Classical archaeology 2.pdf

Classical Archaeology 2 – final exam The Archaeology of the Aegean Bronze Age – Minoan, Cycladic, Mycenaean civilisations – Minoan and Mycenaean palaces, Linear B tablets, elite burials, significant Find Material, Economic and cultural relations with the civilisations of the Ancient Near and Middle...

Classical Archaeology 2 – final exam The Archaeology of the Aegean Bronze Age – Minoan, Cycladic, Mycenaean civilisations – Minoan and Mycenaean palaces, Linear B tablets, elite burials, significant Find Material, Economic and cultural relations with the civilisations of the Ancient Near and Middle East. Greek Religion in the Bronze Age The archaeology of the Mycenaean Civilization Chronology of the Aegean Bronze age in Mainland Greece Early Bronze Age: 3rd millennium BC with three sub-periods within three areas (Minoan, Helladic, Cycladic). Archaeological literature indicates the sub-periods with numbers: early Helladic (EH) 1-3: the first period is the first third of the 3rd millennium, the second period is the second third, the third period is the last third of the millennium. Middle Bronze Age: 20th - 17th centuries BC. This period overlaps with the Middle Kingdom in Egyp t. There are also three sub-periods in the three main areas (MM, MH, MC). Late Bronze Age: 17th-12th centuries BC. There are also three sub- periods in the three main areas (LM, LH, LC). The first LH period is probably the 17th-16th century, the second for the 15th century, the  third for the 14th- 12th centuries BC. This period overlaps with the New Kingdom in Egypt. Typical Middle Helladic pottery types So called Minyan ware (MH) – grey pedestal cup with a Matt (faded, dull) painted light ware pottery (kantharos) (MH) well-fired, profiled surface imitating bronze vessels. MH pottery from the fieldwalkings of the Berbati valley 2 Middle Helladic settlements: villages with narrow alleyways, sometimes wi th defensive walls and modest find material The development of the villages into cities occurs only in the end of the MH period (20th – 17th century BC) and in the LH period (17th -12th century BC) The culture of the Greek mainland in the Late Bronze Age - the Mycenaean civilization Based on the linear B script they used, the Mycenaeans were Greeks speaking in the Achaean dialect. At the beginning of the Late Bronze Age (LH I), the shaft graves („A” grave circle) excavated in the Mycenaean citadel presumably contain the rich grave goods of the Mycenaean royal family, with numerous Minoan import objects. The walled palaces of the Greek Achaeans, built on the Greek mainland, became important economic, political and cultic centers in the 14th-13th centuries BC, with kings and warrior aristocracy (the noun king is wanax in the Linear B texts, Agamemnon the mythical Mycenaean king anax in the early Iron Age Homeric epics). The most significant palace and city is Mycenae, other palace centers: Pylos, Sparta, Tiryns, Thebes. End of the 13th century – beginning of the 12th century BC: the palaces are destroyed (probably due to internal strife, according to other opinions, as a result of external attacks, e.g. attacks by the sea peoples, according to still other opinions, the over-bureaucratized palace economies collapsed by themselves). 3 The appearance of luxury objects from Minoan Crete: Mycenae, shaft graves from the „B” grave circle (MH III) 18th-17th c. BC Grave Y – gemstone with bearded head Dating: 18th -17th century BC Shaft graves of the grave circle “A” (LH I) incorporated in LH III in the palace area Dating 17th – 16th c BC – LH I / 14th- 12th ( LH III) 4  Grave O – rock crystal vessel with duck head ornament Dating: 18th -17th century BC The entrance of the Acropolis, the fortification around the palace of Mycenae with the so called Lion Gate – LH III, 14th – 13th century BC The lions may also be griffins, their heads are missing, so the identification is not easy 5 “A” grave circle, shaft grave IIII, LH I Golden fitting with the depiction of MM peak sanctuary Dating: 17th – 16th century Golden diadem with incised and spherical decoration Dating: 17th-16th century 6  Tombstone over the shaft grave Dating: 17th – 16th century Shaft grave V: so called mask of Agamemnon – LH I period. Heinrich Schliemann, the excavator in 1876 wrongly identified the owner of the mask with the mythical Mycenaean king, Agamemnon, the leader of the Greek army in the mythical war against Troy. 7 Shaft grave IV, LH I – Golden rings, dagger, drinking horn and cup. Golden rings with combat and hunt scenes Minoan style, Mycenaean content Dating: 17th -16th century BC Black niello inlay made of silver, copper, lead and sulphur alloy 8  So called Nestor chalice, the odyssee, poet described the same shape as the chalice of Nestor, mythical king of the Pylos palace Golden rhyton (drinking horn) fragment with lions head. A Linear B tablet from Mycenae mentioned Po-ti-ni-ja sito (Mistress of the grain) Clay Demon? LH III B 9  LH II ivory sculpture:goddesses in Minoan dress? Earlier research held them as Demeter,Persephone and Plutos who are k nown, from the Archaic Eleusinian mysteries Mycenae, Tholos burial, 13th century BC An open corridor (dromos) leads to the false domed burial chamber (tholos), Treasury of Atreus, LH IIIB 10  Pseudo- domed burial chamber of the tholos from inside The groundplans of the Palaces of Mycenae, Pylos and Tiryns Each palace is surrounded by a wall, the central room (the megaron), with a hearth in the centre and four pillars. This was the throne of the Mycenean kings Mycenae: shaft graves of the “A” grave cycle (17th-16th century BC -LH I) and palace complex (14th-13th century BC – LH IIIA-B) 11 Golden rings from a LH III cult (?) deposit Top – demons (intermediate beings between gods and humans) adore a goddess? Bottom – Mythical scene ? Kidnapping or rescuing a women? Tiryns LH III periods of the palace 12 Vapheio, tholos, LH II 15th century Vapheio cup from a Minoan workshop, the capture of a bull for ritual (?) purpose Dendra, tholos, LH IIIA1 – 1st half of the 14th century The earliest Mycenean bronze culrass after reconstruction Linear B script The linear B script was deciphered in 1952 (Michael Ventris, John Chadwick). The language is Greek, it contains syllabic signs and ideograms. The largest archives containing Linear B clay tablets were found in the palace of Knossos, Pylos and Thebes. The tablets mostly burned out 13  when the palace burned down, so they contain economic records for the year of the destruction of the palace. Ideograms and syllabic signs of Linear B writing The supposed territory of the state of Pylos Field walkings found many villages around the pylos palace, but the identification of the villages with the place names on the Linear B tablets is with the exception of Pylos uncertain. Mycenaean society based on Linear B tablets At the top of the social ladder are the gods, who receive votive gifts and donations from the wealth of the palaces Pansitheoi means all gods. With the exception of Apollo and Aphrodite, the names of all the Olympian gods as well as Poseidon and Dionysos appear on the Linear B tablets The wanax (anax in the epic iliad) is king Lawagetas possibility means military commander or genral. 14  Qasireu is basileus in the early Iron Age greek, here it means a local leader (leader of the village communities belonging to the palace), not yet a king in the Late Bronze Age. The kerosija was the council of elders, the advisory body of the qasireu in the Pylos palace. The council (gerousia) also appeared after the Late Bronze Age in the later Greek polis, e.g. In Sparta. Eretai were perhaps oarsmen or boatmen. Eqetai were military commanders in horse-driven chariots. Telestai could be religious officials, landowners, or tenants. Koretere were middle-ranking officials of public administration (curators). Kakewe were craftsmen, blacksmiths. Damoi were the village community, the people. Rawijaja could be captive women. Doero, doera was servant (doulos in later greek). Linear B names of divinities from the Pylos palace, LH III B Poseidon Enosigaios (earth shaker) Po-ti-ni-ja (Mistress) i-qi-ja (Hippeia) 15  Po-si-da-e-ja (Poseidia) Ma-te-re-re-i-ja (Mother goddesses) Hera Artemis Hermes Dionysos Artist’s impression of the megaron the throne room (Piet de Jong) Pylos palace LH III golden pearl with griffin 16  LH II niello-inlayed daggers LH IIIB bath tub (?) or a basin for ritual purpose? 17 Athens, Akropolos, remains of a Mycenean fortification and underground cistern (LH IIIB) Linear B divinity names from the palace of Thebes (Kadmeion LH III) Zeus Diwia Hermes Hera Potnia O-po-re (Zeus Oporeus ?) Ma-ka (Mai Gai Demeter?) Ko-wa (Kore) A-pu-wa (Harpyia) 18  LH IIIA1 jar from a Western Cretan workshop Gla, LH III fortification: refugium because of the uninhabited interior? Menelaion, Sparta LH IIB palace or manor house Melos Phylakopi, LC settlement 19  Kea, Ayia Irini, LC settlement and LC cult (?) statue of the later Dionysos shrine Mycenean chamber tombs and typical grave goods Sparta, Attika, LH IIIB chamber tomb 20  Athens, Agora, chamber tomb 40, LHIII A1 LH III painted idols, animal figurines from chamber tombs -goddesses? Votive figures? 21  Phi-idol, LH III A Phi and Psi idols LH III A-B Mycenean painted pottery – stylized schematic patterns in comparison with the earlier vivid LM vase paintings Mycenae, LH II amphora 22  LH III pseudo-spouted jar with a stirrup shaped handle Tell-el-Abjul, LH IIIA jars Nauplia, B chamber tomb, LH IIIA-B krater with chariot scene Tanagra 6. Chamber tomb, LH IIIB clay larnax with mourning women 23 Uluburun, Caananite shipwreck, 1364; 1342-1314 ; 1307-1304BC (dendrochr, C 14) Excavation of George Bass (institute of Nautical Archaeology, Bodrum) between 1984-1994 Copper ingot Rock crystal necklace Mycenaen and Cananite swords 24  Golden scarab with the name of queen Nofertiti, wife of Akhenaten around 1351-1334 BC Canaanite amphora Canaanite golden chalice 25  Ostrich egg Further Canaanite finds from the Uluburun shipwreck Golden statue with a protective goddess (presumably Asharte) standing on the prow 26  Golden pendant with an Ashrarte figure Golden pendant Gelidonya, Canaanite shipwreck – end of 13th c LH IIIB2 Canaanite anchor 27  Top – Basket fragment Middle – Canaanite scarab Bottom – Canaanite seal. LH IIIB2 (2nd half of the 13th century BC) fortification of the palaces Mycenae 28  Athens, Acropolis Athens, Acropolis, underground cistern Tiryns 29 Part of the Chapter 2 The fall of the Mycenaean palaces Around 1200 BC there were thick layers of burnt destruction in the palaces (external enemies? internal strife?) The oka tablets from the Pylos Palace just before the destruction of the palace state that the coastguard must be reinforced. There is debate as to whether the coastguard had to be reinforced routinely and regularly, or reinforcement was aimed at a naval invasion by maritime invaders (e.g. Sea Peoples)? The palaces were abandoned, but many of the associated settlements continued to live undisturbed around the palaces in the 12th century, the last century of the Late Bronze Age. There is also continuity in Athens, despite the abandonment of the Mycenaean palace built on the Acropolis. Mycenaean sites before (13th c. BC) and after (12th c. BC) the destruction of the palaces The maps show that only the palaces and few settlements have been destroyed, while the