Alcohol Level and Wine Production - 2024

2024-02-27 Alcohol level Kefir (acidic-alcoholic fermented milk): ~ 3% Beer: 1-12%, usually ~ 5%. Wine: 7-15% usually ~ 13%. Liquors: ~ 15-30% Spirits: ~ 30-55% Distilled drinks Liquors: distilled ​from ferm...

2024-02-27 Alcohol level Kefir (acidic-alcoholic fermented milk): ~ 3% Beer: 1-12%, usually ~ 5%. Wine: 7-15% usually ~ 13%. Liquors: ~ 15-30% Spirits: ~ 30-55% Distilled drinks Liquors: distilled ​from fermented rice, sticky rice, cassava, corn… Whisky: distilled ​from fermented grain mash (corn, barley, wheat…) Rhum: distilled ​from fermented molasses. Cognac: distilled ​from must (fermented grape). 81  2024-02-27 Cognac American: Brandy; French: Cognac. Strong alcohol distilled from crude wine/must, by heating the wine to 78.3 0C or more to collect ethyl-alcohol (ethanol). Storing cellar Wine, Cognac and other brandies (in bottles/barrels... ) after fermentation/distillation are usually stored in deep cellars under cool, humid, poor in oxygen/light… conditions for dozens of months/years, to slow down oxidation, before sale. Tannins from the oak containers will react with the substrates in Cognac, resulted in the tasty alcohols with amber color. 82  2024-02-27 How old are the oak trees for barrels? As young as 60 to 80 years, and as old as 150 to 200 years. Young oak gives less tasty cognac. Age of spirits 3 Stars (***) (some time coded as V.S) is a youngest (3 to 5 years old) brandy, but it is most consumed because of acceptable price to many consumers. [*] V.S.O.P (Very Special Old Pale): Pale - color of a high-grade spirit, with age from 7 to 10 years. X.O (Extra Old): 20 – 35 years old. Extra, Extra Vieiille or Grande Reserve: Special spirits preserved from 45 years upwards. 83  2024-02-27 Ethanol – Characteristics and applications 1. Ethanol (C2H5OH) – Colorless liquid, lighter than water. – Aromatic, spicy. – Soluble in water. Density: d20 = 0,7894 – Boiling temperature: 78.30C Applications: – Others: plastic, flavorings, adhesives, paints, varnishes, food, solvents, rubber… industries. – Food industries: applied in fermentations of alcohols, bread, and dumplings. From Glucose to Carbon Dioxide and Ethanol Major Reaction: C6H12O6 → 2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2 84  2024-02-27 Beneficial effects of alcohol if taken in moderate dosage Feeling relaxed Stimulation of senses and appetite Heightening of pleasure Providing sense of euphoria (intensive feeling of well-being). Negative effects of alcohol if taken in too much dosage Impairs mobility Impairs muscular coordination Impairs eyesight Delays reaction time Induced serious diseases Cirrhosis: inflammation of liver, liver cancer. Liver is impaired in removing wastes and toxins. Gallstone: the presence of uric acid crystals in gall bladder. Bile release is impaired. Kidney stone: the presence of uric acid crystals in kidney. Kidney is impaired in removing wastes from blood and control the level of fluid in body 85  2024-02-27 BAC % Effects 0.02% You may feel relaxed and might experience slow reaction time. 0.04% Your vision is affected. 0.08% Your coordination decreases and your driving skills are impaired. This is the legal drinking limit. You are legally intoxicated and it’s illegal to drive in the U.S. 0.10% Your speech may become slurred. Lost of coordination and judgment. 0.15% You may stumble when walking and may have trouble standing up. 0.30% You might vomit and probably pass out. 0.40% You may pass out (unconscious) and may go into a coma (unconsciousness lasting more than six hours). Over Alcohol poisoning and death can occur. Your breathing 0.40% might stop. This is the lethal blood alcohol level. PROCESSING OF STRAW WINE Rice cooking Cooked rice and rice husk mixing Yeast cake powder supplementation Biomass growth >> Aerobic fermentation (1-2 days) Alcohol production >> Anaerobic fermentation in big-bellied jar Straw wine 86  2024-02-27 Yeast cake for straw wine of K’HO minority Rice “Đòng” tree “Me kà zút” tree Soaking Chopping