CMED 113_001 The Cells and Its Functions 2.pdf

CMED 113 Dr. Rowena Antemano | September 1, 2024 The Cells and Its Functions _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ OUTLINE...

CMED 113 Dr. Rowena Antemano | September 1, 2024 The Cells and Its Functions _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ OUTLINE U Cut I. Specific elements designated in living 1 organisms The Pte II. Human cells 2 e - - - III. Cytoskeletal elements 6 IV. Genetic Control of Protein Synthesis, Cell 8 Pure Function and Cell Reproduction V. Difference between ribose VS 9 id & deoxyribose - - VI. Cancer 9 Carbon makes up the molecules of the human DNA. VII. Protein Synthesis 10 VIII. Apoptosis and Necrosis 11 A. - Phosphorus stabilizes your DNA A molecule of human DNA is formed by 3 billion base pairs joined Must Know Book Prev Trans Lecturer together in a long chain. I. SPECIFIC ELEMENTS DESIGNATED IN LIVING ORGANISMS Most molecules produced by living organisms (biological molecules)are made from combinations of 6 important elements, whose symbols are, C,H,O,N,P & S. The letters stand for the chemical abbreviations of Oxygen Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus & Sulfur. These 6 elements make up 98% of the mass of all living organisms. 0 01%. CHONPS - 3.3 · 1.. 9 5% 18 5 %. Plants are designated sources for elements of life such as foods that are rich in Potassium & Phosphorus. - 65 % B. Ions control the cellular mechanisms 1. Na+, K+, Cl−, Ca2+ transmit nerve signals - 2. NaCl regulates cell’s water content - 3. HCl- enables the secretion of stomach acid 4. Ca2+ and Mg2+ contract muscles 5. Ca2+ forms bones and teeth 6. Cu+, Zn2+, and Mg2+ activate enzymes Carbon makes up almost all the macromolecules of life. - Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 1 CMED 113 THE CELLS AND ITS FUNCTIONS D. Macromolecules derived from elements make up the living organisms 1. Proteins – most abundant in most cells; 10-20% of cell mass a. Structural proteins are fibrillar proteins. These proteins form the structure of the cell. If these are sick, they will degrade and the cells will shrink. i. Intracellular: microtubules in cilia, nerve axons, mitotic spindles ii. Extracellular: Collagen and elastin in connective tissue, tendon, ligaments; keratin in hair in skin. iii. Fibrillar proteins allow the cells to move and maintain the shape of the cell. b. Functional proteins - hemoglobin, Insulin, and all the enzymes involved on the biological function of a living organism 2. Lipids – phospholipids and cholesterol is 2% of cell mass. a. triglycerides is 95% in fat cells b. Glycogen is stored to be used as an emergency source TAG of energy. triglycerides and- Water is a major component to degrade - NaCl into a usable form. 3. Carbohydrates – 1-3% body mass in human cells, 6% in liver cells, stored as glycogen. - 4. Nucleic acids – DNA and RNA II. IN HUMANS Cell types can vary enormously in size and shape. An animal nerve cell is compared here with a neutrophil, a type of white blood cell. Both are drawn to scale. There are 36 trillion cells in the human body. - 15 nm = small virus Additional: 150 nm = large virus Rickettsia 350 Kidney failure or excess uric acid can be avoided if people are drinking no = Bacterium sufficient water because it degrades salt, water, sugar, and fat into its 1 Mm = usable form. 5-10 m = cell You need an= electron microscope to view these viruses at 15 C. e Optimum amount of water, a cellular requirement - nm. Cell shapes always identify the owner of the cell. 70% - planet 70% 70-80% - cells 70-80 % 85% - brain 85 % 80% - eye (aqueous humor) 80 % 25% - bones 25 % God’s operations are similar on the universal and microscopic scale. The water requirement for our planets is identical to our cells. Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 2 CMED 113 THE CELLS AND ITS FUNCTIONS E. Cell and Organelles colors David whi a cell that comprises the cytoplasm , nucleus , a The cell membrane borders the cell from external factors. It plays an important role in keeping the cell alive. The Protoplasm – matrix/gel of the cell composed of water, electrolytes, - - organedes hydrophobic heads and hydrophilic tails help keep the ions proteins, = lipids, and carbohydrates constitute 95% of the body weight. and water inside the membrane. => 1. Cytoplasm – matrix of the cell outside the nucleus with It is a bilayer membrane. dispersed proteins, electrolytes, glucose, fat globules, ○ Integral protein - traverses through the membranes secretory vesicles, and organelles, (extracellular & integral part). Some ligands would bind 2. karyoplasm/ nucleoplasm - matrix inside the nucleus. to these and would cause the intracellular cascade of relaying the signal to the nucleus for DNA synthesis, replication, and translation of proteins in the form of hormones. ○ Peripheral protein - stays in the outside/periphery, but never traverses the entire membrane. Cell membrane, the cell glycocalyx membrane carbohydrates that combines with proteins or lipids, glycolipids and glycoproteins. 