Mycenaean culture and settlement structure 30  itself survives in many places and there is a continuity into the early Iron Age. Who might have been destroyed by the Sea Peoples The migrations and raids of the Sea Peoples from the west Mediterranean are the most controversial events of the late Bronze Age. Previous research has attributed the final destruction of the Late Bronze Age trading city of Ugarit and the collapse of the Hittite empire to the Sea Peoples. The Hittite Empire was certainly under attack from its northern neighbours, the Kashka people, and from some of the Sea Seoples (the shekelesh [siculi] from Sicily), but internal strife could also be expected. Ugarit appealed - unsuccessfully - to the Hittite royal centre for help before its destruction because of an unidentified enemy attacking from the sea, who could have been either Sea Peoples or other invaders. Cyprus and Egypt was surely invaded by the Sea Peoples. The fate of the Mycenaean kings and warlords It has not yet been proven that the Mycenaean palaces were destroyed by external enemies, such as the Sea Peoples or Dorian invaders from Northern Greece (who are attested centuries later in the early Iron Age). This is why research tends to focus on the conflicts between the palaces, because before their destruction, in the 13th century, the palaces controlled extensive long-distance trade networks, and were thus inevitably economic rivals. It is possible that the kings and warlords fleeing from the destroyed Mycenaean palaces joined the Sea Peoples (Ekwesh/Akawasha = Achaeans?) and settled in Cyprus. The 31  material culture of early Iron Age Cyprus shows similarities with that of late Bronze Age Mycenae. The Archaeology of the Early Iron Age of Hellas and Italy – The collapse of the Mycenaean palaces, the migrations of the Sea Peoples. Material culture of the Geometric period. Greek myths and religion. Early iron age cultures of Italy, the making of the Etruscans and the myths of early Rome The process of synoikismos (intermingling), the fortification of the Athenian polis In the 13th century BC there was still a Mycenaean-style palace in the Acropolis in Athens. Here too the palace centre has disappeared, but the villages and cemeteries around it show continuity. Submycenaean, Protogeometric and Geometric graves are concentrated south of Acropolis and in the Kerameikos area. 32  Villagers moving into villages near the Acropolis cult centre established a central urban nucleus (settlement core), which became at the latest in the geometrical period the urban centre (asty) of Athens. Athens in the early Iron Age LH IIIC Late PG EG vase from Athens Graves from the 10-9 centuries Kerameikos submycenaean grace 24 around 1120-1050 33  PG grave goods Greek artifacts from the 11th – 9th centuries BC in the Middle East demonstrate the extensive eastern connections of early trading cities Lefkandi, the so-called heroon and the centaur (LPG, 2nd half of the 10th century BC) The “heroon” and its central graves The centaur 34  Toumba cemetery, tombs 1 and 3 PG pottery from Euboea The chronology of the Geometric Period Ten local styles (J. N. Coldstream): 1: Attic 2: Corinthian 3: Argive 4: Thessalian 5: Cycladic and Euboaean 6: Boiotian 7: Laconian 8: Western Greek 9: Cretan 10: Eastern Greek 35 Subprotogeometric style: -Thessalia -Scyrus -Euboia -Cyclades Early Iron Age, Late Geometric (LG) period in Athens, 2nd half of the 8t century BC In the second half of the 8th century, in the LG period, the entire surface of the vases was painted. Silhouette-like painted black figures of people and animals appear in the Athenian LG vase painting. The rich ornamentation may have forerunners of lost textiles. Large vases for elite tombs were ordered by the aristocracy, the ruling social class. The images often depict the catafalque of the dead (prothesis) and the funeral procession (ekphora) to the tomb. The prestige of the local elite is displayed in the mourning, lamenting with mourning figures and the horse-driven chariots in the funeral procession. It's hard to decide whether the images depict a real early Iron Age burial in the Kerameikos, the cemetery of Athens, or the burial of mythical heroes. 36  LG, Hirschfield painter LG Dipylon painter MG II and LG I pottery from Athens, 8th century BC Eleusis, cemetery D, grave 11, MG II – battle scene on earth and sea 37  Hirschfield Painter LG Dipylon Painter LG British Museum LG crater – the abduction of Helena Thebes LG oinochoe 38 Early iron age cemeteries of Argos Helmet, cuirass iron spit, fire-dog grave 45, LG II Argos, Heraion, LG temple model The LG clay model may represent a wooden house with painted wooden walls and saddle roof The groundplan recalls the simplest Greek temple type (in antis) This building type consisted of the two-column portico and the cell (cella) built for the statue of the god/goddess made that time of wood 39 Olympia Zeus sanctuary and the development of the altar The schematic human and animal figures of the Geometric sculptues of the 8th century resemble the silhouette-like painted figures on vases Numerous bronze votive statues have been found in the Zeus sanctuary of Olympia which has been in operation since the 10th century Main workshops for LG votive bronze sculptures Athenian workshop: three examples from Olympia, louvre, Acropolis of Athens 40  Workshop of Argos, Olympia Dreros (Crete), temple of Apollon Delphinios, 2nd half of the 8th century (LG) – 1st half of the 7th century (Orientalizing period) Bronze large sculpture is the first used in the sanctuary of Apollo Delphinios in the town of Dreros on the island of Crete. Crete was in constant economic and cultural contact with Egypt in the Early Iron Age. The figure of Apollo still resembles the style of geometric sculptures. Artemis and Leto, however,show already the impacts of the frontality of Egyptian sculptures. 41 The consequences of Greek colonization and extensive maritime trade Cheap imports of cereals to Greece, especially from the northern Black Sea coast (consequently grape and olive growing is more developed in Greece). In addition to the landowners, the economic importance of craftsmen, merchants and the common people (=demos) increases - in the 7th-6th centuries they demand political rights. 7th century BC: coinage and money management was invented in the Lydian kingdom and spread from Asia Minor. 9th-8th century BC: a group of Greek merchants (?), or a single person (?) from the Near East (Syria) adopted the Phoenician alphabet and created the Greek alphabet. 7th century BC: from the western Greek version of the Greek alphabet becomes the Etruscan and Latin alphabet in Italy. Pithecusai, Mezzavia cemetery, Euboean LG pottery objects LG imported from Eturia, Phoinicia, Syria, Egypt Grace 325: scarabeus with the name of the pharaoh Wohkere (Boccnoris) (718-712 BC) 42 The antecendent of the Early Iron Age Villanova culture is the Proto- Villanova culture in the late Bronze Age. This culture is the italian version of the Urnfield culture of Middle Europe. The culture can be dated in Italy in the 13th- 11th century on the basis of the brooch types which are extant in the late Mycenaean Greece. (a) Violin bow shaped brooch – 13th century BC (b) Arch shaped brooch – 12th c BC Pianello di Genga, Proto-Villanova biconical urns and mugs with one handle and a so called snake shaped brooch Villanova culture 10th -8th century BC 43  Tarquinia, Villanova settlement, later Etruscan city: biconical urn with helmet shaped lid a male burial. Cremation grave in a pit (pozzo) and a smaller pit (pozzetta) closed with a stone slab The extention of the Villanova culture; dark grey areas in Middle and Southern Italy. 44 Villanova culture Benacci cemetery near Bologna, 8th c BBC, Villanova II (Bologna, Museo Civico) The schematic represenations of sun discs, spirals and long necked bir ds have the best analogies in the Urnfield culture complex of Middle E urope. This means, that the Villanova culture has strong cultural and a rtistic connections to the northern areas. Drinking vessel with incrustations and fugural representation of a horseman 45 Bisenzio, Olmo Bello cemetery, 2nd half od the 8th century Villanova II Grave 2 cult carriage Villa Giulia Rome Bisenzio, Olmo Bello cemetery, grave 22, 2nd half of the 8th centrury: biconic bronze vessel with dancing figures around a captured monster (?).The small figures resemble Greek geo metric sculpture of the 8th c. BC. Unfortunately we do not know the myths and legends of the Villanova culture and we superficially know the myths of Etruscans. Italogeometric pottery, 2nd half of the 8th century, beginning of the 7th c Strong impact of the LG Greek vase painting especially the geometric style of the Euboia peninsula. The Greek colonization from Euboia reached southern Italy in this time (LG) and trade with the new Greek colonies and Italian people became more intensive. 46  Bisentium, Bucacce cemetery, grave 3 Pot holder stand (holmos) with entruscan geometric style painting of the Casale del Fosso painter from Veii. Museum of fine Arts Budapest Map of Tarquini`: the Etruscan city and the Monterozzi cemetery Villanova burials and barrows with painted burial chambers in the background 47 Tarquinia, Monterozzi cemetery, the so-called Warrior grave found in 1869, 2nd half -end of the 8th c. Bronze grave goods of the warrior Round shield Cuirass plate Spear head 48  Knife and harness (bit) Axe, razor and harness disc with open work decoration Tarquinia, Monterozzi cemetery So called Warrior grave of an elite person of high ran with 104 grave goods, 2nd half-end of the 8th c Bronze kalpis with buckle row decoration 49  Italo-geometric bird askos, the shape is of Cypriot origin Italo-geometric bowl and lid of local origin Monterozzi cemetery, the so-called Bocchoris grave of a rich woman found in 1895, end of the 8th-beginning of the 7th century (Bocchoris pharaoh: around 718-712 or 720-715 BC) Halmos 50  Handle of a bronze vessel Top – rider figure decoration of a vessel. Impasto amphora with spiral decoration. Cup with geometric style decoration. Necklace, Egyptian style 51  Egyptian or Egyptianizing faience (vitrified quartz ceramic) situla with the name and figure of Bocchoris, Neith, Horus, Thot and the depiction of Kushite prisoners between monkeys eating dates from palm trees. If it is not original Egyptian could be made in a Phoenician workshop in the Near East. Linguistic and archaeological data on the Etruscans Recent linguistic and archaeological evidence confirms the theory of Dionysios of Halicarnassus (Greek historian in the age of Augustus): the Etruscan cities are formed by the intermingling (synoikismos) of the inhabitants of the so-called Villanova villages, at the latest in the 7th century in Middle Italy. The Etruscan culture of the early Iron Age in Italy is thus formed by ethnogenesis (this was also shown by Massimo Pallottino in the middl e of the 20th century). The Etruscan language is probably not of Indo-European origin, but a so-called Mediterranean substrate language, so it is difficult to decipher In the archaic period, an extinct language very similar to Etruscan was still spoken on the island of Lemnos. This is not evidence of an immigration of Etruscans from Lydia to Italy, but rather that Etruscans 52  may have migrated with the maritime peoples to the island of Lemnos, or even to Asia Minor, at the end of the Late Bronze Age (12th c. BC). S. Lorenzo Vecchio (Rocca di Papa), Latium I burail 11th century BC Osteria dell’ Osa (Gabii) graves 131, 135, 372 (Latium IIA-IIB), 10th – 9th century 53 Osteria dell’ Osa, inhumation grave 492 and incineration grave 493 (Latium IIB2, around 800-770BC) The earlier Greek (looking) inscription: Eulinos (good weaver) or Eupinos (good wine owner), beginning of the 8th century Settlement of the latium culture ( Latium III), 8th century BC Practica di Mare “small Acropolis” Fidenae, dwelling house 54 Archaeological data from the city of Rome in the early Iron Age Latium culture, 10th-8th centuries BC: it was formed by the synoikismos (moving together) of villages on the hills around the Tiberis, similar to the Greek polis states, at the latest in the 7th-6th centuries AD Forum Romanum area, 9th-8th c : evidence of settlements following the former cemeteries on the site of the later Forum Romanum. Caesar’s forum, deep excavations: an early Iron Age tomb of the Latium culture. Impasto pottery made by reduction firing, early Iron Age snake brooch, small weapons. 