Simmering Waste Draining Drying Crushing Crushing First extract Rice powder Powder Mixing Rolling into balls Yeast cake Storing 2-3 days Sun drying 3-5 days Hanging on kitchen Special yeast cake frame Yeast cake for straw wine of K’Ho minority 87  2024-02-27 KOMBUCHA - THUỶ HOÀI SÂM Thuỷ hoài sâm: mixture of sugar (7-10%) and tea is fermented by a symbiosis of yeast and acetic bacteria (called “vinegar scum”/“sâm”). There are two fermentation processes including alcoholic (yeast) and vinegar (acetic bacteria) fermentations. Together with fermentation, the scum continues to grow and would be the starter for the next , batch. Kombucha 88  2024-02-27 Kombucha SCOBY- "symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast." Nata de coco production Mature coco nut juice Sugar 5% Sulphat amon 0,5% Mixing DAP 0,2% Biomass growth  Acid acetic 1,2% Pasteurization Acetobacter xylinum Surface fermentation in 7-8 days Biomass harvesting Slicing Nata de coco production  Repeated soaking & washing with water Soaking and cooking with sugar syrup Mixing with sugar syrup and flavorings Final product 89  2024-02-27 Cellulose of cotton Cellulose of Acetobacter xylinum SCOBY - Giống khởi động làm Kombucha "symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast." 180 90  2024-02-27 Chapter II.2: WINE PRODUCTION 181 A. Introduction Wine is a fermented beverage from grapes or other fruits. Is a non-distillation alcoholic drink with ethanol concentration is normally in the range of 7 - 15%. 91  2024-02-27 183 184 92  2024-02-27 Wine and health benefits Using red wine often can control aging process. Wine is good for heart. Wine has anti- inflamatory properties. Wine with oak is a good anti-cancer combination. Wine classification Based on: Color Sweetness Fermentation CO2 level Producer 93  2024-02-27 Wine classification By color White wine (white/pale color): made from juice of white/green-skin grapes. Rose wine: made from red/purple grapes. After crushing, the grape skins will be left macerating with its juices for a few hours, resulted in a pinkish color wine. Red wine (red/purple/opaque color): made from the mixture of grape juice, skins and seeds of dark-skin grapes. > 94  2024-02-27 Wine classification By sweetness Dry wine: all sugar is converted to alcohol. Semi-dry (off-dry) wine: have a mild or softly perceptible sweetness. Sweet wine (dessert wine): still has some residual sugar due to short fermentation time or using low-alcoholic producing yeast. Wine classification By fermentation – Natural fermentation – Fortified wine: High alcohol (15-22%), dry/sweet due to the time of adding alcohol during fermentation. By CO2 level – CO2 containing wine: Sparkling wine/Champagne – Non-CO2 containing wine: Still wine. By producer – Country: French, Australian, Belgium… – Region: Bordeaux, California… 95  2024-02-27 B. Wine production Raw material Ripe, non-crushed/damaged fruits. Fruits are harvested based on Brix, acidity, pH Color and taste of wine depend on vine variety. Species for white wine processing (green-skin grapes): – Chardonnay, Airen, Palomino, Sauvignon Blanc, Ugni Blanc Species for red wine processing (black-, red-, purple-skin) grapes : – Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Pinot Noir.. 96  2024-02-27 Chardonnay Airen Sauvignon Blanc Pinot Blanc Cabernet Sauvignon Merlot Cabernet Franc Pinot Noir Approximate grape ripeness criteria for different wine types Wine Type Criterion Unit Typical values White wine Sugar ◦Brix 19 – 22 Titratable acidity g/l 7.5 – 9.0 pH – 3.0 – 3.3 Red wine Sugar ◦Brix 22 – 24 Titratable acidity g/l 7.5 – 9.0 pH – 3.3 – 3.6 Fortified wine Sugar ◦Brix 24 Titratable acidity g/l 6.0 pH pH < 3.8 97  2024-02-27 Sugar Acid Wine type concentration concentration pH (°B) (g/l) Sparkling 18,0 – 20,0 7,0 – 9,0 2,8 – 3,2 wine White table 19,5 – 23,0 7,0 – 8,0 3,0 – 33 wine Red table 20,5 – 23,5 6,5 – 7,5 3,2 – 3,4 wine Sweet wine 22,0 – 25,0 6,5 – 8,0 3,2 – 3,4 Dessert wine 23,0 – 26,0 5,0 – 7,5 3,3 – 3,7 98  2024-02-27 Chemical composition