sources of information (syntax, semantics, world‬ ‭knowledge) contribute simultaneously.‬ ‭E. Discourse Processing‬ ‭Comprehension of longer texts relies on:‬ ‭World knowledge:‬‭General understanding of concepts and events.‬ ‭Schemas:‬‭Mental frameworks representing knowledge about specific situations.‬ ‭Inferences:‬‭Drawing conclusions based on available information.‬ ‭F. Schemas and Story Comprehension‬ ‭Bransford and Johnson (1972) demonstrate the importance of schemas:‬ ‭Presenting a picture related to a vague text passage enhances comprehension and‬ ‭recall.‬ ‭Titles also activate schemas and improve comprehension.‬ ‭G. Pragmatics‬ ‭Using social context and shared knowledge to infer the intended meaning.‬ ‭Common Ground:‬‭Shared knowledge and beliefs between speaker and listener.‬ ‭Lack of common ground leads to miscommunication.‬ ‭Egocentric Heuristic:‬‭Listeners sometimes rely solely on their own knowledge,‬ ‭neglecting the common ground.‬ ‭Individuals with lower inhibitory control or ASD may struggle with pragmatics and‬ ‭common ground usage.‬ ‭Week 10: Problem-Solving‬ ‭I. Understanding Problems‬ ‭Defining Problems:‬‭Not all problems are created equal.‬ ‭Well-defined problems have clearly specified initial states, goal states, and possible‬ ‭actions. An example is solving the Tower of Hanoi puzzle.‬ ‭Ill-defined problems lack clear specifications, making it difficult to define the initial state,‬ ‭goal state, and potential solutions. An example is the problem of "not being happy‬ ‭enough."‬ ‭Knowledge and Problems:‬‭Knowledge-rich problems require specific domain‬ ‭knowledge for successful resolution (e.g., fixing a car engine).‬ ‭Knowledge-lean problems provide all necessary information within the problem‬ ‭statement itself (e.g., finding a parking space).‬ ‭II. Problem-Solving Strategies‬ ‭ lgorithms vs. Heuristics:‬‭Algorithms are step-by-step procedures guaranteeing a‬ A ‭solution for well-defined problems. They are systematic but can be time-consuming and‬ ‭computationally expensive for humans.‬ ‭Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb based on past experience. They offer‬ ‭speed and efficiency but may not always lead to accurate solutions.‬ ‭Types of Heuristics:‬‭Means-end analysis: involves breaking down a problem into‬ ‭smaller subgoals, ultimately bridging the gap between the current state and the goal‬ ‭state.‬ ‭Hill climbing:‬‭focuses on taking steps that move closer to the goal state, even when the‬ ‭complete problem space is not clear. This approach is less sophisticated than‬ ‭means-end analysis.‬ ‭Progress monitoring:‬‭involves evaluating the rate of progress towards the goal and‬ ‭changing strategies if deemed too slow. This can be problematic, as initial progress can‬ ‭lead to fixation on ineffective strategies, as seen in the nine-dot problem.‬ ‭Availability heuristic:‬‭relies on readily available information in memory to make‬ ‭judgments. For example, overestimating the danger of flying due to vivid media‬ ‭coverage of airplane crashes.‬ ‭Analogical problem-solving:‬‭leverages similarities between the current problem and‬ ‭past experiences to find solutions. Gick and Holyoak's (1980) study demonstrated that‬ ‭explicitly highlighting the relevance of an analogous problem can significantly improve‬ ‭solution rates.‬ ‭Success depends on recognising relevant analogies and identifying the appropriate level‬ ‭of similarity: superficial, structural, or procedural.‬ ‭III. Insight and Incubation‬ ‭Insight:‬‭characterised by the "Aha!" moment, where a solution suddenly emerges after a‬ ‭period of impasse.‬ ‭Debate exists whether insight problems are fundamentally different from non-insight‬ ‭problems or simply involve less clear solution paths.‬ ‭Incubation:‬‭temporarily setting aside a problem can facilitate finding a solution.‬ ‭While effects are generally small, incubation is more beneficial for problems with multiple‬ ‭solutions and when preparation time is longer.