55  The 7 hills of Rome and the city wall dating back to the 6th century: the city wall now visible at Termini station, was built after the Celtic invasion. According to mythical prehistory, the wall was built during the reign of the 6th king, Servius Tullius Forum Romanum Red dots: places of early Iron Age graves. 56  Early iron age – archaic stratigraphy of the Roman Forum in the Equus Domitiani – Comitium zone House and house- shaped urns in the early Iron Age Rome The post holes and the timber wall foundation ditches indicate that wooden houses stood on the hill. In the 3rd century BC, during construction, the Romans also found the remains of an early Iron Age house like this one in the picture, and they began to venerate it as the house of Romulus. It was on the same hill, where the house of Augustus and the later palaces of the later emperors were built. 57  Cremation urn in the shape of a hut: a typical grave good from the early Iron Age of Latium, depicting the eternal house of the dead (domus aeterna). Predecessors of the Latium house-shaped urns, promblems of interpretation Rome Etruria or Latium 58  Knossos, LM III Archanes, LM III Reconstruction proposal of the Vesta temple Palatinus, hut model 59  Fidenae Southwestern slope of the Palatine hill, the so-called House of Romulus (p) and the temple of Victoria (I) 60 Palatine hill, two periods of a city wall around the hill (the so called wall of Romulus) and gate around the hill, cca. 750-650 c. BC, during the excavations of Andrea Carandini Traces of human sacrifice building sacrifice? Below the doorwat of the gate belonging to the wall, a grave of a young girl was found with grave goods from the end of 8th – beginning of the 7th century Grave buried in the abandoned rubble of the city wall in the 1st half of the 7th century. Human sacrifice – construction sacrifice ? 61 The Forum Romanum and the walls surrounding the Paltine hill in the early Iron Age ( Porta Mugonia), Latium III Excavation of Andrea Carandini. Bolsena, Etruscan bronze mirror made in Praeneste, 4th century: Lares, Latins, Romans The story of Romulus and Remus spreads through Italy in the 4th century BCE when the earliest Etruscan depictions of the twins and the wolf, with figures from Etruscan mythology, are also produced. 62  3. The Archaeology of Hellas and Italy in the Archaic Period – The making of the Polis System, Greek colonisation, trade connections. Dorian and Ionian temple architecture, Archaic sculpture. Proto- Corinthian, Corinthian, Eastern Greek, Protoattic vases, Athenian black figure and red figure vases. Etruscan funerary architecture, sculpture and funerary painting. The impact of Egyptian sculptures on the making of Greek sculpture in the Orientalizing period (7th century) Prinias (Crete), Temple “A” An in antis type temple with a cella and three – column portico. On the ledge above the gate the row of deers reflect still the geometric style, but above the ledge two statues of sitting women clearly show Egyptian sculptural influence. Daedalic style: a term used by Classical archaeology for the style of the Orientalizing statues. Daedalus was a legendary sculptor on Crete. 63  The lady of Auxerre, around 650-625, louvre Olympia, Zeus sanctuary, the Heraion and surrounding from the Middle Bronze Age to early Iron Age. In the Middle Bronze Age (MH) there was a settlement here with houses with apses. The beginning of the cult of Zeus with a great altar for sacrifices dates from the 10th century. The temple of Hera with already stone columns and a peripteros around the cella 650-600 BC. Before the construction of the Zeus temple it could be the cult place of both Zeus and Hera 64 A mysterious statue head from the so called Hera temple of Olympia: the head of the cult statue of Hera or of a sphinx Hera or sphinx – around 600 Kalydon sphinx 65  Nimrud, Assyrian palace complex, ivory sphinxes as furniture decorations from a possibly near eastern workshop (9th -8th century) Olympia, Zeus sanctuary: orientalizing votive bronze cauldrons with griffin, lion and siren attachments Cast griffen attachements are Greek products, their predecessors from Syria were hammered: end of the 7th century 66  The composition of the cast siren attachment with wings and disc is of Middle Eastern origin, but the head is typically Greek, early 7th century. Hammered griffin head, early 7th century Development of Greek temple architecture in the 6th century BC – Doric and Ionian temples and columns. Left à doric Right à Ionian 67  Korinthos (Corinth), Apollon temple Akrokorinthos (Acrocorinth) Corinth and its environment The situation of its two ports (Kenchreai, Lechaion) made a large-scale trade possible via Aegean and Adriatic sea. The orientalizing style in Corinth, Protocorinthian vase painting Types of orientalizing animals and hybrid creatures walking around on the surface of the Protocorinthian vases between dot- rosettes: Lions (the lion heads are of Assyrian and Neo-hittite types) Wild goats Griffins (Herodotos says that they live in the northeastern Asia, in what is now the Southern Siberia, where they are guarding gold) Sphinxes (their representation is of Egyptian origin, but in the Greek myths they are pandemic- causing and death-causing demonic beings). Sirens (in the Odyssey epic, they are evil demonic beings, who 68  seduce men with their seductive song and then kill them). In Greek mythology, Sirens are female demons, promising power, money, influence to men. In the Archaic art they are bird- bodied and female-headed creatures. There is debate in the research about whether orientalizing creatures walking around on the vases are demonic beings, like in the mythology, or are they mere decorations? Protocorinthian vase from Corinth, 7th century Early Protocorinthian pottery, last quarter of the 8th – 1st quarter of the 7th century The impact of Late Geometric style is still strong, most examples are in fact Corinthian LG vases. Horizontal lines: characteristics decorations of Corinthian LG style 69 Protocorinthian vase painting with human figures Chigi olpe, Chigi painter, cca 650-640, free use of colours – reds, white, browns, Villa Giulia Museum Rome McMillian aryballos (perfume flask) from Thebes, Chigi Painter, cca. 650-640: hoplite fight, hare hunt British Museum 70 Hoplites on the Chigi olpe On the Chigi Vase a phalanx of Greek hoplites advances in formation. Hoplites hold a spear in their right and a circular shield (hoplon) in their left. A hoplite’s own shield protected his left side, but his right side, where he held his shield, had to be protected by the shield of the man next to him. Battles between two phalanxes would begin like big shoving matches, with the two side against each other. When a phalanx broke apart, a gap opened in the line. The other phalanx made its way into the breach, and the undisciplined phalanx would disintegrate. Archaic painting in Corinth, 6th century Corinthian vase, olpe (6th century): spotted rosettes and less elaborate animal figures compared to the Protocorinthian olpe (7th century), where there are dot-rosettes 71  Pitsa cave around 530-500: Corinthian painting on a wodden plate, sacrifice scene. Corinthian Column crater of the Three Maidens Painter from Cerveteri, around 560-550: the Corinthian vase painter tries to imitate the that time flourishing Athenian black figure vases. Wedding scene with chariot; the background has been reddened to heighten the polychrome effect with red and white added colors 72 Cycladic and Eastern Greek Orientalizing vases (Wild Goat style: Early WG, Middle WG, Late WG) - horror vacui: each part of the image field is decorated with space- filling patterns and motifs.The figural representations of the central pa rts of the vases are mythological epiphany scenes, mythological (?) bat tle scenes, or wild goats and birds. so called Melian (in fact Parian) amphora, Apollon, Leto and Artemis with a divine chariot, 2nd half of the 7th century Milesian oinochoe from Rhodos, MG, 2nf half of the 7th century 73  Rhodian (?) bowl from Kameiros MG, late 7th century Ephesos, building periods of the Artemis sanctuary and Roman copy of the cult statue The small temple dates from the LG period (2nd half of the 8th century) in the middle of the big temple, which was financially supported by the Lydian king, Kroisos around 560 BC Around the small LG temple excavated by Austrian archaeologists, altars and pits were found with many votive objects 74  This Artemis statue dates from the Roman period (2nd century AD), the lost cult statue of the temple could be similar like this. Ephoesos, Artemision: Pits at altars around the LG temple building from the 7th century with votive deposits. Golden brooches of Phrygian style, golden garment decoration, orientalizing statues in Daedalic style, depicting perhaps priestesses or supplicants. Ephesos, Artemision, 7th century – 560 =, votive objects dates before the great temple construction around 560 The earliest coin hoard of the world, end of the 7th century 75  Garment decorations, brooches arm ring, votive pomegranate, Orientalizing statues in Daedalic style, bronze griffin attachment from a cauldron, statue of a ram resembling Scythian animal style. Orientalizing sculpture and relief of the Cyclades and Eastern Greek area Archaic kore from Miletos, around 570-560 76  Delos island, row of lion statues, cca 600-575 Naxos island, Daedalic kore dedication of Nikandre, around 650-625 77  Clay relief vase from Mykonos island, depicting the mythical siege of Troy with the Trojan horse. Samos, Heraion, Geometric- Archaic Hera sanctuary with four building periods of the Hera temple: End of the 8th century (Hekatompedos I) 7th century (Hekatompedos II) Cca 575-550 (Rhoikos temple) Cca 500, temple of the tyrant Polykrates Archaeobotany: The analysis has revealed large quantities of pomegranate and poppy seeds: offerings to Hera. 78  The Ionic dipteros temple designed by Rhoikos and Theodoros around 575-500 Heraion, Geneleos group of statues: votive dedications from the 6th century Heraion orientalizing (Daedalic) wooden statue group of a divine couple, 2nd half of the 7th century Hieros gamos (sacfed wedding) of Zeus and Hera? Hera suckles Herakles to give the hero more power. 