of grape and wine Microorganism in wine production Characteristics of a natural fermentation – Low alcohol concentration product. – Product is not pure due to the ease of infection. – There are many by-products. – The wine becomes sour due to the accumulation of organic acids. – To overcome this problem we should better use pure yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 99  2024-02-27 Microorganism in wine production Saccharomyces cerevisiae has advantages: Rapid and complete fermentation. Well-settling, easily to be detached from the fermented juice. Create a distinct aroma for wine. Sustainable to alcohol, acid and antiseptics.  Saccharomyces cerevisiae is now used as common yeast to ferment grape juice to wine. Grape - wine yeasts Yeast on the outside of grapes B. Lehane, Power of Plants, McGraw Hill. New York. 1977 100  2024-02-27 Wine-related yeasts (Lambrechts, 2000. Yeast and ít importance to wine aroma) Genus Species Brettanomyces anomalus, bruxellensis, intermedius Candida boidinii, colliculosa, guilliermondii, hellenica, krusei, lambica, oloephila, pelliculosa, pulcherrima, sorbosa, stellata, valida, vanrijiae Torulaspora hellenica Zygosaccharomyces krusei, lambica, oloephila, pelliculosa, pulcherrima, sorbosa, stellata, valida, vanrijiae Cryptococcus albidus Debaromyces hanseni Dekkera anomala, bruxellensis Hansenula anomala, kluyveri Kloeckera apiculata Kluyveromyces marxianus, thermotolerans Metschnikowia pulcherrima Pichia kluyveri, membranifaciens Rhodotorula glutinis Saccharomyces glutinis, bayanus, beticus, capensis, cerevisiae, chevalieri, ellipsoideus, fermentati, oviformis, rosei, uvarum Non-Sac. yeast (wild yeast) Band aid Oxidized (acetaldehyde) Medically Volatile acidity and Negative ethylacetate Hydrogensulfide Creamy character Mousy-taint“ impressions Complex acidity Lower extract and lactic composure Positive flavors due to flor yeast Intense mouth-feel Sweaty, fleshly Exotic fruit Petroleum and kerosene Diverse fruity esters aromas Sulfur containing aroma compounds. 101  2024-02-27 Factors affecting on wine fermentation Oxygen Temperature Sugar content pH 1. Oxygen Alcohol fermentation is an anaerobic process, However, at the initial stage of the fermentation: biomass growth  required more O2 to the “must”  aeration. 2. Temperature Temperature affects the yeast, fermentation process and product quality. Temperature for white wine fermentation: 18 - 200C. Temperature for red wine: 250C - 290C. 102  2024-02-27 3. pH Optimal pH of yeast: 4 – 6. Juice pH: 2.7 - 3.8  yeast still active. In winemaking industry, must or juice with pH greater than 3.5/3.6 require acidity adjustment, ideally for white wines to 3.1–3.3 and for red to 3.2–3.4, normally between 3.3 and 3.6 4. Sugar If the sugar content of grape juice: 10 - 25%  the fermentation process is normal. If the sugar content > 25%, the fermentation speed is slower. WHITE WINE RED WINE GRAPES GRAPES SO2 SO2 DESTEMMING AND PRESSING DESTEMMING AND CRUSHING JUICE INCUBATING & DEPOSITING (OPTIONAL) JUICE & PEEL INCUBATING PRESSING RESIDUES FERMENTATION PRESSING YEAST JUICE FERMENTATION BARELL RESIDUES YEAST FERMENTATION INCUBATION/STORAGE (IN OAK BARELL) STABILIZATION / DEPOSITING FILTERING FINAL PRODUCT FINAL PRODUCT BOTTLING 103  2024-02-27 White wine processing Step 1: Juice extraction Grapes Classification Damaged fruits Water Washing Destemming Stems Tearing/Crushing NaHSO3 Sulphite treatment Pressing Wet residues Water Pressing NaHSO3 Sulphite treatment Dried residues Pectinase Depositing Residues Juice Sugar, vitamins, tannin… Step 2: Fermentation Yeasts Sterile O2 Sugar, vitamins, Multiplication Grape juice tannin…… CO2 Primary fermentation Residues Depositing Bottling Bottles, stoppers CO2 Secondary fermentation Labeling, Packs, Incubation packing labels Residues Crude filtering Diatomite Final product Fine filtering Yeasts 104  2024-02-27 Red wine processing Harvesting Crushing Fermentation Pressing Filtering Incubation Blending (optional) Bottling Grapes harvesting 210 105  