‬ ‭Sleeping on a problem can also contribute to problem-solving, likely by facilitating the‬ ‭forgetting of misleading information.‬ ‭Representational Change Theory:‬‭posits that blocks in problem-solving stem from‬ ‭incorrect problem representation. Overcoming these blocks involves:‬ ‭Constraint relaxation:‬‭removing self-imposed limitations on what is permissible.‬ ‭Re-encoding:‬‭reinterpreting aspects of the problem.‬ ‭Elaboration:‬‭adding new information to the problem representation.‬ ‭IV. Expertise and its Limitations‬ ‭Expertise:‬‭achieved through extensive practice and exposure to diverse problems,‬ ‭allowing experts to store vast amounts of domain-specific knowledge in long-term‬ ‭memory.‬ ‭Chess experts, for instance, utilise "templates" - abstract structures representing‬ ‭common board configurations - to efficiently evaluate potential moves.‬ ‭ edical experts transition from explicit to implicit reasoning with experience,‬ M ‭demonstrating increased efficiency in eye movement patterns.‬ ‭Deliberate Practice:‬‭crucial for developing expertise, involves engaging in tasks with‬ ‭appropriate difficulty, receiving feedback, repeating tasks, and correcting errors.‬ ‭Limitations of Expertise:‬‭While practice is essential, other factors like IQ, task type,‬ ‭and genetic predisposition also contribute to expertise.‬ ‭Functional fixedness:‬‭a tendency to fixate on an object's usual function, hindering its‬ ‭application in novel ways for problem-solving.‬ ‭Mental set:‬‭persistence in using previously successful strategies even when simpler‬ ‭solutions are available.‬ ‭V. Hypothesis Testing and Confirmation Bias‬ ‭Verification vs. Falsification:‬‭The tendency to seek confirming evidence (verification)‬ ‭can lead to confirmation bias, as demonstrated by Wason's (1960) study.‬ ‭Actively seeking disconfirming evidence (falsification) is a more robust strategy for‬ ‭hypothesis testing.‬ ‭VI. Counteracting Biases‬ ‭Awareness of functional fixedness and mental set can help us overcome these‬ ‭limitations.‬ ‭The generic-parts-technique, involving generating function-free descriptions of problem‬ ‭elements, encourages creative problem-solving and reduces functional fixedness.‬ ‭Week 11: Judgement, Decision Making, and Reasoning‬ ‭ udgement Under Uncertainty:‬ J ‭Humans often estimate the likelihood of events to guide their actions. This is known as‬ ‭judgement. Psychology investigates errors and limitations in this process. Factors like‬ ‭information quantity, wording, and emotions can influence judgement.‬ ‭Heuristics and Biases:‬ ‭Availability Heuristic:‬‭We tend to overestimate the frequency of events based on how‬ ‭easily we can recall them. This is influenced by factors like direct experience, media‬ ‭coverage, and the affect heuristic (emotional intensity). For example, we might‬ ‭overestimate the likelihood of dying in a plane crash due to media coverage.‬ ‭Quote:‬‭"Recall from last week, the availability heuristic is a rule of thumb whereby there is a‬ ‭tendency to incorrectly overestimate the frequency of an event based on how easily the‬ ‭information can be accessed in LTM."‬ ‭Base-Rate Neglect:‬‭We often ignore general probabilities (base rates) when making‬ ‭judgments. Studies show that even when presented with base rate information, vivid‬ ‭descriptions can lead us to ignore this crucial data.‬ ‭Representativeness Heuristic:‬‭We judge the probability of an event based on how‬ ‭representative it seems of a category, often ignoring sample size, base rates, and the‬ ‭conjunction rule. The "Linda Problem" exemplifies this, where individuals deem it more‬ ‭likely that Linda is both a bank teller and a feminist, than just a bank teller.‬ ‭Quote:‬‭"Because feminist bank tellers are a subset of bank tellers, it is always more likely that‬ ‭someone is a bank teller than a feminist bank teller."‬ ‭ onjunction Fallacy:‬‭This occurs when we judge the probability of two events occurring‬ C ‭together as higher than the probability of one event occurring alone. For example, it is‬ ‭always more probable that someone is a bank teller than a feminist bank teller, even if‬ ‭they fit the description of a feminist.