CMM106 Lecture Notes PDF

CMM106 Lecture Notes De nitions of Culture Cli ord Geertz (1973): Control mechanisms: Culture guides our actions like a set of rules or instructions. Plans, recipes, rules, and instructions: These are the speci c ways culture shapes our...

CMM106 Lecture Notes De nitions of Culture Cli ord Geertz (1973): Control mechanisms: Culture guides our actions like a set of rules or instructions. Plans, recipes, rules, and instructions: These are the speci c ways culture shapes our behaviour. Collective Memory: Shared language, space, and time: Culture is unique to a speci c group of people. Shared beliefs, attitudes, norms, roles, and values: These are the core elements of a culture. Geert Hofstede (2010): Collective mental programming: Culture is deeply ingrained in our minds. Not a characteristic of individuals: Culture is about the group, not the individual. Shaped by education and life experience: Our culture is in uenced by the experiences we share. Geert Hofstede's additional point: Moral circle: Culture de nes what is right and wrong, good and bad. Inclusion and exclusion: Culture determines who belongs and who doesn't. In essence, these de nitions highlight that culture is a shared set of beliefs, values, and behaviours that guide a group of people's actions and interactions. Collective Phenomenon: Unwritten rules: Culture operates beneath the surface, in uencing our behaviour without explicit rules. Distinguishes groups: Culture sets apart di erent groups of people, shaping their unique identities. Learned, Not Innate: Not human nature: Culture is speci c to groups, not universal to all humans. Beyond personality: Culture goes beyond individual traits, shaping collective behaviours. Cultural Practices vs. Values: Visible vs. invisible: Practices like rituals and symbols are observable, while values are more deeply ingrained. Changeable vs. stubborn: Practices can evolve, but values often remain resistant to change. In summary, culture is a learned, collective set of beliefs and behaviours that shape how we interact and perceive the world. While practices can change, the underlying values that guide these practices tend to be more enduring. Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions: A Breakdown Hofstede's framework categorises culture into four distinct layers: 1. Symbols: These are the most visible aspects of culture, including objects, gestures, language, and art. They are often the easiest parts of a culture to adopt by outsiders. 2. Heroes: These are individuals who embody the ideals and values of a culture. They serve as role models and inspiration. 3. Rituals: These are collective activities that reinforce cultural norms and values. They can include ceremonies, greetings, and speci c language patterns. ff fi fi fi fi fi ff fl fl fi fi  4. Values: These are the most deeply ingrained and often invisible aspects of culture. They shape beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours. In essence, Hofstede's model suggests that culture is a complex system with multiple layers, each contributing to the unique identity of a group of people. Rokeach's De nition: Enduring beliefs: Values are deeply held convictions that shape our preferences and actions. Preference for one over another: Values prioritise certain outcomes or behaviours over others. Cultural Variation: Prioritisation: Di erent cultures prioritise di erent values, leading to diverse ways of life. Examples: Values like truth, beauty, and harmony may hold varying levels of importance in di erent societies. Formation and Stability: Early acquisition: Values are often formed during childhood and can be deeply ingrained. Generational transmission: Values can be passed down through generations, creating a sense of continuity. Collective vs. Individual Values: Cultural values: These are shared beliefs and preferences within a culture. Value orientations: These are individual preferences and priorities within a cultural context. In summary, values are fundamental beliefs that guide our actions and shape our understanding of the world. They are deeply rooted, culturally in uenced, and often passed down through generations. The Moral Circle: A Closer Look In-group and Out-group: Identity and belonging: Our sense of self is often tied to our group membership. Open to rede nition: The boundaries of these groups can change over time. Moral Circle and Rights: Exclusive membership: Only those within the moral circle are considered deserving of full rights. Culture carrier: The moral circle is essential for preserving and transmitting culture. Pride, Shame, and Sacri ce: Group identity: Our emotions are often linked to our group's successes and failures. Loyalty and devotion: We may be willing to ght or even die for our group. Politics, Religion, and Nations: Moral circle boundaries: These institutions play a signi cant role in de ning who belongs and who doesn't. Examples: Consider historical events like colonialism or religious persecution, where moral circles were expanded or narrowed. Multiple Moral Circles: Real-world examples: We often belong to multiple groups, each with its moral circle (e.g., family, community, nation). ff fi ff fi fi ff fi fl fi fi  In essence, the moral circle is a mental construct that de nes who we consider "us" and who we consider "them." It shapes our sense of belonging, our values, and our willingness to defend our group. Beyond Humans: Not just for humans: Communication is a fundamental aspect of life, not exclusive to humans. Verbal and Nonverbal: Full range of expression: Communication goes beyond words, encompassing gestures, facial expressions, and creative works. The power of silence: Even silence can convey messages. Cultural Speci city: No universal de nition: Communication is shaped by cultural context, making it di cult to de ne universally. Diverse theories: Various academic disciplines study communication, each o ering unique perspectives. Interdisciplinary Study: Wide range of elds: Communication is relevant to various elds, from communication studies to architecture and business. In essence, communication is a complex process that involves the exchange of information, ideas, and emotions through various means, both verbal and nonverbal. It is in uenced by culture and studied across multiple academic disciplines. The Three Essential Elements of Communication Communicator, Message, and Receiver: Interconnected trio: Every act of communication involves these three key elements. Dynamic