79  Isches kouros: votive dedication of Isches, height: 5,25 m. found during the excavation of the Sacred Way in the Heraion. Archaic sculptures as temple decoration, an early pediment from Korfu (Korkyra), Doric Apollon temple with peripteros, cella, entrance hall and opisthodomos, beginning of the 6th century BC Perseus, Gorgon in kneeling run and Orientalizing lion decorations 80  Persian (Achaimenid) seal: Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat the demon Humbaba who lived in the cedar forest of Libanon according to the Mesopotamian Gigamesh myths. The depiction of Humbaba is the forerunner of Orientalizing Greek Gorgon depictions. Selinis Temple C, around 550 Temple C metope: Perseus defeats the Gorgon. 81  Delphoi oracle in the Archaic period: the sanctuary district and the Apollon temple itself is popular from the second half of the 8th century until Roman times. Numerous indviduals and polis delegations came here to ask Apollo for a prophercy through the Pythia priestess who told the future to those who asked for a prediction. Artists impression about the sanctuary district (temenos) with the great temple and treasuries built by city-states for their votive gifts to the sanctuary. 82  The temenos with the earliest treasuries from the 6th century Delphor, marble treasury of the Siphnians, around 525 BC, according to Herodotos. The sculptures of the Ionian style treasury are important examples of late Archaic sculptural decoration because of their exact dating. 83  The so called Kleobis és Biton group, around 580- 570. According to a myth told by Herodotos, they were sons of the Cydip pe, the priestess of Hera in Argos who had a happy an peaceful death. The interpretation of the statues with the mythical brothers in uncertain Northern frieze: Gigantomachy with lions pulling the chariot of the goddess Themis The topography of the polis centre of Sparta: The settlement centre of the polis Sparta, the asty consists of five villages – Limnai, Mesoa, Kynosura, Pitane, Amyklai 84 Sparta, the Artemis Orthia sanctuary area near the Eurotas river. The masks found in the Archaic temple were used for adolescent initiation rites, with stories being acted out by the adolescents. The theatre auditorium is Roman. According to written sources, young boys engaged in the adol escent initiation rites were whipped here in front of a larger audience, including women. Karthago, 7th-2nd c Archaic representation of Artemis Orthia, the Mistress of Animals. 85  Hydria (water jug) Artand, an elite burial from Eastern hungary form the Scythian period, 2nd half – last third of the 7th century BC Famous Spartan finds from the 7th-6th centuries show that Sparta was a leading centre for bronze and pottery production in the Archaic period. The bronze artifacts made in Sparta workshops travelled hundreds of kilometers across Europe by long distance trade These finds do not prove that early Sparta was a “shut-in” polis, not involved in trade and therefore deliberately using worthless iron money. Vix, Hallstatt D2 elite burial of a rich woman with the krater of Vix made in a Spartan workshop The colume of the krater was 1100/1200 litres. The rich chariot burial is dates to the Hallstatt D2 period (2nd half of the 6th century) on the basis of the bronze vessel with late Archaic decoration. The form of the gold necklace can be traced back to the Caucasus region, but the archaic style of the pegasos figure was added presumably in a workshop in Corinth. 86 87 Krater of Vix, details 88 Black figure vases from Sparta: the so called laconian cuos, cca 580-520 Boreas Painter, cca 570-560: Bellerophon defeats the Chimaera monster with the winged horse Pegasos Arkesilas Painter, cca 550-540: Hercules frees the titan Prometheus who was blinded to a cliff in the Caucasus mountain as a punishment of Zeus (and a culture are his liver), because he has stolen the fire for mankind from the Olympos. 89 Laconian cup (kylix) of the Arkesilas Painter, cca 550-540 Arkesila(o)s II, king of Cyrene (Kyrene) is shown as a supervisor of the trade of the by now extinct plant, the silphion. The Arkesilas Painter may have lived in Northern Africa (in the polis Cyrene) and in Sparta as well. This kylix is a proof of intensive economic connections between the kingdoms of Sparta and Cyrene in the 6th century Aigina island, Doric temple of Athena Aphaia with two Archaic building periods First third of the 6th century 90  Late 6th century The pediment sculptures of the Athena Aphaia Temple (Aigina) in Munich (Antique Collection, cca 490-480 BC Late Archaic West pediment sculptures, second trojan war Late Archaic East pediment sculptures, first Trojan war with the participation of Hercules Hercules from the east pediment 91 The Acropolis of Athens around 480, the end of the Archaic period Before the Persian destruction (480 BC), the Acropolis already had the Archaic cult temple of Athena, and the earlier period of the Parthenon, the cult acts here are known from the Hekatompedon inscription. [Hekatompedon means 100 feet long.] Several small temples stood on the plateau, and their limestone temple decoration sculptures were found in the Persian destruction layer (480). In the Classical period, major new construction works were started on the plateau, as can be seen in the lower right chart. The Acropolis in the end of the 5th c BC 92 Athens, Acropolis, statue finds from the archaic period, from the so called Persian destruction layer before the destruction in 480BC Athlete with jumping weights, cca. 520-510 The monster Typho (?) on the temple pediment of Athena, painted limestone, cca 550-540 The Rampin horseman cca. 550, an equestrian statue of a young aristocrat. Head: taken to the louvre before the excavations. Body found during the excavations: Athens. 93  The calf bearer (Moschophoros) cca. 560, dedication of Rhombos The kare in peplos dress, cca. 530 94 Archaic funerary statues from Attica Keratea, funerary statue (Kare of Berlin) cca 570-560 Volomandra funerary statue, cca. 510-500 95  Aristodikos Mt. Olympus (Attica), cca. 510-500 Piraeus harbour (secondary findplace), cast bronze kouros late 6th c or archaizing Classical 96  Votive kouros from a Poseidon sanctuary, Sounion, around 600-590. Height: 3m Athenian Subgeometric vase painting first quarter of the 7th century BC – the impact of the LG vase painting style is still strong but Orientalizing animals and other creatures already appear on the vases. Medogeia Painter, first quarter of the 7th century 97  Analatos Painter, first quarter of the 7th century The three-phase firing technique for Athenian Black figure vases including Protoattic Vases On Athenian black figure vases, the red clay is local Attic clay, the black figure is made with a clay slurry (slip) applied with a brush. The decorations are incised and the overpainting can be red or white. The figures are painted before firing. Phase 1: oxidation firing: oxygen is free to interact with glazes in the kiln, the ceramics burns red. Phase 2: reduction firing: kiln openings closed, oxygen cannot get in, the amout of oxygen is reduced, ceramics burn dark grey or black. Phase 3: reoxidation firing: the ceramics are finally fired red, giving the black vase a red background. Attributed of painted vases to the painters hand The attribution method was developed by John Beazley for Greek and Etruscan vases: he drew the vases until - after drawing hundreds of vases - he recognised the similarities and differences between the styles of the different painters. For those painters who did not sign their vases, he gave them fancy names (e.g. Amasis Painter, Affecter). 98 The orientalizing style in Athens, Protoattic vase painting, 7th century BC (PA) PA vases are found in Attika mostly as grave goods, they are not long distant trade products like Protocorinthian vases. On the surface of PA vases large mythological scenes were painted. The vase of the Polyphemos Painter depicts the killing of the one-eyed cyclops Polyphemos by Ulysses and his crew. The largest mytholofical figures on the vase are Gorgons PA vase, Polyphrmos Painter, Eleusis, 2nd quarter of 7th c. 99  Nessos Painter, 3rd quarter of 7th century – Hercules kills the centaur Nessos, Gorgons in kneeling run Gorgon representations evolved from the Mesopotamian and Near Ea stern Humbaba images. Humbaba was an evil demon in Sumerian and Akkadian myths who lived in the cedar forest in Libanon but he was defeated by Gilgamesh, the mythical king of Uruk and his friend, Enkidu according to the Gilgamesh epic. 100 Athenian black figure vase painting (ABF) in the 6th century BC Gorgon painter Sophilos, Erskine dinos, cca 580-570 101  Signatures of potters and painters: epoiesen (= has made this) – potters’ signature egrapsen (=has drawn this) – painters signature Sophilos is the first potter and painter who signed his vases, cca. 580- 570 Wedding of Peleus and Thetis (parents of Achilles, the hero of the Trojan war) Vase fragment signed by Sophilos Athens, Acropolis – wedding of Peleus and Thetis 102  Pharsala, Chariot Race François vase, colute krater of Ergotimos and Kleitias from Chiusi, Etruria, cca. 570-560 Mythological scenes in several image fields (boar hunt in Kalydon, wedding of Peleus and Thetis, victory dance of Theseus and his fellows after killing the Minotaur in the other side) Orientalizing animal representations remain only in the lowest image fields of the vase 103 Column crater of Lydos, around 560-530 Nikosthenes Painter, around 540-510 The potter Nikosthenes worked in Athens especially for the Etruscan market. The so called Nikosthenic amphora shape (favourite vessel type in Etrutria) has long ribbon-like handles. Amasis Painter, cca 560-525 Dionysos was a popular god in Peisistrators’ Athens, and his depictions are common on vases used at banquets The Affecter, cca 540-520 104 Group E, around 560-540 Amphora depicting Hercules killing the birds of the Stymphalos marches. The young Exekias was one of the potters and painters of Group E - the paintings of Exekias growing out from Group E belong to the highest technical level of ABF vase painting. The bodies and wings of the birds are painted with red and white additio nal colours. Exekias, around cca 545-530, the greatest BF vase painter in Athens Dramatic (tragic) scenes: viewers were familiar that time with the unhappy end of the stories known from Greek myths Warrior going to war says farewell to his lover (and he may not come back anymore) 105  Achilles and Aias playing a dice game, BF amphora from Vulci (Etruria): Achilles will win the game (Ais will become later mad and will commit a suicide) The suicide of Aias 106 Three other masterpieces of Exekias Penthesileia- amphora from Vulci, Etruria (British Museum): Achilles kills the queen of the Amazons, Penthesileia at Troy. They recognized their mutual love too late. Cup (kylix) from Munich (Antique Collection) with the coral red painting of the sea. Dionysus changed the pirates who kidnapped him into dolphins Exekias’ signature as potter 107  Amphora with Dionysiac scene, Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts Little master cups with small-sized scenes, cca, 560-510 “B” side – the wedding of Hades (in fact Dionysos) and kidnapped Persephone. Dionysos is here not only the god of wine and grape, but also the Lord of the underworld, identified with Hades Xenokies little master, cca 560-530: “A” side – the division of the powers and realms of realms of Zeus, Hades and Poseidon on Earth, in the Underworld and in the Seas. 108  Siana cup, cca 575-550 Cup painted around 510- a pirate ship attacks a merchant ship Late Archaic BF vase painting: Leagros group, cca. 520-500 k. 109  Marathon Painter, cca 500-490 The presence of the latest Archaic lekythoi in the big barrow of Athenians on the battlefield of Marathon (490 BC) provides a secure dating for the latest period of BF vases. Bilingual vases, cca. 530, the making of Athenian Red Figure (ARF) vase painting The Andokides Painter [unknown painter of the potter Andokides], cca. 530-515: he was an exquisite student of Exekias and the inventor of the RF technique. The black and red figure sided vases depict the same scene. In the short term, customers preferred the red figure vases, with black figure vases falling out of fashion by the end of the archaic period. 