‬ ‭The Dual Nature of Decision Making:‬ ‭Losses and Gains:‬‭We strive to maximise gains and minimise losses. However, we are‬ ‭more sensitive to losses, a phenomenon known as "loss aversion."‬ ‭Prospect Theory:‬‭This theory posits that our decisions are influenced by a reference‬ ‭point (usually our current state) and our aversion to losses.‬ ‭Framing Effects:‬‭The way information is presented (framed) influences our choices.‬ ‭Positive framing tends to be more effective. For example, we are more likely to buy meat‬ ‭labelled "95% lean" than "5% fat."‬ ‭Quote:‬‭"Positive frames cause you to set a different reference point than negative frames do.‬ ‭And in general, we take 'losses' more seriously than 'wins' of the same amount."‬ ‭Sunk-Cost Effect:‬‭We often continue investing in something (time, money, effort) based‬ ‭on past investments, even if it's not the optimal choice. This is known as "throwing good‬ ‭money after bad."‬ ‭Emotional and Social Influences:‬‭Emotions, particularly anxiety, can make us‬ ‭risk-averse. Social context also plays a role, as we often feel accountable for justifying‬ ‭our decisions to others, which can lead to sunk-cost behaviour.‬ ‭Reasoning: Logic vs. Human Tendencies:‬ ‭Deductive Reasoning:‬‭This involves drawing logically valid conclusions from given‬ ‭premises. It doesn't generate new information, but rather makes implicit information‬ ‭explicit. Examples include syllogistic and conditional reasoning.‬ ‭Inductive Reasoning:‬‭We draw general conclusions from specific observations in‬ ‭inductive reasoning. These conclusions are not always true but can be evaluated‬ ‭through hypothesis testing.‬ ‭Quote:‬‭"Does the argument go: general specific or specific general?"‬ ‭Mental Models and Heuristics:‬‭Mental models, representing possible states of affairs,‬ ‭guide our reasoning. However, our reliance on heuristics and biases can lead to errors.‬ ‭For instance, the "belief bias" demonstrates how we are more likely to accept believable‬ ‭conclusions even if they are logically invalid.‬ ‭Informal Reasoning:‬‭In real-world scenarios, we use informal reasoning based on our‬ ‭knowledge and the context. This is less about formal logic and more about drawing‬ ‭plausible conclusions based on available information.‬ ‭Conclusion:‬ ‭Human judgement, decision making, and reasoning processes are complex and influenced by‬ ‭numerous factors beyond pure logic. While heuristics can be efficient, they often lead to biases‬ ‭and errors. Understanding these processes is crucial for making better judgments and more‬ ‭informed decisions in all aspects of life.‬ ‭Week 12: Cognition and Emotion‬ ‭ heories of emotion perception:‬‭How we understand and label our emotional‬ T ‭experiences.‬ ‭ he structure of emotions:‬‭Different approaches to classifying and understanding‬ T ‭emotions.‬ ‭The interplay between emotion and cognition:‬‭How emotions influence various‬ ‭cognitive processes.‬ ‭Cognitive biases in anxiety:‬‭The role of attentional and interpretive biases in anxiety‬ ‭disorders.‬ ‭Theories of Emotion Perception‬ ‭The source highlights Schachter & Singer's Two-Factor Theory of Emotion, which posits that‬ ‭emotions arise from a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that‬ ‭arousal.‬‭A key takeaway is:‬ ‭"Emotion = arousal + cognition"‬ ‭This is supported by their 1962 experiment where participants injected with epinephrine‬ ‭experienced different emotions depending on the behaviour of a confederate, demonstrating the‬ ‭importance of contextual information in shaping emotional responses.‬ ‭The "Creaky Bridge Experiment"‬‭(Dutton & Aron, 1974) further exemplifies this theory. Men‬ ‭on a dangerous, swaying bridge were more likely to attribute their physiological arousal to‬ ‭attraction towards a female confederate compared to men on a stable bridge. This highlights‬ ‭how:‬ ‭"Physiology has been interpreted as emotion"‬ ‭The Structure of Emotions‬ ‭The source presents two contrasting approaches to understanding the structure of emotions:‬ ‭Dimensional Approach:‬‭Emotions exist on a continuum of valence (positive-negative)‬ ‭and arousal (low-high).