2024-02-27 Grapes harvesting Grape berries compositional changes during development (Watson, B. (2003). Evaluation of winegrape maturity. Oregon Viticulture) Grapes harvesting Physico-chemical characteristics of the grapes harvested (Bautista-Ortínet al., 2006. The effect of grape ripening stage on red wine color. Journal International des Sciences de la Vigne) Date of harvest °Brix Weight of 100 Titrable pH berries (g) acidity Aug. 16 20.2a 167.1a 7.8c 3.32a Sep. 11 23.4c 167.2a 5.7b 3.51b Sep. 16 23.5c 172.4ab 5.7b 3.50b Sep.18 22.4b 188.2c 5.5b 3.47b Oct. 16 25.8d 182.5bc 4.3a 3.78c Oct. 24 26.4d 182.3bc 4.2a 3.85c 106  2024-02-27 Destemming - Crushing Destemming is either done before or after crushing in the same machine. Most common type is a roller crusher, normally coupled with spirally arranged, radial fingers which rotate over a perforated cylinder. Berries are knocked off the stalks and drop through the holes in the cylinder. Stalks are moved through the cylinder by the spiral fingers and thrown out of the end. Addition may include sulfur dioxide and pectolytic enzymes. After Destemming – Crushing - Pressing 214 107  2024-02-27 > 215 Crushing By feet CÔNG NGHỆ LÊN MEN 216 108  2024-02-27 Pressing After being crushed, the grapes are mixed to a mixture of “skin + pulp + seed” called "Must". This “must” is then pressed to obtain juice. “Must” residue is further squeezed to collect the remained liquid. White wines: Fermentation on the juice collected from “must”. Red wine: Direct fermentation on the “must”. “Must” CÔNG NGHỆ LÊN MEN 218 109  2024-02-27 “Must” treatment 1. Cooling Purpose: Slowing down the oxidation and fermentation by wild yeast during color extraction. Procedure: “Must” is kept at temperature of 5-100C in 1-2 days to slow the oxidation and fermentation down. “Must” treatment 2. Chaptalization and acidity treatment (if necessary) Chaptalization: 17 g sugar/l of juice (white) and 19 g/l (red) would need to be added  to raise levels of alcohol by 1% (v:v). 180 g sugar  92 g ethanol (Jackson, 2000). Acidity adjustment: Must/Juice with pH > 3.5/3.6 require acidity adjustment, ideally 3.1–3.3 for white wines and 3.2–3.4 for red wine. Low-acid wine lacks strong taste and has short shelf life  Supplement of tartaric acid to balance the acidity. 110  2024-02-27 “Must” treatment 3. SO2 treatment: SO2 prevents the growth of bacteria, mold, wild yeast and oxidation reactions. In Europe, sulfur dioxide (E220), potassium bisulfite (E228), potassium metabisulfite K2S2O5 (E224) are permitted in wine. Sulfur dioxide is frequently added just after crushing and destemming at levels between 50 and 100 mg/l.. Legal limits for additives in wine Country Beverage Total SO2 Total sorbate (mg/l) (mg/l) Australia / Wine (rs > 35 g/l) 400 200 (for all) New Zealand Wine (rs < 35 g/l) 250 EU Red wine (rs < 5 g/l) 160 200 (for all) White wine (rs < 5 g/l) 210 Red wine (rs > 5 g/l) 210 White wine (rs > 5 g/l) 260 USA Wine 350 300 111  2024-02-27 “Must” treatment 4. Nutrients addition Purpose: To provide additional nutrients for a strong and complete fermentation process. Supplements: DAP-(NH4)2HPO4 (250 - 500 ppm), vitamins: biotin. “Must” treatment 5. Pectinase enzyme supplements Purpose: Support the extracting of anthocyanin, tannins, and polysaccharides.  Increase pressing yield.  Improve wine clarity. This supplementation should be done 24hrs prior to yeast multiplication. 112  2024-02-27 “Must” treatment The role of enzyme pectinase - Pectinase hydrolyses pectin to reduce viscosity, increase filtration effect and reduce processing time. - Increase stability of fruit juice during storage. - Prevent precipitation/sedimentation due to pectin during storage  increase wine quality. Fermentation The fermentation process is divided into 2 main phases - Primary fermentation (alcoholic fermentation) - Secondary fermentation (malo- lactic fermentation) - Other fermentations (incubation) 113  2024-02-27 Fermentation process - Can be fermented in an opened, or closed fermenters. - The opened