110  Banquet of Hercules with Athena - The black figure painting is either by the Lysippides Painter or by the Andokides Painter. In the latter case, the Andokides Painter was able to paint in two different styles. Amphora of the Andokides Painter: Hercules carries the Cerberus from the underworld In the red figure vase painting, the red is not paint but the colour of the Attic clay after the three phases of firing. The black background is painted with slip (clay slurry) and a thick brush. The details of the red figures are decorated with thin brushes (not with incisions), these are the relief lines. 111  In this sense, RF vase painting is really a painting with brushes. Athenian RF vase painting, Andokides Painter (cca 530-515) Bilingual amphora: Hercules ca[tures the Minoan bull, Andokides Painter and perhaps Lysippides Painter (cca 530-515) Kylix of the Andokides Painter, detail Budapest Museum of Fine Arts: Hercules drinks wine. Cups of the Andokides Painter are very rare, so the Budapest example is extraordinary important in the oeuvre of the Andokides Painter 112 Euphronios, cca. 525-500: a fundamental painter of early Archaic RF vase painting fight of Hercules and Antaios on a calyx krater found in Cerveteri, now in the Louvre. Calyx krater of Euphronios: Hypnos (the Dream) and Thanatos (the Death) carry the dead Sarpedon in the battlemfield of Troy, his soul is taken by Hermes Psychopompos to the underworld. The krater, stolen from an Etruscan tomb near Cerveteri, was bought by the Metropolitan Museum (New York) for $1.2 million in 1972 and returned to Italy in 2008 It is dates 520-510 AD because of the inscription Leagros kalos. Kalos means handsome (nice) boy (around 15 year old). If we know the chronology of the later careers of the kalos boy who were later 113  politicians after 30 years old we can identify the date when they were still 15 years old handsome boys. Euthymides, cca 515-500 RF amphora from Vulci, Etruria, now in München, Antique Collection The inscription at three dancing men: “Hos oudepote Euphronios (= as Euphronios never)” It means: as Euphronios is never ale to paint this “Komarchos” “Eu(e)demos” “Teles” Late Archaic RF vase painting: an amphora of the Kleophrades Painter (cca 505-470) Extispicy scene (divination by means of inspecting the entrails of sacrificed animals 114  Extispicy was less important in Greek religion (Zeus in Dodona and Apollon in Delphoi, Didyma and Kyme had more popular oracles) – but it became a more widespread way of divination in the Etruscan and Roman religion since the 5th century BC. A young boy is the seer here, the excited audience consists of a Skythian archer, a warrior and a woman [the dog does not seem to be interested in the future…]. Berlin Painter (cca 490-460) – clear scenes without unnecessary decorations on an amphora and skyphos Skythian archer who served as a kind of policeman in Athens 115  Elder man persecutes a playing younger boy, perhaps he is in love with the boy and want to catch him Orestes kills Aigisthos, the murderer of his father Agamemnon (mythical king of Mycenae) with the moral support of his sister, Elektra on a pelike 116 Late Archaic RF vase painting Amphora of Myson, around 500-480: Cyrus, the Persian king wants to execute the defeated Lydian king Kroi sos (Croesus) on a pyre. We know from a story of Herodotos that the Persian king finally had mercy on him. Hydria of the Siren Painter, cca. 490-470 – Ulysses listens to the seductive song of the Sirens but – tied to the mast of his ship –he cannot follow the Sirens to their island. 117 Cups of the Foundry Painter, cca 500-470 – work in a foundry with cast bronze statues – drinking parties with the presence of hetairai (luxury prostitutes) The Latest Archaic RF vase painting: skyphos of the Pan Painter, around 480-460 BC The drunken (?) god Pan persecutes a young shepherd boy with his love. There is a herm (Hermes statue with erected phallus) in the background Ore deposits in Etruria, silver, gold, iron, mercury, lead, copper, tin: the profits from their trade provided the basis for the wealth of the leading elite groups involved in long-distance trade in the Etruscan towns that emerged from the villages of Villanova culture. This wealth 118  is most evident in the tombs and burial chambers of the cemeteries of the Etruscan towns in the Archaic period. City states: only one urban settlement no secondary urban centre, but only fortress and/ or harbours Territory usually not larger than one day’s walk Greek terminology Examples: Greek colonoes; Talic communities (Southern Umbrians, Sabines, Latins – except Rome) Territorial states One main urban centre. Secondary urban centres Territory larger than one day’s walk Greek terminology: Examples: archaic Rome, southern Etruscan communities (Vulci, Tarquinii, Volsinii, Veii); larger Greek colonies (e.g. Syracuse) The Etruscan city of Caere (Cerveteri) evolved from Villanova villages in the 7th century. The western, Banditaccia necropolis contains Etruscan barrows (tumuli) from t he a 7th-3rd centuries BC. The southern cemetery (Necropoli del Sorbo) 119 has the barrow Regolini- Galassi with rich grave goods from the 7th century. Barrows from the Banditaccia cemetery with stone burial chambers. Cerveteri, Banditaccia cemetery: the inner decorations of the burial chamb ers of the tumuli are extraordinary sources of Etruscan house design and furniture Tomb of the shields and the chairs, 7th c. BC Tomb of the Reliefs, 3rd c. BC 120 The tomb of Regolini- Galassi in the Sorbo necropolis of Caere. Regolini and Galassi were the exc avators of the great tumulus with a long passage and two burial chambers in 1836. The extraordinary finds now in the Museo Vaticano were published in 1848 by George Dennis (The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria). The attractiveness of Etruscan finds inspired Etruscology in Italy and Europe until now. Old excavation drawings of the tomb inside of the barrow Orientalizing grave goods of the Regolini- Galassi tomb, around second quarter – 2nd half of the 7th century BC Bucchero (Etruscan black pottery) ink holder with inscription 121  Pectoral with geometric decoration Chariots of the deceased with bronze fittings Golden brooch with orientalizing animals 122  Golden bracelet with the Mistress of Animals (Artemis) Etruscan orientalizing art in the 7th c. BC Veii, Tomb of Ducks, first half of the 7th century Tarquinia, Tomb of Panthers, end of 7th c. 123 Etruscan art in the Archaic period (6th c. BC) Boccanera tablets: Painted clay funerary tablets with the Trojan myth of Paris and funerary procession Villa Giulia sarcophagus from the Banditacca cemetery, Caere: terracotta sarcophagus of a probably married couple. Populonia, barrows from the 7th century BC, S. Cerbone necropolis Tomb of fans 124 Vetulonia, Tomba del littore, 7th century BC: Navicella brooches with Orientalizing decorations and an original fasces. The fasces (bundle of sticks) was originally a symbol of royal power in Rome, carried by the lictors before the king. According to Livy's Roman history, this symbol of power is of Etruscan origin, as this Etruscan tomb proves. Vetulonia, gravestone of auvile Feluske 7th century BC 125 Marsiliana d’ Albegna, around 675-650 BC, elite burial: comb with orientalizing decoration and a writing board with the full display of the Etruscan alphabet Bucchero pottery, 2nd half of the 7th century – end of the 6th century: Bucchero pottery is not only known from graves, but is one of the leading types of Etruscan pottery from the long-distance trade that flourished in the Western Mediterranean during the Archaic period. It was fired completely black by reduction firing, even the fractured surface of the pottery is black, and the Bucchero forms imitate shapes of bronze vessels. The thick-walled bucchero pesante with relief decoration is typical of the 6th century 126  The thin – walled bucchero sottile with insed decoration is typical of the second quarter and second half of the 7th century BC Bucchero pesante, Nicosthenic amphora and oiochae Bucchero a cillindretto made with orientalizing stamp decoration: transitional type between sottile and pesante, late 7th c. - early 6th c. BC Etrusco-Corinthian vase painting, around 630-540: an adaptation of Protocorinthian and Corinthian vase painting from Etruscan workshops. The incised details of the figures differ from those of the Corinthian painters. The separation and attribution of the styles of the Etruscan-Corinthian vase painters was carried out by a Hungarian researcher, János György Szilágyi, who headed the Antiquities Department of the Museum of Fine Arts for decades in the second half of the 20th century. Like the bucchero pottery, Etruscan-Corinthian painted pottery is not only known from grave goods, but is also one of the leading types of pottery from the Etruscan long-distance trade that flourished in the Western Mediterranean during the Archaic period. 127  group of miniature style painters, Caere, late 7th century Bearded sphinx Painter, late 7th c. Rosoni Group, cca. 575-550 128 Polychrome Etrusco-Corinthian vase painting Castellani Painter, cca. 625-600 Ointment vessels, first half if the 6th century Tarquinia, Monterozzi cemetery, Etruscan barrows with painted burial cha mbers and early Villanova cremation tombs 129 Archaic style wall paintings in the barrows of Tarquinia, 6th-5th c. BC. They show the strong stylistic impact of the Eastern Greek Archaic art of the 6th century The images on the burial chamber walls show often banquet scenes of fu nerary or otherworld banquets with eating, drinking, dancing and party g ames. The egg in the hand of the deceased may be a symbol of rebirth. Tomba delle Lionesse, around 520-510 BC Tomba del Treiclinio, first of the 5th century BC 130 Tarquinia, Tomb of the Bulls (tomba dei Tori), 2nd half of the 6th century The main scene shows Achilles wo is waiting to Troilus behind a fountain house to kill him dur ing the Troian war. We do not know the Etruscan interpretations of Gr eek myths, but the scene can show the suddenness and inevitability of death. The depiction of nature is usual in Etruscan funerary painting. The meaning of the erotic scenes cannot be deciphered because of ou r insufficient knowledge about Etruscan religion. Tarquinia, Tomb of the augurs (seers telling the future from the flight of th e birds), 2nd half of the 6th century. 