‬ ‭Categorical Approach:‬‭Emotions are distinct categories like happiness, sadness, and‬ ‭anger.‬ ‭Emotion, Mood, and Affect‬ ‭The source distinguishes between emotions, which are short-lived and intense, and moods,‬ ‭which are less intense but more enduring. Affect is used as a broader term encompassing the‬ ‭experience of emotions, moods, and personality traits.‬ ‭Cognitive Processes and the Brain‬ ‭The source emphasises the bidirectional relationship between cognition and emotion, stating:‬ ‭Two possible interactions between emotion and cognition:‬ ‭Effects of cognitions on emotions‬ ‭Effects of emotions on cognitions"‬ ‭The‬‭amygdala‬‭is highlighted as a key brain region in emotional processing, supported by brain‬ ‭imaging studies and research on patients with amygdala damage.‬ ‭Appraisal Approach‬ ‭The source explains that our emotional experiences are shaped by our appraisals of situations‬ ‭in relation to our goals and well-being.‬‭A crucial point is:‬ ‭"According to appraisal theories, appraisals can cause emotional states rather than emotional‬ ‭states causing appraisals"‬ ‭An example of failing an exam illustrates this:‬‭blaming the teacher evokes anger, while‬ ‭blaming oneself evokes guilt, demonstrating the influence of appraisal on the resulting emotion.‬ ‭Non-conscious Emotional Processing‬ ‭ he source presents evidence that emotional processing can occur below conscious‬ T ‭awareness. Studies using subliminal stimuli demonstrate that exposure to negative words or‬ ‭phobia-related images can influence mood and emotional responses, even without conscious‬ ‭perception.‬ ‭Emotional Regulation‬ ‭The source discusses the importance of regulating our emotional responses and introduces‬ ‭Gross and Thompson's (2007) process model, which categorises emotional regulation‬ ‭strategies based on when they are employed:‬ ‭Situation Selection:‬‭Avoiding potentially stressful situations.‬ ‭Situation Modification:‬‭Altering aspects of the situation.‬ ‭Attention Deployment:‬‭Shifting focus away from emotional stimuli.‬ ‭Cognitive Change:‬‭Reinterpreting the situation to change its emotional impact.‬ ‭Response Modulation:‬‭Controlling outward expression of emotions.‬ ‭Two specific strategies, distraction and reappraisal, are discussed in detail, highlighting their‬ ‭effectiveness in regulating emotions.‬‭However, it is noted that:‬ ‭"There is no one size fits all"‬ ‭and the effectiveness of a strategy depends on the specific situation and individual differences.‬ ‭Emotion's Influence on Cognition‬ ‭The source provides examples of how emotions can affect various cognitive processes,‬ ‭including attention, memory, judgement, and decision-making. For example, anxiety is‬ ‭associated with reduced attentional breadth and increased risk aversion, while sadness can‬ ‭lead to more risky decisions and altered perceptions of worth.‬ ‭Anxiety and Cognitive Biases‬ ‭The source delves into two key cognitive biases in anxiety:‬ ‭Attentional Bias:‬‭Preferential attention to threatening stimuli.‬ ‭Interpretive Bias:‬‭Tendency to interpret ambiguous information negatively.‬ ‭Research by Ohman and colleagues demonstrates that even non-anxious individuals exhibit‬ ‭attentional biases towards threatening images. However, these biases are amplified in‬ ‭individuals with anxiety disorders.‬ ‭In conclusion, the source provides a comprehensive overview of key concepts in the field of‬ ‭cognition and emotion, highlighting the intricate interplay between these two domains and their‬ ‭influence on human behaviour. It emphasises the importance of understanding how emotions‬ ‭are generated, structured, and regulated, as well as their impact on various cognitive processes.‬

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