interaction: The e ectiveness of communication depends on how these elements interact. Cultural Conventions: Shared understanding: Communication relies on shared cultural norms for sending and interpreting messages. Cultural nuances: Di erent cultures have unique ways of communicating, which can lead to misunderstandings. Western vs. Eastern Models: Process vs. meaning: Western cultures often focus on the process of communication, while Eastern cultures prioritise meaning and context. Persuasion vs. information exchange: Western communication may be more persuasive, while Eastern communication may emphasise information sharing. Community and aesthetics: Eastern cultures may value community and aesthetics more than Western cultures. Sender vs. receiver: Western cultures may focus more on the sender, while Eastern cultures may emphasise the receiver. Individual vs. collectivity: Western cultures may prioritise individual expression, while Eastern cultures may value collective harmony. Low vs. high context: Western cultures are generally low-context, relying on explicit communication, while Eastern cultures are high-context, relying on implicit cues. fi fi fi ff fi ff fi fi ff fl ffi  Mass vs. interpersonal: Western cultures may have a strong emphasis on mass communication, while Eastern cultures may prioritise interpersonal relationships. In summary, e ective communication involves a dynamic interplay between the communicator, message, and receiver, shaped by cultural conventions and in uenced by di erent cultural perspectives. Types of Communication: A Breakdown Human vs. Mediated: Direct vs. indirect: Human communication involves face-to-face interaction, while mediated communication uses technology. Intrapersonal vs. Interpersonal: Self-talk vs. interaction: Intrapersonal communication is internal dialogue, while interpersonal communication involves interacting with others. Real-time engagement: Interpersonal communication is typically interactive and occurs in real time. Verbal, Nonverbal, and Visual: Multiple modalities: Communication can involve spoken words, body language, and visual elements like images or videos. Oral vs. literal: Oral communication is spoken, while literal communication is written. Formal vs. Informal: Structure and formality: Formal communication follows speci c rules and conventions, while informal communication is more casual. Intentional vs. Non-Intentional: Purposeful vs. unintentional: Intentional communication is planned and deliberate, while non-intentional communication occurs without conscious e ort. In summary, communication can take many forms, each with its characteristics and purposes. Understanding these di erent types can help us communicate more e ectively in various contexts. Understanding Meaning: A Deeper Dive Merriam-Webster's de nitions highlight four key aspects of meaning: 1. Intention: Meaning is what the communicator intends to convey. 2. Connotation: Meaning goes beyond the literal de nition and includes the emotional or cultural associations attached to words or phrases. 3. Denotation: Meaning also encompasses the literal dictionary de nition of a word or phrase. 4. In essence, meaning is a complex interplay of intention, connotation, and denotation. It's not just about the words themselves but also about the context in which they are used and the interpretations of the receiver. The Dynamic Nature of Meaning Personal Experiences and Context: Subjective interpretation: Meaning is in uenced by our individual experiences and the context in which communication occurs. Shaping perception: Our past experiences and cultural background can a ect how we understand messages. ff ff fi fl fi ff fl fi fi ff ff ff  Intended vs. Perceived Meaning: Misunderstandings: Even with the best intentions, the intended meaning may not align with the perceived meaning. Receiver's interpretation: The receiver's perception of the message ultimately determines its meaning. Semiotics and Meaning Generation: Meaning creation: Semiotics studies how meaning is created through the use of signs and symbols. Decoding messages: Shared sign systems enable us to decode messages accurately. Signi er and Signi ed: Sign system components: A sign system consists of the signi er (the word, image, or symbol) and the signi ed (the concept it represents). Meaningful connection: The relationship between the signi er and the signi ed creates meaning. In summary, meaning is a dynamic process that involves both the sender's intention and the receiver's interpretation. It is in uenced by personal experiences, context, and the shared sign systems we use to communicate. Worldview: The Foundation of Our Understanding A Shared Perspective: Quote: "A set of assumptions about how the world is and ought to be organised" (M. de Mooij, Human and Mediated Communication around the World, p. 17) Key characteristics: Cultural foundation: Worldview is shaped by the culture we live in. It provides a framework for understanding the world around us. Religious/philosophical roots: Worldviews often stem from religious or philosophical traditions. They o er answers to fundamental questions about existence, morality, and our place in the universe. Cultural di erences: Western and non-Western worldviews may have di erent assumptions about God, creation, and the relationship between the natural and supernatural realms. Impact on Communication: Understanding others: By understanding our own and others' worldviews, we can better appreciate di erent perspectives and avoid misunderstandings. E ective communication: When communicating across cultures, it's crucial to consider the in uence of worldviews on values, beliefs, and behaviours. In essence, our worldview acts as a mental map that shapes how we perceive and interact with the world. It's a complex construct in uenced by culture, religion, and philosophy. Recognising the cultural variations in worldviews can foster more e ective communication and greater understanding across cultures. Cultural Hegemony: A Closer Look Gramsci's De nition: Complex ideas: Cultural hegemony involves a set of beliefs and values used to justify power and authority. Social groups: These ideas are often promoted by dominant social groups. ff fl fi ff ff ff fi fi fi fl fl ff fi fi ff fi Domination by Consent: Ideological control: Cultural hegemony is a form of domination that relies on voluntary acceptance rather than force. Discourse power: Dominant groups use language and discourse to shape public opinion and maintain