131 The meaning of the paintings in the Tomb of the Augurs The wrestlers and the man fighting with the dog may be participants o f funerary games held at the funeral of élite persons. The roman habit of funerary games, which became later amphitheater games was said to be of Etruscan origin, Romans took these festivals from the Etruscans as l ate as in the 3rd century BC. The Phersu may be the game master, he wears a mask. The latin word persona of Etruscan origin meant originally mask. Hence the english word „person” which is in fact an Etruscan word (phersu). Tertullian, the early Christian writer in the beginning of the 3rd c. AD argued, that the amphitheater games are not only entertainment s hows. They were originally human sacrifices for pagan gods, therefore Christians may not visit them. Were these funerary games originally symbolic human sacrifices for th e soul of the dead? The augurs deciphered the messages of the gods from the flight of the birds in the Archaic italian religions, so did they in the Etruscan and Roman religion. Tarquinia, Tomba della Caccia e Pesca (Tomb of the fishing and hunting), 2nd half of the 6th century the scene in the burial chamber shows a seacoast with people hunting for birds, and a man who jumps into the water. 132  Does the man make some sport or leisure activity, or is he jumping into the Death or into the otherworld? The ribbons on the top of the picture mean, that this is not a real, but an imaginary or symboli c landscape? Paestum, Tomba del Tuffatore (Tomb of the Diver) around 480-470 BC. This early Classical painting on the cover of a painted tomb in the Greek colony, Poseidonia (the Italian name is Paestum) was inspired by the 6th century Etruscan wallpaintings, like the Tomba della Caccia e Pesca. The meaning of the jumping into the water may be the same as on the Etruscan painting? The Tomba delle Olimpiadi (Tomb of the Olympic Games) in Tarquinia was the first tomb which was detected on the basis of the soil resistivity investigation above the burial chamber in 1958. This was the beginning of using geophysical investigations in the Clas sical archaeology. From 1960, the Lerici foundation was established for the financial support of geophysic research in Italy. The paintings of the Tomba delle Olimpiadi showed details of funerary games [not of Olympic games] with the presence of Phersu as a game master. 133  Tomba delle Olimpiadi around 520-510 BC Top – switch on button of the camera generator – soil – stone – locked door – entrance covered with earth – Etruscan tomb The periscope of the Lerici Foundation: Etruscan tombs could be documented with a camera at the end of a stick drilled into the ground. Archaeologists could see whether the tomb was looted. Etruscan Black Figure vase painting, 2nd half of the 6th century: in addition to their Athenian vase painting influences, Etruscan vase painters often developed a pictorial world of their own imagination. Ivy Leaf Painter, Vulci or Caere, around 550-525 134  Micali Painter, Vulci, last quarter of the 6th century – beginning of the 5th century Micali Painter, hydria and kyathos. With more than 200 known vases, the Micali workshop was able to compete with the mass import of Attic black and red vases from Etruria at the end of the 6th century. Horses with wings, battle scenes, wolves, lotus flowers, sirens: symbols surely well understood by Etruscan buyers, the pictorial messages of the Micali Painter's vases are difficult for researchers to interpret. 135 The Archaeology of Hellas and Italy in the Classical Period – the material culture of the cities of Greece, Etruria and Rome. The Acropolis of Athens, Pediment, frieze and metope sculpture of Classical temples. Red figure vase painting of Athens and South Italy. Classical sculpture, problems of attributions to sculptors The reconstruction of Classical Athens with the most important hills Akropolis (Athena sanctuary) Areiospagos (the Council (court) of the Ares hill) Pnyx hill (place of the People’s assembly, the Ecclesia) The place of the Areiospagos, the council on the Ares hill in Athens 136  The buildings of the Akropolis in the Classical period Athens, the Parthenon in the Classical period, the votive temple of Athena Commissioner: Perikles Architects: Iktinos, Kallikrates Leader of the sculptor workshop: Pheidias, the most important sculptor of mature Classical style. Architectual peculiarity of the temple: Doric columns are characteristics of Doric style, triglyphs, 92 metopes. The frieze consisting of 115 marble plates over the inner wall of the cella is a characteristic feature of Ionic style. Parthenon, votive temple of Athena – 447-432 137  Parthenon, 3D reconstruction of the cella with the golden-ivory Athena statue of Phidias Small copy of the golden-ivory Athena statue from the Roman period from Varvakeion (Attika). According to the Life of Perikles written by Plutarchos, the enemies of the democracy, attacked the construction project on the Akropolid. The first accusation against Phedias on Athens, that he had stolen a part f the gold and ovory from the statue, was unfounded. After the weighing of the gold and ivory nothing was missing. Parthenon 92 metope reliefs, cca 442BC 138  Southern metope reliefs: Centauromachy Northern metope reliefs: Occupation of Troy Western metope reliefs: Amazonomachy Eastern metope reliefs: Gigantomachy Parthenon frieze over the wall of the cella: a depiction of the most important Athenian feast, the Great Panathenia, when Athenians parade with gifts to the Acropolis in honour of the goddess Sitting gods on the Eastern frieze: talking to each other and not paying attention to the parade of people Western frieze: idealized Athenian youth on horseback in the parade Depictions made with the perfection and harmony sought by Classical art According to alternative interpreations, it does not present a Panathenaic celebration, but scenes from the prehistory of Athens. Indeed, the temple frieze should not have depicted Athenian people in the flesh, but it could have been a first Panathenaic festival in mythical times, which could have been a model for the festivals in historical times. 139  Parthenon, Eastern frieze: Poseidon, Apollon, Artemis, Aphrodite, Eros, ca 447-438 BC Western frieze: Procession of the Athenians. Parthenon, pediment statues Western pediment (reconstruction) – competition of Athena and Poseidon: who should be the protective god of Athens? Athena planted a olive tree, Poseidon hanged salty water Eastern pediment, birth of Athena (came out from the head of Zeus with full armor) -reconstruction and fragments. 140  Western pediments, cca 432 BC, old drawings from Jacques Carey (1674) Reconstruction and original fragments Erechtheion, cca 430-406 BC. Cult temple of Athena with irregular groundplan because it included the place of the olive tree planted by Athena and the rock, where Poseidon hanged sea water Cariatyds, columns of themale shape, characteristic elements of ionic style temple architecture. 141 Temple of Nike Apteros near the Propylaia, the representative gate of the sanctuary, cca 430-424 Nike temple balustrad, (parapet of the temple terrace), Detail, cca 420-410 BC Ionic style temple with four ionic columns. Three sides of the frieze depict the Greek- Persian wars, the fourth side depicts the Olympic gods sitting and watching the fight. Classical Age statues that once stood on the Akropolis Myron: Athena and Marsyas (copy) cca 450-440 142  Kresilas: Perikles (copy) – cca, 429-420 Pheidias: Athena Promachos. The statue of Athena the Frontline Fighter, was visible from afar on plateau Alkamenes (?): Itys and Prokne, cca 430-420 143 Myron, cca 450 BC (Roman copies) Athena and the satyr Marsyas, the original statue group stood on the Akropolis of Athens The disc thrower, which could be identified as early as the 18th century among the Roman copies on the basis of ancient descriptions of the original statue. The movement is not real, a complete movement sequence condensed into a single idealized movement. 144  The sanctuaries on the slope of the Akropolis include the sanctuary of Asklepios, particularly popular from the mature Classical period, with halls for healing, and the 4th century stone theatre that replaced the earlier wooden theatre of Dionysos Reconstruction drawing of the Agora on the basis of the results of American excavation and an early excavation photo of the site (excavations began in 1931) The headquarter buildings of the institutions of the Athenian democracy are well known due to the excavations Buildings visible on the drawings: the tholas of circular shape, the old and new headquarters of the boule (City council), temple of Hephaistos and Athena, stoa of Zeus Eleutherios and the Royal stoa 145  The groundplan and the buildings of the Agora on the basis of the excavation results. Ostraka: sherds with names of politicians to the exiled on charges of tyranny during the ostracism (sherd vote) Ostraka with the names of Hippokrates and Themistokles Names written on the ostraka: Aristeides, son of Lysimachos – Kimon, son of Miltiades – Themistokles, son of Neokles The excavations in Athens have unearthed several voting sherds on which, according to expert scribal studies, the name of the person worthy of exile was written by the same hand. This raises suspicions of electoral fraud on the part of groups of political friends (hetaireias) who coordinated the voting campaigne. 146  Kolonos Agoraios, temple of Hephaistos (and Athena), cca 460-415. Early Christian church from the 8th century AD Reconstruction of the cella with the statues of the God and the Goddess Western frieze on the façade of the cella: Kentauromachy (also on the eastern frieze) Metopes of the Severe style: adventures of Herakles and Theseus 147  Statue group of the Tyrannicides (Harmodios and Aristogeiton), around 4 77 BC. Roman copy, the original was the statue group of Kritios and Nesiotes sta nding on the agora of Athens. The statues of Kritios and Nesiotes replaced an earlier statue of the Tyra nnicides of Antenor. Antenor's former Tyrannicides statue was carried off by Persian king Xerxes from A thens as booty in 480 BC. The tyrannicides, who killed the tyrant Hipparchus in 514 became the heroes of Athenian democracy, although we know from written sources (e.g. Thucydides), that Hipparchus had to die due to jeal ousy in a homosexual love affair. Harmodios and Aristogeiton were lovers, but Hipparchus wanted to love Harmodius as well. Harmodios rejected Hipparchus, who humiliated Har modios’ sister in revenge during the Panathenaia festival in Athens questioning the girl’s v irginity. 