fermentation tank is more easily to open, operate, and control the temperature. - Closed tanks or tanks with lid are more popular for ensuring sanitary conditions. - Fermentation in small amounts can be done in vases, boxes, plastic or stainless steel containers. Primary fermentation - Optimum temperature for dry white and rose wine: ~ 15–28◦C. - Red wines: high temperatures to maximize the extraction of color, minimum is 20 ◦C, optimum is 25–30 ◦C, and maximum is 32 ◦C. - 10 - 12 days at a temperature of 20-220C, 6 - 7 days at a temperature of 25-280C. - Pure culture can be added at this stage. - The main role is to produce alcohol. When being completed, alcohol content reaches 8 - 10% or more. 114  2024-02-27 Primary fermentation The metabolism of glucose to ethanol by S. cerevisiae can be interpreted in the following equation: C6H12O6 + 2Pi + 2ADP + 2H+  2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP 229 Mechanism of sugar decomposition to ethanol 230 115  2024-02-27 231 Mechanism of sugar decomposition to ethanol 116  2024-02-27 Crude wine pressing The purpose of this step is to eliminate skins from the fermented juice. The juice is drawn out, the remained pulp is continually pressed. Do not force too hard to avoid too much tannin eliminating. Fermented juice is then transferred to tanks for secondary fermentation (malo- lactic fermentation). Secondary fermentation Malic acid in grapes is converted to lactic acid  malolactic fermentation. Implementation is mainly based on lactic acid bacteria. 234 117  2024-02-27 Malolactic fermentation - A process where tart-tasting malic acid, naturally present in grape must, is converted to softer-tasting lactic acid, by the activities of bacteria. - In wine production, it is traditionally occurred after alcoholic fermentation, and frequently happened automatically when wines were stored in barrels for ageing and maturation. MLF bacteria in wine and cider Cell Oenococcus Leuconostoc Lactobacillus Pediococcus characteristic Morphology Spherical/lens Spherical/lens Long, slender Spherical cocci; -shaped cocci; -shaped cocci; rods, occur in tetrads occur in pairs occur in pairs sometimes and chains and chains bent Glucose Heterolactic Heterolactic Heterolactic, Homolactic fermentation homolactic Species found O. oeni L. ~ 16 species, P. pentosaceus, in wine and mesenteroides including P. damnosus, cider L. brevis, P. parvulus L. buchneri, L. casei, L. cellobiosis, L. collinoides, L. hilgardii, L. plantarum 118  2024-02-27 Unwanted fermentation Glycerol fermentation  lactic acid + acetic acid. Natural grape sugars  lactic acid + acetic acid. Tartaric acid  lactic acid + acetic acid + CO2 Ethanol  Acetic acid  water + CO2  Reduce wine quality.  To ensure that the primary and secondary fermentations are right taken place and properly controlled  wine needs to be assessed smell and taste often. 237 Some odorous byproducts of fermentation (Swiegers et al., 2005) Fermentation byproduct Characteristic odor description Acetic acid Sour, vinegary Acetone Nail varnish Acetoin Buttery, creamy Aldehydes (various) Buttery, fruity, nutty Butyric acid Rancid butter Diacetyl Buttery, cloying Diethyl sulfide Ether, pungent Ethanal (acetaldehyde) Sherry-like, oxidized, unpleasant Esters (various) Fruity, floral Formic acid Tart, pungent Fumaric acid Smoky, pungent Glycerol Mouthfeel, sweetness Higher alcohols (various) Pleasant floral→ sickly fusel aromas 238 Hydrogen sulfide Rotten egg 119  2024-02-27 Racking Racking is the process of transfering wine from this container to another container to remove settled matters (i.e. flocculated dead yeast cells, other chemical sediments…)  to a clearer wine. Needed to be done with limited oxygen availability to favor maturation of wine. Supplement of 0.01% sodium methabisulphite before each racking to avoid oxidation. ~ 3-4 rackings/year. The best containers are oak barrels or stainless steel tanks. Oak barrell It takes long time (~ 6 weeks to years) to store wine in oak barrell for wine aging. 240 120