their position. Examples of Cultural Hegemony: Orientalism: Stereotypical depictions of Eastern cultures as inferior or exotic. Noble savage ideal: Romantic portrayal of indigenous cultures as pure and unspoiled. Western bias: Using Western categories and values to understand and evaluate non- Western cultures. Media dominance: The dominance of Western media content can shape global perceptions. Universalism: The claim that Western values and norms are universal and superior. In essence, cultural hegemony is the process by which dominant groups maintain their power by shaping the cultural beliefs and values of society. It often involves the use of stereotypes, biased representations, and the promotion of dominant ideologies. Globalisation: A Double-Edged Sword Global Interconnectedness: Flow of resources: Globalisation involves the movement of capital, technology, and media across borders. Interdependence: Countries and cultures become increasingly interconnected and interdependent. Impact on Human Behaviour: Cultural exchange: Globalisation fosters cultural exchange and interaction. Diaspora connections: The new media enable diasporas to maintain ties with their home cultures, leading to multiple identities. Limitations of Internet Globality: Localised features: The internet is not truly global due to localised software, services, and search results. Cultural speci city: Internet usage is shaped by cultural factors, leading to variations in how people use and access online resources. In summary, globalisation has both positive and negative impacts on human behaviour. While it promotes cultural exchange and connectivity, it also raises concerns about cultural homogenisation and the digital divide. Cultural Homogenisation and the Global Village The Global Village Concept: Origin: The concept of a global village was introduced by Marshall McLuhan in his book The Gutenberg Galaxy and Understanding Media. Technological convergence: McLuhan argued that electronic technology has shrunk the world, making it feel like a village. Instantaneous information: This global village is characterised by the rapid and widespread dissemination of information. Cultural Homogenisation: Convergence or divergence: While the global village concept suggests cultural convergence, media can also contribute to cultural diversity. fi  Media as extensions: McLuhan's idea that media are extensions of humans implies that they can both unify and di erentiate people. In essence, the global village concept highlights the potential for both cultural homogenisation and diversity through the in uence of media and technology. Glocalisation: A Balancing Act Cultural Homogenisation vs. Glocalisation: Cultural products: While there's a global spread of cultural products, this doesn't necessarily lead to cultural homogenisation. Local uniqueness: Cultures retain their distinct customs, rituals, languages, and food despite global in uences. Localised content: Even in the digital age, content like news, music, and internet usage often re ects local preferences and languages. The Rise of Glocalisation: Emphasis on local: Glocalisation emphasises the importance of local cultures and their role in shaping global trends. Hybrid cultural products: This leads to the creation of hybrid cultural products that blend global and local elements. In summary, glocalisation is a process where global in uences interact with local cultures, resulting in a unique blend of global and local elements. It highlights the resilience of local cultures in the face of globalisation. Intercultural vs. Cross-Cultural Communication Intercultural Communication: Direct interaction: Involves communication between individuals from di erent cultural backgrounds. Cross-Cultural Communication: Comparative analysis: Focuses on comparing communication practices across cultures. Intercultural Communication Competence: Essential for global interactions: Understanding and navigating intercultural communication is crucial in various elds like business, media, and international organisations. In summary, while both intercultural and cross-cultural communication involves understanding cultural di erences, intercultural communication refers to direct interactions between people from di erent cultures, while cross-cultural communication focuses on comparing communication practices across cultures. Nations Nations are arti cial constructs, as imagined by Benedict Anderson. While they're not real entities, they serve as useful frameworks for studying various aspects of society, such as statistics, media usage, and more. Homogeneity within nations is often achieved through shared elements like language, mass media, education systems, and common markets. However, many nations, including Brazil, India, Russia, the USA, and China, are heterogeneous, meaning they have diverse populations. In Europe, Norway, Finland, and Sweden are considered the most culturally cohesive or homogeneous nations. On the other hand, Spain, Greece, and Germany are seen as the least cohesive or heterogeneous. ff fl ff fi fl ff fl fi fl ff  Latin America o ers a unique example of hybrid cultures. The colonisers mixed with the indigenous populations, leading to the adoption of local food, music, and celebrations by the colonisers. Comparing Cultures Cultural values can be understood by examining cultural products like fairy tales and advertising or by directly asking people about their beliefs. When studying cultural values through questionnaires, the content, form, and context of the questions can signi cantly in uence the results. It's important to be cautious of Western-centric concepts that may dominate the questionnaires, as they might not accurately re ect values in other cultures. Survey questions can explore various aspects of cultural values, such as what is desirable, desired, or self-reported. the Desirable and the Desired The desirable refers to what people believe should be desired, their ideals for the world, and their notions of right and wrong. These are often ideological and expressed in words. The desired represents what people want for themselves, what attracts them, and their practical goals. It's more about actions and less about abstract ideals. Value paradoxes occur when people hold con icting values, such as individualism and the need for belonging. While these paradoxes might seem contradictory from an outsider's perspective, they can coexist, as seen in the relationship between modern and traditional values in Asia. In