148  The choregic monument of Lysicrates to commemorate a victorious choral contest, 335-334 BC (survives incorporated into a Capuchin monastery). An exterior occurrence of a Corinthian column, in the form of a half-column, a relief of Arion changing into a dolphin. Northern slope of the Akropolis, layout of dwellings internal courtyards with rooms arranged around courtyards. The Kerameikos (cemetery area) in Classical period The wall of Themistokles with secondarily incorporated Archaic gravestones, 479 149  Gravestones in the Kerameikos area Cursed person with tied hands, a magical puppet in a lead coffin in the cemetery, late 5th c. Ground plan of the Kerameikos cemetery with the Dipylon gate and the Sacred Gate outside the city Matured Classical funerary art from the end of the 5th century, Athens, Kerameikos cemetery Representative gravestone erecting customs came back into fashion at the end of the 5th century, because Athenian democracy did not allow luxury in the funerar y representation between the end of the 6th century and the 5th century BC. 150  Reliefs of tomb steles with a melancholic atmosphere were made, reflecting emotions, above all grief and sadness. The stele of Hegeso depicts a scene from the life of the deceased woman, sadly rummaging through her jewellery box, which is handed to her by a maid who also looks sad. The scene is a reminder of impermanence: what are precious jewels worth, when their owner is dead? Gravestone of Hegeso, cca 410BC 151 Late Classical funerary art in Athens Gravestone of a married couple, cca 340-330 BC Behind the couple, looking sadly at each other, mourning, sad female figures appear. The woman lifts her veil, a gesture of conjugal love, which must have disappeared with death. Ilissos gravestone, cca 350-325 BC The Ilissos stele is the gravestone of a boy, who is naked, like a hero and thus faces the viewer. His tutor, the paidagogos and his dog, looks at him sadly, sniffing in confusion and sadness, while a bald slave boy crying with his head on 152  his knees. In late Classical funerary art, well composed gestures are important and symbolic, with a message value. Niobid Painter (cca. 480-460 BC): Niobid krater in the Louvre in Paris: Apollo and Artemis kill the children of Niobe with arrows. The figures who are further back in space are depicted on top, indicating that they stand back in space. The pursuit of perspective is described as appearing in Polygnotos’s severe style wall paintings. Seven against Thebes on the back side: the pursuit of perspective is here relevant, too Hermonax, 470-460 k. 153  Hermonax was a pupil of the Berlin Painter, among the painters of the severe style. Hermonax’s pelike depicts the story of Oidipous and the Theban Sphinx in a crowded polychrome composition. Geras Painter, 480-460 k On the stamnos of the Geras painter Heracles on the hydra of Lerna kills the Hydra of Lerna, his raised hand almost sticking out of the picture. Mature Classical vase painting, Polygnotos, 440-420 k Polygnotos, the mature Classical vase painter not to be confused with the early Classical wall painter Polygnotos. A follower of the Niobid Painter liked to paint large scale Amazonomachy scenes, as in the chalice crater in the picture. 154  The volute krater of the Cleophon Painter found in Spina (a Greek colony in Northern Italy at the Adriatic sea) shows a procession in honour of Apollo, reflecting the style of the contemporary Parthenon frieze. The solemnity of the procession is ensured by the figures marching in dignified fashion, with a more reckless Dionysian procession below. The stamnos of the Berlin Deinos Painter, cca. 430-420 BC The mature Classical style of the Deinos Painter resembles the Cleoph on Painter. The stamnos was found in Nocera (Campania, Southern Italy) represents a Dionysian ceremony with a statue of Dion ysus (?). In front of a Dionysos statue women sacrifice to the god in a frenzy. In recent years (2008) this interpretation was questioned by Stefan Ritter. Ritter argued that this is a mythological scene, where mythical Maenads worship the God, no Athenian women of Classical times. 155  In this case the veneration scene would take place in myth and could n ot be considered as a source of religious history in the 5th century. Dionysus has no legs in the picture, but stands on a rod. So it could be a statue, so the image could be a representation of a ritual, not an exclusively mythical image. According to the time concept of ancient Greeks, this interpretation d ebate had little sense in the Classical Athens. During the religious rituals mythical stories were played and imitated by the worshippers, they felt themselves in the myth, in the divine realm. The sharp distinction of the cathegories of real an d mythical space and time is a characteristic feature of modern mind. The Athenian white ground vase painting is real painting on a chalky white ground with a brush, using a variety of colours. It reflects the techniques and compositions of contemporary mural painting, which is considered to be a model. The lekythos shape was painted primarily on a white ground in the 5th century, but the technique also appears on other forms, such as the chalice krater of the Phiale Painter, a disciple of the Achilles Painter. The lekythos form (jar containing oil) was used mostly during wedding and f uneral. Therefore lekythoi are usually found as grave goods in graves of Attika. Phiale Painter, cca 460-430 – Hermes carries the Dionysos child to Silenos 156  Lekythos of the Tymbos group, 480-450 BC. Charon carries the winged soul of the Dead to the underworld Athenian white ground lekythoi, cca 460-400 The lekythos shape in Athens was used mainly during wedding and funer al. Because of their latter function white ground lekythoi were common i n the mature Classical Attic burials and also in Euboia where Athenians s ettled. According to their function, representations of mourning and dea th are common. -A grieving friend of a deceased -Charon carrying the souls of dead on his boat. A deceased (?) youth sits sadly on his tomb, his friend (?) says him farew ell. The jars may have contained the oil used in the rituals. Left – Bosanquet Painter / Right – Sabouroff Painter 157  Group R The Achilles Painter (cca. 460-430 BC), was an outstanding master of the mature Classical vase painting. His white ground lekythoi are not only of funerary character (they cont ain also kalos inscriptions). The scene of the warrior's farewell could also be a scene from everyday life on a lekythos found in Eretria. His name giving vase, a red-figure amphora from an Etruscan tomb of Vulci (Vatican Museum), depicts Achilles without the need for unnecessary decoration or story-telling. He also painted black figure Panathenaia amphorae for the champions of sport competitions organized during the Panathenaia festival. 158 Red figure vase painting in the Athens in the last third of the 5th century Onos epinetron, Eretria Painter, cca. 430-410. Smaller, elaborate figures appear on the vase depicting the wedding ceremony, which, according to the accompanying inscriptions, depicts a mythical wedding (the marriage of Alkestis or Harmonia), not a Classical Athenian ceremony. Rich style, last quarter of the 5th century BC Meidias Painter The rich style of the late Mature classical vase painting produces joyful, lively, and moving, detailed scenes with many figures that defy external circumstances of the besieged Athens in the Peloponnesian War. The most important master of this style is the Meidias Painter. In his Florentine hydria (recovered from Populonia, Northern Etruria), Aphrodite, travelling in a chariot, 159  radiates the joy of love. Phaon and Demonassa, the musicians playing the lyra, are in the centre of the picture. Pronomos Painter, cca. 410-390 BC A decorative solution with a richly fluted crater (from the Museum of Naples (found in Ruvo, Southern Italy), with a more intense use of the complementary white colour. Multicoloured floral ornamentation can also be seen on the volutes. The style will also inspire vases from 4th century southern Italy, especially Apulia. In the theater scene, Pronomos, a Boeotian guest musician, plays a satirical play, Heracles is present, and Dionysus and Ariadne are seated in the audience. The rich style is also characterised by the detailed elaboration of the garment details, which can also be seen in contemporary sculpture (e.g. the ballustrade of the Temple of Nike on the Athenian Akropolis). 160  Pelike from Tanagra depicting Gigantomachy from the National Museum of Athens. Experiment with perspective, some of the combatants are sho wn from below. In the 4th century, after the decline of the Rich Style (cca. 380), the quality of the red figure vases deteriorates. In the last quarter of the 4th century the red figure technique disappears from pottery workshops. The black slip pottery without painted figures continued to be produced. In the 4th century, the Crimean peninsula was a very important area for t he production of pottery. Pantikapaion (Kerch) and its surroundings was a major market for late red- figure vases,and therefore their style has been called – after Karl Schefol d - the Kerch style. The latest groups of red-figure vase painting, Beazley also found these difficult to attribute: Group G (Griffin) Group L. C. (Late Cratters) F, B. (Fat Boy), with exaggeratedly drawn figures 161  Lebes gamikos vase of the Marsyas Painter from Kerch (Ermitage), middle third of the 4th century: preparation for a wedding with winged Eros indicating love and a main figure resembling Aphrodite. Group G hydria with popular scenes in the area of Kerch: Arimaspos riding on the backs of griffin presumably in the company of Amazons. 162 Peiraieus (Piraeus), the port of Athens in the classical period The Hippodamian orthogonal urban structure of Piraeus had differentl y oriented districts according to the natural features of the peninsula. The three important elements of the urban structure are the three ports (Kantharos, Zea, Mounichia), which carried a significant commercial and naval traffic. Reconstruction groundplan of Peiraieus (Piraeus) and harbour docks In the ports of Piraeus, ship docks can be reconstructed with a simple layout, they are large undecorated buildings. The function of the docks: storage of ships, and of the goods transported by ships. 163 A sculpture depot find from Piraeus with statues of Athena and Artemis from the late Classical period. An archaic or archaizing style kouros statue is also found among the bronzes, but the find is still 4th century BC, taking into account the goddess representations. Based on the hair style of the statue of Artemis with the bun, it could be Hellenistic (3rd c. BC). The statues, waiting to be shipped, were found in a secluded hiding place during an excavation in 1959. If Sulla, who plundered Athens, had taken the statues of different ages and styles as booty to Rome in 87/86 BC, they may not have been in a local shrine. From anywhere in Attika they could have been dragged to the port. 164  Administrative map of Attika (according to the phyle system of Kleisthenes) and topographical map showing the most important sites around Athens : Eleusis, Marathon, Vari, Brauron, Sounion, Rhamnous. Groundplan of the Demeter sanctuary in Eleusis in the Roman period. The greatest hall of the secret initiations (Telesterion) was built at first in the 6th century BC, in the age of Peididtratos. The new Telesterion building of the Classical period was rebuilt by Iktinos (the architect of the Parthenon). In the middle of the Telesterion there was a smaller room, the Anaktoron in which – it was said – a great fire burnt occasionally. 165  According to the inscriptions found in the sanctuary, Theos and Thea were venerated by the initiates (Hades and Persephone). In this mystery religion a happy afterlife in the fields of Elysium was guaranteed to the initiates by the gods of the underworld. In the walled enclosure of the shrine, there was a temple of Demeter with the site of the bull and piglet sacrifices. But the most important was the Telesterion, the great hall visited by the initiates. The remains and reconstruction of the Telesterion, based on the excavations of George Mylonas. Talking about the secret ritual was forbidden under penalty of death. According to ancient Christian authors (Lactantius, Clement of Alexandria, Pseudo-Origenes), the initiates could play the myth of the discovery of Persephone by Demeter, when Persephone came back from the underworld, while they rejoiced in the darkness, shaking torches. In the Telesterion, by the light of the torches, the faithful were initiated into the mysteries through charming light and sound shows. 