7-10 nanometer thick 55% proteins P PPCLC 25% phospholipids P 13% cholesterol C 4% other lipids 3% carbohydrates ↳ Proteins are used to transport materials in and out of the cell. They form channels, which can be ligands or receptors, for the materials which the cells need. These can be in the form of hormones or neurotransmitters. Organelles: G. Rough endoplasmic reticulum Golgi - packaging of lipids and carbohydrates. Endoplasmic Reticulum - protein synthesis site. Mitochondria - ATP production Rough endoplasmic reticulum Microtubules - structural proteins that keep the shape of the cell and movement. Lysosome - intracellular digestive system Presence of ribosomes (mixtures of RNA and proteins) Peroxisome a network of tubular structures called cisternae Centrioles flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm; transport proteins Secretory granules to their specific destinations inside or outside the cell. In the liver cells, for example—can be as much as 30 to 40 times the cell membrane area. Impairment causes neurodegeneration, atherosclerosis, - - F. Cell memberane type 2 diabetes, liver disease, and cancer. - - - Site of protein synthesis. PSC ! Depending on the kind of cell, there could be more RNA or Phospholipids, sphingolipids (present in nerve cells), protein to be processed. (e.g. Liver cells have 30-40 times cholesterol more cell membrane area because of the necessity to ○ ○ u Hydrophobic heads - soluble to fats Hydrophilic tails - interact with water (internal) process proteins for the metabolism, structure, or degradation of macromolecules.) The impairment of the RER means lessened or removal of protein synthesis would cause regeneration. Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 3 CMED 113 THE CELLS AND ITS FUNCTIONS H. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Synthesis of lipid substances J. Lysosome and peroxisome Intracellular digestive systems at 250 to 750 nanometers in diameter. Lysosomes and peroxisomes are vesicular organelles that form by breaking off from the Golgi apparatus; then disperse throughout the I. Golgi apparatus cytoplasm. Lysosomes and Peroxisomes work together to keep the cells healthy. ! Contains proteins that are secreted through the surface of Lysosome MHDROLASES the cell membrane. Process the transported substances to form lysosomes, intracellular digestive systems at 250 to 750 nanometers in secretory vesicles. diameter. Important in the packaging of lipids or fat globules. 250 - 750 nm Golgi and ER work together in the vesicle formation. 300 in one cell 5-8 nm length Contains 40 different hydrolase enzymes ○ Protein to amino acids ○ Glycogen to glucose ○ Lipids to fatty acids and cholesterol Ite digests: ○ Damaged cellular structures ○ Ingested food particles ○ Bacteria and other unwanted matter Lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs) cause a toxic buildup that damages your body's cells and organs. It has an important role in degrading these harmful proteins that can be in the form of bacteria or viruses. Eventually it will recycle these proteins into a useful form that can help in the secretion or transport of proteins in or out the cell. Additional: Animal cells have plenty of lysosomes. These organelles contain hydrolytic enzymes. It is in charge of digesting unwanted or excess matter such as bacteria. Peroxisome OXIDASES ! Similar to lysosomes but contain- oxidases instead of hydrolases. Forms H2O2 to catalyze oxidation of poisonous substances inside the cell Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 4 CMED 113 THE CELLS AND ITS FUNCTIONS Pinocytosis The structural proteins in the membrane can form a pit that would bring the proteins that the cell membrane catches outside to the lysosome if it is harmful. Macrophage - phagocytic cell in