contrast, in the West, modern and traditional values are often seen as incompatible. Orientations Towards Time Di erent cultures have varying concepts of time, which leads to di erences in language, behaviour, and communication styles. Closure is often considered necessary in Western cultures, as seen in lms and novels. However, this isn't always the case in Eastern or Southern cultures. Time can be viewed as linear or circular. In Western cultures, time is often seen as linear, with a focus on schedules, deadlines, and a structured sequence of events. Time can be considered something that can be earned, saved, spent, lost, or wasted. In Asia, Africa, and among Native Americans, time is often seen as circular, with the past, present, and future intertwined. Time is viewed as repetitive, cyclical, and progressing in an upward spiral. Monochronic and polychronic time refer to how people approach tasks and punctuality. Monochronic cultures tend to focus on completing one task at a time, being punctual, and avoiding interruptions during meetings. Polychronic cultures often engage in multiple tasks simultaneously and have di erent understandings of punctuality. Dimensions of Culture Cultural dimensions are groups of related phenomena within a society that are identi ed through statistical analysis. They provide a framework for understanding cultural di erences. It's important to remember that national culture scores are not stereotypes for individuals. Examples of cultural dimensions include: Traditional/modern (also known as secular-rational in the World Values Survey) Quality of life (survival or post-materialist values) Relation to authority Conception of self Dilemmas of Con ict Perception of human nature (good or evil) ff ff fl fi fl fl ff fi ff ff fl fi  Orientation towards and relationship with the environment (subjugation, mastery, being, or doing) the Three Major Dimensional Models Three major dimensional models have been developed to understand cultural di erences: Hofstede, Schwartz, and House (GLOBE). While each model had speci c goals, samples, and questions, they often overlap in their dimensions. 1. Hofstede's model focused on work motivation among employees from di erent countries and cultures. 2. Schwartz's model identi ed basic values present in all cultures. 3. House's GLOBE model studied the e ectiveness of leadership styles across cultures. Although none of these models was speci cally designed for communication research, several of their dimensions can be valuable for analysing communication and media behaviour across cultures. Hofstede's Dimensions of National Culture Geert Hofstede identi ed six dimensions of national culture: 1. Power Distance: This refers to how a society accepts and distributes power unequally. High power distance cultures have a strong hierarchy, while low power distance cultures have a more egalitarian approach. 2. Individualism vs. Collectivism: This dimension measures how much a society values individual achievement versus group harmony. Individualistic cultures prioritise personal goals, while collectivist cultures emphasise group goals. 3. Masculinity vs. Femininity: This dimension relates to gender roles and values. Masculine cultures emphasise assertiveness, competition, and achievement, while feminine cultures prioritise cooperation, caring, and quality of life. 4. Uncertainty Avoidance vs. Uncertainty Tolerance: This dimension measures how a society deals with uncertainty and ambiguity. High uncertainty avoidance cultures have a strong preference for structure and rules, while low uncertainty avoidance cultures are more comfortable with ambiguity. 5. Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation: This dimension relates to a society's time orientation. Long-term-oriented cultures value perseverance, thrift, and tradition, while short-term-oriented cultures prioritise immediate grati cation and quick results. 6. Indulgence vs. Restraint: This dimension measures how a society controls impulses and grati cation. Indulgent cultures allow for the free expression of human desires, while restrained cultures suppress grati cation and control impulses. Hofstede's Power Distance Dimension The Power Distance Index (PDI) measures how a society deals with inequality, hierarchy, and relationships with authority. It's viewed from the perspective of those who have less power. According to Hofstede, "Power Distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of organisations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally." Power Distance in Families and Schools Large power-distance families often have obedient and dependent children who respect their parents and elders. There's a strong emphasis on warmth and care for young children, and adults are expected to support their parents nancially and practically. These families often live in multigenerational households, and both parents work full-time. In schools, teachers are treated with respect and fear, and students may only speak up when invited. Corporal punishment is sometimes acceptable in these settings. Small power distance families have more independent children who are treated as equals to adults. Children are encouraged to experiment and be independent early on, and there's less formality in relationships with adults. While there may be less warmth and care towards young children, there's still close contact. In these families, one parent often works part-time. In schools, fi fi fi fi fi ff fi fi fi ff ff  children are more likely to take initiative and ask questions freely, and they may even argue with their teachers. Power Distance in the Workplace Power distance in the workplace can manifest in various ways, such as the relationship between a boss and their subordinates. In high power distance cultures, bosses tend to be autocratic or paternalistic, while in low power distance cultures, bosses are more likely to be consultative. Centralisation of power is common in high power distance cultures, while decentralisation is more prevalent in low power distance cultures. Subordinates in high power distance cultures may have a greater sense of dependency on their superiors, while those in low power distance cultures may be more independent and have a greater emphasis on equality and democratic rights. Tall hierarchies with signi cant salary discrepancies and privileges are often found in high power distance cultures. In contrast, low power distance cultures may have atter hierarchies with fewer distinctions between