166  Pseudo- Origenes (beginning of the 3rd century AD) knew it by reputation, that in the Telesterion, in the room of the Anaktoron during the epopteia (face to face vision) a great fire was burning, the priest held a grain of wheat in his hand, and a voice announced that Brimo gave birth to Brimos. Brimo - according to Kevin Clinton's research – was Persephone. Brimos was the secret name of Ploutos, the god of Wealth. The large 5th century marble cult image from the Telesterion was mys teriously illuminated with torches in the darkness. It depicted probably Demeter, Persephone and Ploutos. With the supp ort of Ploutos, the initiates may live well and happily in their lifetime a nd also in the underworld, supported by Persephone and Hades. The names of Brimo and Brimos were also inscribed on golden tablets found in late Classical graves, as secret passwords or symbols useful fo r the afterlife of the deceased. 167  Pelike of the Eleusis Painter from Kerch (Pantikapaion), Ermitage, 2nd half of the 4th century. The Kerch-style pelike, as reconstructed by Kevin Clinton, shows the secret hierarchy of the Eleusinian gods, although the most important god, Hades, is missing. The seated Demeter awaits the arrival of Persephone with joy, flanked by the boy Ploutos holding the cornucopia. Triptolemos, arriving in a winged chariot, is mythically said to have spread the art of agriculture on Earth. Herakles and Dionysos were lower initiates in the Eleusinian hierarchy of gods, which is why they both may have descended to the underworld several times. Regina vasorum, Ermitage, 2nd half of the 4th century. The so-called Queen of the vases, the hydria from Cumae, decorated with relief and painting, also features the Eleusinian gods, Demeter and Persephone twice. Herakles and Dionysus are also initiates here, Herakles also bringing the sacrifice of the little pig. In addition to Triptolemos, there are two mysterious gods, Eubouleus, who brings Persephone from the Underworld, seated on a throne, and Iacchos, who is talking to Demeter. 168 Lovatelli urn, columbarium of the Statilii (Esquilinus hill, Rome), 1st century AD, Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo – inititaion of Herakles into the Eleusinian mysteries. Purification ritu als, dedication of the initiate to Persephone, depictions of Demeter, Persephone and Iacchos The burial mound of the Athenians at the Marathon battlefield (490). The tomb contains a large number of black-figure lekythoi, which are well dated to the time of the battle. The tomb was a frequented site in classical, Hellenistic and Roman times. Many people came to see the site of the battle, where – according to gossips - ghosts were said to appear at night. 169 Sounion, Poseidon temple, 440s, fortification: cca. 413 BC. On the site of the earlier temple, destroyed in 480, Perikles had a temple built to commemorate the defeat of the Persians, with a structure similar to that of Hephaistion in Athens. It contained a 6m bronze statue of Poseidon The tourists’ majority visit the ruin at sunset 170 Vari, Classical era apartment house with central courtyard and surrounding rooms. Vari, cave sanctuary of the Nymphs, Apollon és Pan in the Hymettos mountain, Attika. There is an inscription of Archedemos in the cave, who added his relief in the end of 5th century. In the cave secret divinations were given until the 2th c. BC, then it was used again in Late Antiquity (4- 6. century AD) on the basis of coins and lamps. Platonists may use the ca ve which could inspired Plato who venerated the nymphs, and created hi s famous cave analogy. Tektas Burnu shipwreck, cca 440-425 BC, excavated by the institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) Based on the amphorae and other ceramics, the ship traded between the eastern Greek islands and sunk off the coast of present day Turkey. Two round marble discs were found. Excavators at first had not known what they were, but a red- figured vase depicting Ulysses and the sirens helped them to realise, that the marble discs were the eyes of the ship. Previous research had thought that ships had just painted eyes. 171 Miletos, a typical example of the so called Hippodamic orthogonal city planning. After the Persian Wars, around 479 BC the city was redesigned and rebuilt, based on plans by the architect Hippodamos. The natural features of the peninsula caused differently oriented districts of the city. The street network and public buildings of Hellenistic and Roman architecture are currently better known, as it is shown by the larger map. However, the smaller map clearly shows the layout of the Classical city structure designed by Hippodamos. 172 Olynthos, northern hill, 432-348 BC - a well-dated town since the excavations started in the 1930s. In the vicinity of the former southern hill, an orthogonal street network has been created on the larger northern hill. It was destroyed by Philippos II in 348, and many of its inhabitants did not return later, so the finds found here date well between 432 and 348 Excavated house blocks of Olynthos are surrounded by regular street network. The floor plan of the houses, which at first sight appears to be the same layouts according to a single standard, may in fact differ. Some houses have a central courtyard with an internal colonnade, and in some cases the courtyard is in a corner of the house. The rooms of the male and female family members are separated, with the head of the family's room (andron). In the fourth century, in the houses of the wealthy, the mosaic floor decoration appears almost for the first time in the Ancient art. The mosaic from Olynthos depicts on the slide the mythical story of 173  Bellerophon, Reconstructions on the basis of excavation results suggest the existence of two-storey houses. The sanctuary of Apollo in Delphoe in the classical period Following the Greco-Persian wars, Delphoi prospered, with new treasure houses and triumphal monuments of victory were built on the sanctuary grounds. In the 4th century the earlier Archaic temple of Apollo was rebuilt. According to the guidebook of Pausanias, the lesche (lounge) of the Knidians was decorated with paintings of the destruction of Troy and the underworld by Polygnotos of Thasos. 174  The graphic reconstruction of the paintings, especially the depiction of the reclining dead, strongly resembles the composition of the eponymous vase by the Niobid Painter. The Charioteer of the Apollo sanctuary of Delphoi, 474 (?) Rigid face, simply patterned lines, with the hallmarks of the severe style. It can be dated precisely to 474, if it is certainly associated with the charioteer statue of the tyrant Polyzalos of Gela. On the basis of the inscription found nearby, Polyzalos won the chariot race in 474. If the statue and the inscription do not belong together, the statue can be dated because of its severe style only between 480- 450, the early Classical period. 175  Theatre, 4th century BC Omphalos, 4th century BC. It is the navel of the world, the centre of the Earth, and according to ancient tradition, this is the reason for the sanctuary’s oracular power. Olympia, sanctuary district of Zeus of Olympis (Altis). Colours showing the dates of the buildings: Archaic: blue Classical: red Hellenistic: yellow Roman imperial: green 176  The Stadion as the site of the competitions, the colonnades, the Pelopion build for the cult of th e founding hero, the Leonidaion (guest house) and the Zeus temple were built in the Classical period. The most detailed description comes from the guide book of Pausanias. But his descriptions are often disputed in the literature, because Pausanias did not describe the situation of the Classical period, but of his time (2nd c. AD). Olympia, Zeus temple, cca. 470-456. Doric style temple, most probably financed by Sparta, the leading power of the Peloponnesian League after the Greek- Persian wars. Olympia belonged that time to the polis Elis. Architect: Libon of Elis. 177  Eastern pediment – top The chariot race of Pelops and Oimomaos? Western pediment – fight of the Centaurs and Lapiths Eastern pediment, “Studniczka – Buschor – Grunauer” arrangement of the figures Pausanias describes in detail each of the pediment statues and the sculptures in his guidebook about Greece, which have indeed been found in German excavations. Their exact location has been fortunately documented, but while the interpretation of the western group of ornaments is unproblematic (kentauromachia with Apollo in the centre), several attempts have been made to reconstruct the eastern pediment. 178  Eastern pediment “Hirschfeld – Hermann – Kyrieleis” arrangement of the figures Pausanias' guide interpreted the scene as a horse race between Pelops and Oinomaos, while András Patay-Horváth, arguing against the report of Pausanias, writes about a scene connected to the Troian war. He has also used a 3D scanner to reconstruct the statues and the bronze weapons they originally held, based on the trap holes he saw at the site. The identification problem of the scene has not been solved, but it seems likely that the Studniczka-Buschor-Grunauer arrangement on the ornament group was more probably correct. Olympia, Zeus temple, metope reliefs with the works of Herakles, severe st yle cca. 470-460 BC. Among the 12 works of Herakles, the birds of the Stymphalos moss, de feating the bull of Crete, obtaining golden apples from the Hesperides and cleaning of the stable of Augeias are well identifiable. 179  Hercules holding the world – Atlas fetches the golden apple for hercules Hercules cleaning the stables Pheidias in Olympia, cca. 430 BC The accusation against Pheidias and Perikles in Athens, that he had sacrilegiously depicted himself and Perikles on the shield of the goddess, seemed serious. So Pheidias fled to the territory of the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta and accepted a commission to make a gold and ivory statue of Zeus at Olympia. The statue has been described in many descriptions and some depictions, from which it can be reconstructed: the god was seated on a large throne, holding a statue of Nike (Victory) in his hands. 180  Pheidias’ golden-ivory Zeus statue, reconstruction drawing Coin from Elis depicting the statue, 2nd century AD 181 The workshop of Pheidias and its most important finds unearthed during the German excavations of the site. Tools from the sculptor’s workshop were also found In the Late Classical period, significant infrastructure developed in the neighbourhood of the sacred precinct 182  Praxiteles: Hermes with the Dionysos child, recurved maybe Roman period Original Praxiteles statue,it was found in Olympia in the temple of Hera Perfect light-shade effect on the marble surface, melancholic expression Late Classical sculpture also tries to express emotions in the faces. Paionios of Mende: original Nike statue from Olympia, after 424 183 Polykleitos of Argos, cca 440-420 (Roman copies) – a major sculptor of the mature Classical period.