the immune system. K. Mitochondria It has its own DNA. Its size is 8-10 nm. The matrix is curved to increase the surface area for metabolism. The ATP production is done in its innermost sanctum. Pinocytosis - small Phagocytosis - big The Krebs’ cycle occurs here. Glucose enters the mitochondria’s matrix where the mixing of acetyl-CoA with another 4 carbon sugar happens, and - - - ATP generation. The electron transport chain occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, where the ATP is also being produced. This ATP will be distributed to the other parts of the cell for energy. Secretory vesicles or granules - store protein proenzymes (not activated enzymes) e.g. in pancreatic acinar cells to be secreted in duodenum for digestive functions. Pancreatic Insufficiency (EPI) - pancreas does not make enough of a specific enzyme to digest food in the small intestine. Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 5 CMED 113 THE CELLS AND ITS FUNCTIONS Additional: Studies show that athletes' muscles have more mitochondria than e normal people. Mitochondria could be generated the more you - - - exercise. This is because mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell. mpm Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) III. Cytoskeletal elements Highest form of energy. Adenine bound to the ribose sugar and 3 molecules of phosphate. The cell cytoskeleton consists of fibrillar proteins forming Ademine filaments or tubules. Ribose Precursor proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm polymerize Phosphate into filaments. Actin microfilaments provide elastic support for the cell membrane and are crucial for muscle contraction. Intermediate filaments are strong, rope-like structures that offer mechanical support. Microtubules are stiff tubular structures formed by polymerized tubulin molecules. Microtubules have various roles, including forming cilia, centrioles, and mitotic spindles. A major function of microtubules is to act as a cytoskeleton, determining cell shape, aiding in cell division, facilitating cell movement, and directing organelle transport. Additional: Adenine has a similar structure with caffeine. Caffeine can sabotage ATP as the cells sometimes cannot recognize the difference between them because they are almost identical. Caffeine brings a false source of energy to our body. It can eventually cause a mutation in the DNA. It may cause an early onset of Alzheimer’s disease and cancer. - e e & = How ATP is used to drive many cellular mechanisms: => - The transport of Sodium to outside of the cell Muscle contraction - Adenosine Triphosphate conversion to Adenosine diphosphate - flow of the The use of a synthesizing protein that your hormones, cytoplasm inside neurotransmitters, and structural proteins need the cell ; to speed up the transport \ of molecules a organelles Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 6 CMED 113 THE CELLS AND ITS FUNCTIONS Cilia - it is composed of microtubule Has 9 doublet and 2 periphery in the cross section The ciliary or flagellar movement provides the locomotion to the cell or organism. In the respiratory tract, the ciliary movements help in the elimination of the solid particles from it. The fairly large nucleus is bounded by a double- layered nuclear membrane containing relatively large nuclear pores that allow the passage of certain substances. The nucleolus is composed of RNA and protein and is the - site of ribosome production. - Chromatin consists of loosely coiled fibers of protein and DNA. Amoeba - aided by cytoskeletal elements and they glide. Upon gliding Chromosomes appear during cell division. there is a fuel that they use as energy Nucleus serves as the cell's control center, housing DNA (genes) that determine protein characteristics and control cell activities. Genes also control cell reproduction through mitosis. Nucleus appearance under the microscope doesn't reveal control mechanisms. Nuclear membrane is two bilayer membranes, continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. Nuclear pores allow molecules up to a MW of# 44,000 to pass. Nucleoli contain RNA and proteins found in ribosomes, enlarged during protein synthesis. Formation of nucleoli and ribosomes begins in the nucleus through DNA gene synthesis, followed by RNA transport to the cytoplasm for ribosome assembly. Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 7 CMED 113 THE CELLS AND ITS FUNCTIONS A. DNA It is an anti-parallel Normally if there is no need for protein synthesis and there is no need for the cell to divide,then the DNA it Addition: stays intact, but as soon the DNA can duplicate itself, then it is a signal to divide. Movement of the Vesicle - The cell cannot divide unless it will generate the same amount of material for the other cell. IV. Genetic Control of Protein Synthesis, Cell Function and Cell Reproduction For the nucleus, DNA is being generated to helix DNA. Within the nucleus, transcription or the unwinding all the DNA occurs, and also the splicing to indicate which kind of protein it is going to generate later all happens to nucleus but it goes out and transport the message this is what you called the mRNA to ribosome and it is where the making or the final synthesis of protein is being made, it is in the ribosome. Gene are small segment of the DNA Human cell has- 25,000 genes Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 8 CMED 113 THE CELLS AND ITS FUNCTIONS The differences between bases, the purines and pyrimidines. Purines Pyrimidines Heterocyclic aromatic organic Heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds, consisting of a compounds pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring - 2 CN I CN Contain two carbon-nitrogen Contain a single carbon-nitrogen rings and four nitrogen atom ring and 2 nitrogen atoms 4 N 2 N Synthesized by Traube Purine - Synthesized by Biginelli Reaction Synthesis - Catabolism produces uric acid Catabolism produces beta amino acid, carbon dioxide, and In a strand of the DNA, double stranded DNA is being loosen by ammonia Topoisomerase and would allow the unwinding of the double stranded DNA. The helicase has another enzyme, it is being assisted by primase. V. What’s the difference between ribose VS deoxyribose? Helicase will separate the basis but at the same time the primase will help add the RNA primer to the RNA strand. DNA polymerase - RNA polymerase will add the DNA nucleotides to the strand and after adding DNA primer, it will be ligated or sealed by the DNA ligase. One strand is called the leading strand and the other one is the lagging O O strand. DNA and RNA Polymerase - they both add DNA basis to the strand. DNA polymerase adds DNA basis in the DNA Strand but when it is a This is how the phosphate group participate in the formation of single stranded thing then it is RNA Polymerase the RNA with a strand of DNA VI. Cancer - Elizabeth Blackburn - Nobel Prize for Telomerase - Telomerase are caps at the end of the chromosomes As people age, telomerase also shortens. Telomere can be enhanced by developing a lifestyle. Telomeres have a lifespan just like a cell has a lifespan The more the chromosome divide, the more telomeres are being used (e.g. cancer cells) by determining the length of the telomeres Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 9 CMED 113 THE CELLS AND ITS FUNCTIONS VII. Protein Synthesis RNA operates in a triplet code and one amino acid may be encoded by several codons. Transcription of mRNA Start codons were coded by a single codon AUG and stopped by three Definition: RISC-miRNA - RNA-induced silencing complex-micro RNA codons. Reccomendation: watch youtube videos regarding protein synthesis (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8wAwLwJAGHs) Two things the cells are doing: 1. Synthesizing protein in order to furnish and do the activity of the cell 2. Cell Division - To divide or produce itself A messenger RNA strand is moving through two ribosomes. As each codon passes through, an amino acid is added to the growing protein Centriole - they are important for the replication or the synthesis of the chain, which is shown in the right-hand ribosome. The transfer RNA DNA or the duplication of the cell. molecule transports each specific amino acid to the newly forming protein. E. Coli divides itself every 30 minutes Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 10 CMED 113 THE CELLS AND ITS FUNCTIONS VIII. Apoptosis and Necrosis Apoptosis is described as an active, programmed process of autonomous cellular dismantling that avoids eliciting inflammation. Necrosis has been characterized as passive, accidental cell death resulting from environmental perturbations with uncontrolled release of inflammatory cellular contents. - - = & ② Reference Source: National Library of Medicine Transcribers: Paco & Vaal Editors: Ahn 11