workers and bosses. The status of manual work is often lower in high power distance cultures compared to o ce work. In low power distance cultures, there may be a more egalitarian view of di erent types of work. In high power distance workplaces, there may be separate facilities for workers and bosses, and the boss may be less accessible. In low power distance workplaces, there may be more shared facilities, and the boss may be more physically and emotionally accessible. Group work can be in uenced by power distance. In high power distance cultures, group dynamics may be more hierarchical, with a clear leader and followers. In low power distance cultures, group dynamics may be more egalitarian, with more shared decision-making. Power Distance in the State Large power-distance countries often have traditional authority, which may be rooted in religion. The legitimacy and integrity of those in power are less important, and inequality is accepted as a natural part of society. Power is associated with privileges and wealth. Scandals often lead to blame being placed on lower-level individuals or even revolutions. There may be a low level of critical engagement with newspapers and politics, and the political system may be one-party or two-party with a weak centre. Wealth distribution is often unequal. Small power-distance countries tend to have a separation between politics and religion, and power is subject to the rule of law. Inequality is seen as undesirable, and equal rights are emphasised. Power is not necessarily linked to wealth or status. A strong middle class is common, and scandals often lead to the resignation of those involved. High levels of critical readership of newspapers are typical. The political system is often pluralistic, with a strong political centre and a peaceful transfer of power. Origins and Future of Power Distance Inequality is a widespread tendency among humans, and history and dominant religion have played signi cant roles in shaping the varying levels of equality across cultures. For example, countries in uenced by Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Confucianism, and Islam tend to have higher power distance scores compared to Protestant countries. Additionally, countries that were once part of the Roman Empire typically have higher PDI scores than Germanic countries. Higher geographic latitude, greater wealth, and better education are often associated with lower PDI scores. Larger populations may also contribute to higher PDI scores. While many countries are expected to decrease their PDI scores over time, the relative di erences between high and low power distance countries are likely to persist in the future. ff fl fi fl fi fl ff ffi  Individualism vs. Collectivism Hofstede's second cultural dimension focuses on how individuals relate to groups. There's a connection between a nation's wealth and how individualistic it is. Most people in the world (around 70%) come from collectivist cultures. These cultures emphasise the importance of the group over the individual. People in these societies see themselves as part of a larger group, such as family, religion, or tribe. This group identity is crucial to who they are. Hofstede de nes collectivism as societies where people are deeply connected to their groups from a young age. These groups provide protection and support, expecting loyalty in return. Individualist Cultures In individualist cultures, the needs and desires of the individual take priority over the group. People's identities are primarily shaped by their personal qualities, not their group a liations. Families in individualist cultures are often smaller, consisting of parents and children. Children are encouraged to be independent as early as possible. Hofstede describes individualism as societies where people have weak ties to each other. Everyone is responsible for themselves and their immediate family. Exclusionism vs. Universalism Collectivist cultures draw a strong line between "us" (the in-group) and "them" (the out-group). This leads to exclusionism, which is the tendency to reject people from di erent groups. In these cultures, people are often treated di erently based on their group membership, with privileges or sacri ces given to those within the in-group. Individualist cultures have a less clear distinction between "us" and "them." This leads to universalism, which is the belief in tolerance and respect for everyone, regardless of their group a liations. Collectivism and Power Distance There's a relationship between collectivism and power distance. Cultures that are highly collectivist (where the group is more important than the individual) are also often hierarchical (where there's a clear power structure). Conversely, individualistic cultures (where individuals are valued more) tend to be more egalitarian (where everyone is seen as equal). People who rely on their groups for support are also more likely to rely on powerful gures. This suggests that in collectivist societies, people often look to authority gures for guidance and protection. Individualism and Collectivism in the Family Individualist families are typically nuclear (parents and children). Communication is direct, with people expressing their thoughts openly. Constructive criticism and disagreement are accepted. Personal opinions, independent of the group, are valued. In these families, guilt and self-respect are important concepts. Collectivist families often include extended family members. Harmony is emphasised, and silence can be seen as a sign of respect. Group opinions often outweigh individual ones. Financial and ritual obligations to extended family are common. Shame can arise from failing to ful l group obligations, and the concept of "face" (saving or losing reputation) is important. Marriages in collectivist cultures are often seen as contracts between families, not just individuals. Individualism/Collectivism at School In collectivist cultures, students often wait to be called on before speaking and may not participate in larger, diverse groups. Groups formed outside of school often in uence interactions within the school environment. Preserving harmony and reputation is important, and shaming can ffi fi fi ff fi ff fl ffi fi fi  be used as a disciplinary tool. Learning is seen as a one-time process, and the focus is on learning speci c skills. A diploma signi es social acceptance. In individualist cultures, students speak up easily and form new groups with people from di erent backgrounds. There's no preferential treatment for those within the same group, and nepotism is considered unethical. Students are treated as individuals, not members of speci c groups. Education is seen as a lifelong process, and the goal is to learn how to learn. A diploma, along with the knowledge gained, is a source of self-respect. Individualism/Collectivism in the Workplace In collectivist workplaces, people often follow in the footsteps of their family members regarding careers. There's less movement between jobs. Hiring is often based on group membership (nepotism). The workplace itself can become an extended group, especially in countries like Japan and Korea. Employees feel comfortable relying on the organisation for support, which means factors like training, working conditions, and skill usage are important. Personal relationships often take precedence over work tasks. In individualist workplaces, people choose their careers based on personal interests. Employees value independence from the organisation, including having personal time, freedom, and challenges. Managers from individualist cultures should be aware of their cultural assumptions and expectations when working with people from collectivist cultures, which often have a more particularist (exclusive) approach. In these workplaces, tasks and goals generally take priority over personal relationships. Individualism/Collectivism and the State The cultural values of a population can in uence the type of government and institutions it develops, which, in turn, can reinforce those values. Collectivist states often have a state-dominated economy, with family-owned businesses also playing a signi cant role. These states tend to be centralised, with laws and rights varying for di erent groups of people. Individualist states typically have a privatised economy, with companies owned by individuals. They often promote deregulation and decentralisation. Press freedom is common in these states, especially in wealthier nations. Individual rights, such as privacy, are protected. Equality before the law and respect for human rights are more prevalent in wealthier and more individualistic countries. Individualism/Collectivism and Ideas Individualist cultures often believe that their values are universal and better than others. This is known as universalism. Individualist values include freedom and the belief in a free market. They also follow Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which suggests that people strive to ful l basic needs before reaching higher levels like self-actualisation. Collectivist values emphasise equality and the importance of group interests. They recognise that Western economic and psychological theories may not apply to all cultures due to cultural di erences. Self-e acement (putting the group's needs before one's own) and harmony are also important values in collectivist cultures. Individualism/Collectivism: Origins and Future Individualism and collectivism have evolved. Early hunter-gatherer societies had nuclear families, which grew into extended families in sedentary agricultural societies. Modernisation has led to more individualistic societies, with some exceptions in East Asia, where tradition and collectivism persist. Wealthier countries tend to be more individualistic, while those closer to the equator are often more collectivist. ff ff ff fi fi ff fi fl fi fi  Cultural values are slow to change, so the di erences between countries in terms of individualism and collectivism are likely to continue in the future. Media: the extensions of man Do people similarly use media across cultures? Marshall McLuhan argued in his book "Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man" that all media are extensions of human faculties, whether physical or psychic. This suggests that the way people use media is deeply intertwined with their cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking. Therefore, it's unlikely that people use media in the same way across all cultures. Cultural di erences in communication styles, values, and beliefs will in uence how people interact with and interpret media. For example, a culture that values collectivism may use media di erently than a culture that values individualism. The press, radio, television Newspaper readership is often associated with literate, individualistic, low-power-distance, long- term-oriented, and wealthy cultures. In contrast, television and radio consumption is more common in collectivist, high-power-distance, short-term-oriented, polychronic, and poorer cultures. While there are general trends, it's important to note that people often prefer watching local content in their language. Even global news channels like CNN have localised their content and language to cater to diverse audiences. Ultimately, the choice of media consumption is in uenced by various factors, including cultural values, economic conditions, and personal preferences. Internet Many ICT tools were developed in individualistic cultures, which may contribute to their more frequent use in these societies. However, cultural dimensions also in uence how people use the internet. Di erent cultures have varying understandings of the public and private spheres, which can lead to di erent internet usage patterns. For example, in some cultures like Japan and Italy, there's a clear separation between home and work life, while in others like Africa, cybercafes are popular. The Internet is used for various purposes, including email, banking, shopping, entertainment, education, reading, and interacting with the government. While some fear that the internet might weaken communities, it often strengthens them by providing new ways to connect and collaborate. Information function of the Internet The information function of the internet is often used more frequently in individualistic than collectivist cultures. This may be due to factors like a greater emphasis on personal autonomy and the pursuit of knowledge. People search for information for various reasons, including politics, education, and entertainment. While there's a trend towards "hyperlocalism" or "ultralocalism," where people seek information about their immediate surroundings, the internet also serves as a global information source. The internet complements rather than replaces other media like newspapers, television, and phones. It reinforces existing habits of reading, watching, and contacting government agencies. Social Function of the Internet Social media platforms like chat, messaging, email, le sharing, blogs, forums, and discussion groups o er various ways to connect online. The primary use of social media often revolves around staying in touch with friends and family, particularly within close-knit groups (in-groups). However, the speci c purpose and level of engagement can vary across cultures. ff ff ff ff ff fl fi fl fi fl ff  Sharing photos, keeping in touch, and posting status updates are common social media activities, but their popularity can di er by country. Many regions have their popular social networks tailored to local preferences. These platforms may have unique graphic designs, address privacy concerns di erently, or cater to speci c cultural norms. Examples include orkut.com in Brazil, Weibo and Renren in China, Mixi in Japan, Cyworld in Korea, and Vkontakte.ru in Russia. The importance of "friends," "likes," and online interactions can also di er based on cultural dimensions like individualism, collectivism, short-term orientation, and long-term orientation. Presentation of Self in Social Media In short-term cultures, people often present themselves online as performers or winners. They focus on impression management through their photos, friends, and likes, aiming to stand out. Long-term-oriented cultures, on the other hand, value modesty and social competence more than self-promotion. They often prioritise conformity. Collectivist cultures tend to use social media more frequently than individualist cultures. Blogging is particularly popular in Japan and the United States, but the topics covered can vary signi cantly. In Japan, blogging often focuses on hobbies, while in the United States, personal experiences, politics, and faith are common themes. In Arab countries, political and religious topics are frequently discussed, and in Russia, self-publishing is popular. The Mobile Phone The mobile phone, as an extension of human communication, is used in culturally speci c ways. These di erences can intensify existing cultural peculiarities. While mobile phones can be used to connect with people within social networks, they're often used for external contacts via email. In collectivist cultures, mobile phones are primarily used for networking and staying in touch with family and friends. In individualist cultures, people use phones to inform others, search for information, and send emails. Mobile phone etiquette can vary signi cantly across cultures. The psychosocial e ects of mobile phones are mixed. On the positive side, they can foster closer ties, promote the use of local languages, and be a ordable and accessible. However, they can also lead to stronger social control, increased availability, and enforced power relations. Masculinity vs Femininity Gender identity vs. gender expression: While gender identity is a person's internal sense of being male, female, or something else, gender expression is how a person outwardly presents their gender through their appearance, behaviour, and other characteristics. Gender stereotypes: These are oversimpli ed beliefs about how men and women should behave or act. They can be harmful because they limit people's potential and can lead to discrimination. Gender uidity: Some people's gender identity or expression can change over time, which is known as gender uidity. The importance of challenging gender norms: It's important to challenge traditional gender roles and stereotypes to create a more equitable and inclusive society. Individualism vs. collectivism: Hofstede's theory also includes the dimensions of individualism and collectivism. In individualistic cultures, people are more focused on their own needs and goals, while in collectivist cultures, people are more focused on the needs of the group. These dimensions can interact with masculinity and femininity to in uence gender roles and behaviours. The limitations of Hofstede's theory: While Hofstede's theory is a valuable tool for understanding cultural di erences, it's important to remember that it is a simpli cation of fl ff fi fl ff ff ff fi fi ff ff ff fl fi fi fi  complex reality. Cultural values and norms can vary greatly within a single country, and there may be other factors that in uence gender roles and behaviours. The importance of nuance: It's also important to recognise that masculinity and femininity are not mutually exclusive. People can exhibit both masculine and feminine traits, and cultural norms can vary greatly. The impact of globalisation: Globalisation has led to increased cultural exchange and interaction, which can challenge traditional gender roles and stereotypes. However, it can also reinforce existing inequalities. The relationship between masculinity and femininity and other cultural dimensions: Hofstede's theory also includes the dimensions of individualism and collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation. These dimensions can interact with masculinity and femininity to in uence gender roles and behaviours. For example, in a collectivist culture with high power distance, men may be more likely to hold positions of authority, and women may be more likely to be subordinate. The impact of globalisation and cultural change: Globalisation and cultural change can challenge traditional gender roles and stereotypes. For example, the increasing number of women in the workforce and the rise of feminist movements have led to changes in the perception of gender roles in many societies. The importance of individual variation: Even within the same culture, there can be signi cant individual variation in gender roles and behaviours. This is due to a variety of factors, including personal experiences, family background, and individual beliefs. The impact of media and celebrities on beauty ideals: In many cultures, the media and celebrities can have a signi cant impact on beauty ideals for teenagers. This can be especially true in masculine cultures, where there may be a greater emphasis on physical appearance. The role of parents in shaping beauty ideals: Parents can also play a role in shaping beauty ideals for teenagers. This can be especially true in feminine cultures, where parents may be more likely to emphasise the importance of inner beauty and character. The impact of cultural values and norms on gender roles and behaviours: Cultural values and norms can also in uence gender roles and behaviours in the family. For example, in cultures that value traditional gender roles, men may be expected to be the primary breadwinner, and women may be expected to be the primary caregiver. The importance of individual variation: Even within the same culture, there can be signi cant individual variation in gender roles and behaviours in the family. This is due to a variety of factors, including personal experiences, family background, and individual beliefs. The impact of cultural values and norms on educational practices: Cultural values and norms can in uence educational practices in a variety of ways. For example, in cultures that value collectivism, students may be more likely to work together and cooperate, while in cultures that value individualism, students may be more likely to compete with each other. The role of teachers in shaping student behaviour: Teachers can play a signi cant role in shaping student behaviour. For example, teachers who are supportive and encouraging can help students develop positive self-esteem, while teachers who are critical and demanding can contribute to feelings of anxiety and inadequacy. The importance of individual variation: Even within the same culture, there can be signi cant individual variation in how students behave in school. This is due to a variety of factors, including personal experiences, family background, and individual beliefs. The challenges of changing educational practices: Changing educational practices can be challenging, as they are often deeply ingrained in cultural values and norms. However, it is important to remember that educational practices are not xed and can change over time. The impact of cultural values and norms on consumer behaviour: Cultural values and norms can in uence consumer behaviour in a variety of ways. For example, in cultures that value individualism, people may be more likely to make decisions on their own, while in cultures that value collectivism, people may be more likely to consult with others before making a decision. The role of gender stereotypes in shopping behaviour: Gender stereotypes can also in uence shopping behaviour. For example, men may be more likely to be seen as the primary breadwinner and, therefore, may be more likely to make decisions about major purchases. fl fi fi fi fl fl fi fl fl fl fi fi  The importance of individual variation: Even within the same culture, there can be signi cant individual variation in shopping behaviour. This is due to a variety of factors, including personal experiences, family background, and individual beliefs. The challenges of changing consumer behaviour: Changing consumer behaviour can be challenging, as it is often deeply ingrained in cultural values and norms. However, it is important to remember that consumer behaviour is not xed and can change over time. The impact of cultural values and norms on workplace practices: Cultural values and norms can in uence workplace practices in a variety of ways. For example, in cultures that value individualism, employees may be more likely to work independently, while in cultures that value collectivism, employees may be more likely to work in teams. The role of gender stereotypes in workplace practices: Gender stereotypes can also in uence workplace practices. For example, women may be more likely to be seen as nurturing and supportive, while men may be more likely to be seen as assertive and decisive. The importance of individual variation: Even within the same culture, there can be signi cant individual variation in how people behave in the workplace. This is due to a variety of factors, including personal experiences, family background, and individual beliefs. The challenges of changing workplace practices: Changing workplace practices can be challenging, as they are often deeply ingrained in cultural values and norms. However, it is important to remember that workplace practices are not xed and can change over time. The impact of cultural values and norms on career preferences: Cultural values and norms can in uence career preferences in a variety of ways. For example, in cultures that value individualism, people may be more likely to choose careers that o er opportunities for advancement and recognition, while in cultures that value collectivism, people may be more likely to choose careers that o er opportunities to help others and contribute to the community. The role of gender stereotypes in career choices: Gender stereotypes can also in uence career choices. For example, women may be more likely to be seen as nurturing and supportive and, therefore, may be more likely to choose careers in education or healthcare, while men may be more likely to be seen as assertive and decisive and, therefore, may be more likely to choose careers in business or engineering. The importance of individual variation: Even within the same culture, there can be signi cant individual variation in career preferences. This is due to a variety of factors, including personal experiences, family background, and individual beliefs. The challenges of adapting to technological change: Technological change is rapidly transforming the workplace, and this can create challenges for both individuals and organisations. It is important to develop skills and knowledge that are relevant to the changing job market and to be prepared to adapt to new technologies and work methods. The impact of cultural values and norms on government policies: Cultural values and norms can in uence government policies in a variety of ways. For example, in cultures that value individualism, governments may be more likely to prioritise individual rights and freedoms, while in cultures that value collectivism, governments may be more likely to prioritise the needs of the community. The role of gender stereotypes in government policies: Gender stereotypes can also in uence government policies. For example, women may be more likely to be seen as nurturing and supportive and, therefore, may be more likely to support government policies that promote social welfare and environmental protection. The importance of individual variation: Even within the same culture, there can be signi cant individual variation in how people view the role of the state. This is due to a variety of factors, including personal experiences, family background, and individual beliefs. The challenges of changing government policies: Changing government policies can be challenging, as they are often deeply ingrained in cultural values and norms. However, it is important to remember that government policies are not xed and can change over time. fl fl fi fi fi fi fl fl fl ff fi fi fi ff fl